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© Psychological Society of South Africa. All rights reserved. South African Journal of Psychology, 40(1), pp. 54-62
ISSN 0081-2463
Emotional intelligence: an integral part of positive
psychology
Reuven Bar-On
University of Texas Medical Branch, USA, and Extraordinary Professor, University of Pretoria
Reuven@ReuvenBarOn.org
Both “emotional intelligence” and “positive psychology” are rapidly becoming very visible, popular and
important areas within psychology. This article suggests that emotional intelligence should be
considered an integral part of positive psychology. Empirical findings are presented that support this
notion in addition to examining the way both disciplines have been described, defined and
conceptualised over the past decade. This approach to categorising emotional intelligence is one way
of justifying where it should be placed within the field of psychology. In light of the fact that the current
article addresses this issue directly and based on the specific approach which is applied, it is hoped
that this publication will represent a useful contribution to the literature.
Keywords: Bar-On model of emotional intelligence; Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence;
emotional intelligence; emotional-social intelligence; humanistic psychology; positive psychology
I completed my doctorate in 1988 at Rhodes University, South Africa. Upon recently re-reading my
doctoral dissertation while preparing the present publication, it is abundantly clear that I was con-
ducting research in an area which is directly associated with “positive psychology” as well as
“emotional intelligence” although both terms were virtually unknown at the time. I hypothesised that
“effective emotional and social functioning” (the precursor of the Bar-On model of emotional
intelligence) should eventually lead to a sense of “well-being” (Bar-On, 1988). In light of the fact that
well-being is an area that attracts a great deal of scholarly attention in positive psychology (Gable &
Haidt, 2005; Positive Psychology Center, 2009; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Seligman et al.,
2005), the connection between emotional intelligence and positive psychology should become
palpable from the outset of the present discussion.
Although Bar-On’s conceptualisation of emotional intelligence emerged from my experience as
a clinical psychologist, it is important to stress that this construct should not be considered an integral
part of clinical psychology. On the contrary, the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence represents
a eupsychic response to the medical model which has prevailed in psychology since its early be-
ginnings. It is necessary to emphasise this distinction in light of the fact that positive psychology
represents the antithesis of the medical model, which continues to exist within various fields of
psychology today such as clinical psychology with its need to focus on the study, diagnosis and
treatment of psychopathology. As in medicine itself, however, psychology (including clinical
psychology) has begun to emphasise the importance of optimal health factors and preventative work.
Furthermore, it is axiomatic to the present discussion to emphasise that Charles Darwin’s work
on the role of “emotional expression in survival and adaptation” (1872/1965) has influenced the
ongoing development of the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence, which also stresses the im-
portance of emotional expression and views the outcome of emotionally intelligent behaviour in
Darwinian terms of effective adaptation (Bar-On, 2006b). Whereas emotional awareness and emo-
tional expression are key components of emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 1997b; Goleman, 1995;
Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and in light of the fact that optimal adaptation also represents an important
area of inquiry in positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), the link between these
two areas of psychology is hopefully being brought into sharper focus for the reader. Additionally,
the Bar-On model as well as other current models of emotional intelligence have ‘extended’
Darwinian thinking by highlighting the importance of the ability to thrive in addition to merely sur-
vive (Bar-On, 1997b; Goleman, 1998), which also represents a major focus of interest for positive
psychology today (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 55
At the time this article was re-submitted for publication in late September 2009, an extensive
search of the literature revealed 39 publications that contain reference to “emotional intelligence” and
“positive psychology” in their title or text. Nearly all of these publications are books, edited books
or chapters (without one journal article on the topic itself). Additionally, none of these publications
directly discusses the nature of the relationship between the construct of emotional intelligence and
the field of positive psychology nor provides extensive evidence supporting this notion. Only one
chapter (Salovey, Mayer, & Caruso, 2002), which was later reprinted (Salovey et al., 2004) and
mildly revised (Salovey et al., 2008, 2009), refers to this relationship in its title (alone) without
further explaining how emotional intelligence and positive psychology might be related; instead of
attempting to do this, either directly or indirectly, the chapter focuses entirely on the authors’ con-
ceptual and psychometric model of emotional intelligence as well as on research findings generated
by the MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test). Only one other publication,
titled Emotional Intelligence: Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology (Cassady &
Eissa, 2008), suggests a possible relationship between the two concepts but provides only limited,
indirect and/or partial evidence that a relationship does indeed exist (see for example the following
chapters: Chang, 2008; Furnham & Petrides, 2008; Palmer, Donaldson, & Stough, 2008). What is
noticeably lacking in this discussion to date is a direct examination of the degree to which emotional
intelligence impacts key aspects of positive psychology such as successful performance, happiness
and well-being. As such, the current publication represents the first attempt to directly examine the
proposed relationship between emotional intelligence and positive psychology as well as to suggest
that the former be considered an integral part of the latter by providing both theoretical and empirical
evidence to support this view.
The definitions of positive psychology and emotional intelligence are described below in an
attempt to better understand the underlying theoretical relationship between these two fields. This is
followed by a summary of empirical findings that support the idea that emotional intelligence is an
integral part of positive psychology. The findings will show that emotional intelligence has a sig-
nificant impact on successful performance, happiness, well-being and the quest for a more meaningful
life, which are important topics of study in the area of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszent-
mihalyi, 2000).
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
BASED ON THE WAY THE TWO FIELDS ARE DESCRIBED
The terms “positive psychology” and “emotional intelligence” are described and defined in this sec-
tion for the purpose of showing that these fields are integrally linked.
Positive psychology
Positive psychology emerged from the humanistic movement that became popular in the 1960s,
although studies associated with this school of psychology began in the 1930s.
Certain issues which the humanistic psychologists began to raise were in the form of a direct
critique of the psychological and psychiatric establishment of the day. The humanistic movement
represented a swing away from focusing primarily on psychopathology toward enhancement of
normal and optimal human growth, which is a basic precept of positive psychology today. This
movement represented an historic break from the psychoanalytic normality as fiction orientation,
which suggested that normality, let alone optimal psychological well-being, is an unobtainable myth.
Buhler (1979) considered it “a near revolutionary step to create confidence in the concepts of healthy
growth and constructive potentials of human nature,” because “for so long the predominant outlook
had been one stressing the neurotic disturbances in people’s lives.” In essence, this new development
in psychology counterbalanced the pathological side of the human psyche with that of optimal health,
thereby, offering an expanded dimension to the well-being continuum. In the early 1960s, the huma-
nistic movement influenced countless practitioners in the mental health establishment and a whole
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 56
new generation of psychology students, like the author of this article, to ponder the possibility of
person al growth motive s in addition to dev elopmental striving s prompted by some basic need to avoid
psychopathology (Coan, 1977).
The first major study in humanistic psychology began in 1935, which was conducted by
Abraham Maslow who studied the nature of “self-actualisation” (1950). Based on research that
spanned close to two decades, Maslow identified a number of key characteristics of “self-actualising
people” such as self-acceptance, the ability to relate well with others, the capacity to act inde-
pende ntly, social responsib ility, the intent to so lve rather than avo id problem s, spontaneity, creativity,
and a tendency to behave realistically.
Eight years after Maslow published his initial work on self-actualisation, Marie Jahoda com-
pleted a survey of existing theories and research findings related to the positive and salutogenic
aspects of the human psyche (1958). Based on an exhaustive search of the literature, she summarised
the key factors that contribute to “positive mental health” (which is identical to what is being voiced
by the positive psychology movement today). The key factors that Jahoda described were very similar
to the characteristics of Maslow’s self-actualising individuals and included self-acceptance, self-
determination, self-actualisation, flexibility, satisfying interpersonal relationships, stress tolerance,
effective reality testing and acceptance of reality, efficient functioning and adaptation, problem
solving, and achievement in significant areas of life.
Maslow and Jahoda were two of the most influential contributors to the scholarly and scientific
foundations of the humanistic movement (presently referred to as “positive psychology”). Addi-
tionally, the vast majority of the positive human characteristics described by them are currently the
focus of study in positive psychology.
Positive psychology is defined on the Positive Psychology Center website as “the scientific study
of positive characteristics and strengths that enable individuals to thrive”. Additionally, it is thought
to be “based on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what
is best within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work and play” (January 2, 2009).
Rather than a clearly defined field per se, positive psychology is a movement within psychology
(Gable & Haidt, 2005), nearly identical to the humanistic movement of the 1960s, as well as an
umbrella term covering a very wide variety of fields and disciplines (Seligman et al., 2005). The main
purpose of this movement has been described as the need to “rebalance” psychology and encourage
it to study and enhance positive human characteristics, experiences and outcomes (Gable & Haidt,
2005). This is incredibly similar to how Buhler described the raison d’être of the humanistic move-
ment in 1979; and this was one of the major purposes behind the author’s doctoral research that began
in 1983 (Bar-On, 1988), which was to create a conceptual and psychometric model that could
describe emotional and social functioning on a continuum with psychopathology at one end and
well-being at the other end.
To summarise, the most prevalent human factors that are currently the focus of study by positive
psychologists are self-regard and self-acceptance based on self-awareness, the ability to understand
others’ feelings (i.e. social awareness and empathy) and the capacity for interpersonal interaction (i.e.
social skills), compassion and altruism, integrity and responsibility, cooperation and teamwork,
self-regulation (i.e. emotional self-control), problem solving, giftedness, optimism and hope (Gable
& Haidt, 2005; Positive Psychology Center, 2009; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Seligman et
al., 2005). These factors, in turn, have an impact on the following outcomes which are also studied
by positive psychologists: optimal physical and psychological health, successful performance and
achievement, intelligent decision making, creativity, self-actualisation and finding meaning in life,
the ability to thrive and flourish, happiness, and well-being. The degree of overlap between these
factors, those that were studied by humanistic psychologists, those that are currently considered to
be part of positive psychology and emotional intelligence is extensive.
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) has become a major topic of interest since the publication of a bestseller
by the same name in 1995 (Goleman). Despite the heightened level of interest in this new idea,
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 57
scholars have been studying this construct for the greater part of the twentieth century, and its his-
torical roots can be traced to the nineteenth century (Darwin, 1872/1965).
From Darwin to the present, a number of different conceptualisations and definitions of this
construct have appeared creating some degree of confusion regarding the way it ‘should’ be defined,
measured and applied. To help clarify this situation, the Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology
(Spielberger, 2004) suggests that there are three major EI models: (a) the Mayer and Salovey model
(1997) that defines this construct as the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to
facilitate thinking; (b) the Goleman model (1998) that views it as an assortment of various com-
petencies and skills that contribute to successful managerial performance; and (c) the Bar-On model
(1997b) that describes EI as an array of interrelated emotional and social competencies and skills that
impact intelligent behaviour.
The present paper makes particular reference to the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence,
because of its comprehensive structure, robust factor validity and moderate to high predictive validity
associated with a wide variety of human behaviour. According to this model, emotional-social intel-
ligence is an array of interrelated emotional and social competencies and skills that determine how
effectively individuals understand and express themselves, understand others and relate with them,
and cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures. The emotional and social competencies and
skills referred to in this conceptualisation of the construct include five meta-components, and each
of these meta-components comprises a number of closely related competencies and skills that are
briefly defined in the Appendix.
Based on the way positive psychology and emotional intelligence are described here, both fields
share obvious similarities. The similarities in positive human characteristics and strengths, that are
studied in both fields, are the following: (a) self-regard which is based on accurate self-awareness;
(b) understanding how others feel, compassion and altruism which are based on social awareness and
empathy; (c) social skills which are based on the capacity for social interaction; (d) group identity,
social responsibility, cooperation and teamwork; (e) impulse control, self-regulation and the ability
to control emotions; (f) good decision making, effective functioning and achievement-oriented high
performance, which are based on personal and interpersonal problem solving; (g) optimism and hope;
(h) self-actualisation and the drive to achieve goals, flourish, thrive and lead a meaningful and
fulfilling life; and (i) general happiness, subjective well-being and the ability to generate and use
positive mood. This overlap is not only visible when examining the Bar-On model of emotional
intelligence but is also evident when other EI models are examined (see for example: Goleman, 1998,
pp. 26-27; Salovey et al., 2008, p. 189).
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
BASED ON EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
This section summarises a number of empirical findings that support the notion that emotional
intelligence is an integral part of positive psychology by demonstrating that EI has a significant im-
pact on (a) human performance, (b) happiness, (c) well-being and (d) the quest for meaning in life,
all of which are the focus of interest in positive psychology. Because of space limitations and the
rather large number of studies that were reviewed, the author has had to summarise the key findings;
readers who are interested in receiving more detailed information regarding the results are referred
to the sources cited.
Emotional intelligence has a significant impact on human performance
In order to demonstrate that emotional intelligence has a significant impact on human performance,
a number of studies that have focused on academic and occupational performance are briefly summa-
rised here.
The findings from four studies demonstrating a significant relationship between emotional
intelligence and academic performance have been summarised by Bar-On in 2007; and the correlation
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 58
coefficients have been found to range from .41 to .45. Based on the studies that were summarized,
the EI factors that impact academic performance the most are the ability to effectively manage emo-
tions and cope with stress, the ability to put things in correct perspective, the ability to solve problems
of a personal and interpersonal nature, the drive to set and accomplish personal goals, and optimism
(Bar-O n, 2007). It is important to reiterate that these EI factors are studied in what is currently
referred to as “positive psychology” as was previously mentioned. In addition to the above findings,
Brackett and Salovey (2004) also describe a significant relationship between EI and academic
performance.
In a number of studies that have been conducted over the past decade (e.g. Bar-On, 1997b, 2004,
2006a, 2006b; Bar-On, Handley, & Fund, 2006; Ruderman & Bar-On, 2003), EI has consistently
demonstrated a highly significant relationship with occupational performance. The average predictive
validity coefficient for these studies is .55 (Bar-On, 2006b). These results were supported by findings
reported by Brackett and Salovey (2004), revealing correlation coefficients ranging between .22 and
.46. A consensus of findings in the studies summarised here indicate that the most powerful EI
contributors to occupational performance are: (a) the ability to be aware of and accept oneself; (b)
the ability to be aware of others’ feelings; (c) the ability to manage emotions; (d) the ability to be
realistic and put things in correct perspective; and (e) the ability to have a positive and optimistic
disposition. Once again, these factors are quite similar to those studied by positive psychologists and
by the humanistic psychologists before them.
In addition to the studies described above, that have demonstrated a significant relationship
between emotional intelligence and successful performers at school and in the workplace, there is a
growing body of empirical evidence suggesting that EI significantly impacts other forms of human
behaviour and performance such as social interaction (Bar-On, 1997b, 2000, 2006b; Brackett,
Warner, & Bosco, 2005) as well as the ability to cope with medical problems and to be resilient in
the face of life-threatening health conditions (e.g. Bar-On, 2004, 2006b, 2007b; Bar-On & Fund,
2004; Dunkley, 1996; Krivoy, Weyl Ben-Arush, & Bar-On, 2000).
Emotional intelligence has a significant impact on happiness
Happiness was considered by Wechsler to be a key “conative” factor that has a positive impact on
“intelligent behaviour” (1940). In addition to its motivational value, happiness is also barometric in
nature (Bar-On, 1997b, 2000). It both monitors one’s immediate well-being and interjects positive
mood in the way individuals cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures. Apparently, it is this
positive mood that, metaphorically speaking, fuels the emotional energy required to increase one’s
motivational level to get things done. It helps individuals do what they want to do and then tells them
how well they are doing.
In an effort to better understand the relationship between emotional intelligence and positive
psychology vis à vis happiness, I examined the correlation between happiness (as measured by the
Bar-On EQ-i Happiness scale) and emotional intelligence (as measured by the Bar-On EQ-i after
removing the Happiness scale from the calculation of overall emotional-social intelligence in order
not to artificially increase the correlation between the two). A sample of 51,623 individuals was
provided by Multi-Health Systems (MHS) after being randomly selected from their extensive North
American database of Bar-On EQ-i scores. A correlation of .78 was revealed, indicating that emo-
tional intelligence is highly associated with happiness representing a domain overlap of over 60%.
This finding strongly supports the relationship between emotional intelligence and positive psycho-
logy, in that happiness is considered to be a major focus of interest in positive psychology today
(Gable & Haidt, 2005; Positive Psychology Center, 2009; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;
Seligman et al., 2005). Using a different self-report measure of emotional intelligence, Furnham and
Petrides (2008) received a correlation of .70 which supports the results received by Bar-On.
Emotional intelligence has a significant impact on well-being
In a study conducted by the author (Bar-On, 2005), the relationship between EI and subjective well-
being was examined. In this study, well-being was defined as a subjective state that emerges from a
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 59
feeling of satisfaction with one’s physical health and oneself in general, with close interpersonal
relationships, and with one’s occupation and current financial situation. On a sizable North American
sample (n = 3,571), the relationship between EI and well-being was examined with multiple re-
gression analysis. The results indicated that the two constructs are highly correlated (.76). Based on
the four highest EI predictors of subjective well-being, it appears that the following competencies and
skills contribute the most to this subjective state: (a) the ability to understand and accept one’s emo-
tions and oneself in general; (b) the ability to strive to set and achieve personal goals to enhance one’s
potential; and (c) the ability to verify one’s feelings and put things in correct perspective. This means
that those individuals with an enhanced sense of well-being are those who possess high emotional
self-awareness, accurate and positive self-regard, self-actualisation, and effective reality testing.
These findings support those obtained earlier by other researches using different measures of
emotional intelligence and well-being (Brackett & Mayer, 2003).
Emotional intelligence has a significant impact on the quest for meaning in life
Self-actualisation involves a lengthy process of attempting to realise one’s potential and searching
for a more meaningful life. It requires the ability and drive to set and achieve personal goals designed
to actualise one’s inner potential. It is not merely performing well, but striving to do the best one can.
In re-examining an older d ataset used in my doctoral re search (Bar-On, 198 8), a multiple regres-
sion analysis was applied to studying the impact of EI competencies and skills on self-actualisation.
A subse t of 67 South A frican university stud ents were iden tified within the dataset who concomitan tly
completed an earlier version of the Bar-On EQ-i and the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI;
Shostrom, 1974), which is a measure of self-actualisation based on Maslow’s theory. The I Scale,
which captures 85% of the instrument’s items, was designated the dependent variable while the 15
Bar-On EQ-i subscale scores were identified as the independent variables in the regression model.
The results indicated that emotional intelligence significantly impacts self-actualisation (.64).
Three additional studies have also examined this relationship (Bar-On, 2001). Large samples
were studied in the Netherlands (n = 1,639), Israel (n = 2,702) and North America (n = 3,831). The
results from these studies confirm the above-mentioned South African study indicating that EI
strongly impacts self-actualisation with multiple regression correlations reaching .78, .75 and .80 for
the Dutch, Israeli and American samples, respectively.
A very similar regression model surfaced in each of the above-mentioned studies regarding the
ability of emotional intelligence to predict self-actualisation. In addition to being sufficiently motiva-
ted to set and accomplish personal goals, self-actualisation depends on a deep sense of self-awareness
and understanding of who one is, what one wants to do, can do and enjoys doing. Self-actualisation
also depends upon good problem solving for making sound independent decisions regarding what one
wants to do, and then being sufficiently assertive to follow through with these personal decisions.
Additionally, one must be optimistic and positive to more fully actualise one’s potential and lead a
more meaningful life based on the findings of these studies.
CONCLUSIONS
Not only does emotional intelligence and positive psychology appear to share a rather wide domain
overlap based on the way both concepts have been described and defined, but the empirical findings
presented here suggest that emotional intelligence has a positive and significant impact on per-
formance, happiness, well-being, and the quest for a more meaningful life, all of which are key areas
of interest in positive psychology.
The findings presented in this article strongly indicate that emotional intelligence is indeed an
integral part of positive psychology. Based on the approach applied, the following factors appear to
share the widest degree of overlap between these two fields of psychology:
• self-regard and self-acceptance based on accurate self-awareness
• the ability to understand others’ feelings and the capacity for positive social interaction
South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 40(1), March 2010 60
• the management and control of emotions
• realistic problem solving and effective decision making
• self-determination
• optimism
To summarise, the above six factors are shared areas of interest between emotional intelligence and
positive psychology; and they are also the strongest predictors of performance, happiness, well-being,
and the quest for a more meaningful life based on the findings presented.
DISCUSSION
In light of the fact that the specific approach applied here has most likely influenced the findings that
were presented, future research studying the relationship between emotional intelligence and positive
psychology should apply alternative definitions and a wider variety of psychometric instruments on
larger and more diverse population samples.
Based on the close underlying relationship between emotional intelligence and positive psycho-
logy, as has been demonstrated in this article, the growing body of research findings related to
emotional intelligence would appear to have a great deal to contribute to the entire area of positive
psychology. Furthermore, future research in this area should continue to examine the impact of
emotional intelligence on human performance, happiness, well-being and the quest for a more
meaningful life.
In addition to exploring how emotional intelligence develops over the life span, it would be of
particular importance to positive psychology to examine the impact of EI on raising and educating
healthy, well adjusted, effective, productive and happy children.
In that emotional intelligence can be enhanced through rather simple didactic methods over a
relatively short period of time (Bar-On, 2007a), it would also be valuable to examine how best to
increase EI competencies and skills as well as other closely related factors in positive psychology.
There is a need to develop more educational programmes designed to improve emotionally and
socially intelligent behaviour that are based on empiricism rather than supposition and unsubstantiated
theory in the fields of both emotional intelligence and positive psychology. Continued research on
how EI affects various aspects of human performance, self-actualisation, happiness and well-being
should guide the development of these programmes. Organisations like the Collaborative for Aca-
demic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL; www.casel.org) and the Center for Social and
Emotio nal Education (CSEE; ww w.csee.net) should continue with an aggressive policy of developing,
conducting, evaluating and promoting those educational programmes and didactic techniques that get
the best results.
In closing, it is reasonable to assume that if we succeed in raising and educating more emo-
tionally and socially intelligent children, we will help build more effective, productive and humane
organisations, communities and societies, which is one of the major goals of the positive psychology
movement (Positive Psychology Center, 2009).
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APPENDIX
The Bar-On EQ-i subscales and what they assess
EQ-I subscales The EI competencies and skills assessed by each subscale
Intrapersonal:
Self-Regard
Emotional Self-Awareness
Assertiveness
Independence
Self-Actualization
Interpersonal:
Empathy
Social Responsibility
Interpersonal Relationship
Stress Management:
Stress Tolerance
Impulse Control
Adaptability:
Reality-Testing
Flexibility
Problem Solving
General Mood:
Optimism
Happiness
To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself.
To be aware of and understand one’s emotions.
To effectively and constructively express one’s feelings and oneself.
To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others.
To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential.
To be aware of and understand how others feel.
To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others.
To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with others.
To effectively and constructively manage emotions.
To effectively and constructively control emotions.
To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external reality.
To adapt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations.
To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature.
To be positive and look at the brighter side of life.
To feel content with oneself, others and life in general.
