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Quantitative determination of the odorants of young red wines from different grape varieties
Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture
Abstract
Fifty-two young monovarietal red wines made with Grenache (17 samples), Tempranillo (11 samples), Cabernet Sauvignon (12 samples) and Merlot (12 samples) grapes have been analysed by HRGC–MS to obtain quantitative data on 47 odorants previously identified as potential aroma contributors by olfactometric techniques. Thirty-three odorants were present in the wines at concentrations higher than their corresponding odour thresholds. These include ethyl octanoate, β-damascenone, ethyl hexanoate, isovaleric acid and isoamyl acetate as the most important, which together with isoamyl and β-phenylethyl alcohols, fatty acids, 2,3-butanedione and ethyl butyrate are always found at concentrations higher than their odour thresholds. In some cases the ethyl esters of isobutyric and isovaleric acids, β-ionone, methionol, isobutyric acid, ethyl cinnamate, ethyl dihydrocinnamate, γ-nonalactone, eugenol, c-3-hexanol, geraniol, guaiacol, 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine, 4-ethylguaiacol, acetoin and t-whiskylactone were at a concentration high enough to be odour-active. There were 30 compounds that were found to differ significantly between varieties. These include 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine, isoamyl acetate, isovaleric acid, ethyl isobutyrate, ethyl isovalerate, fusel alcohols, c-3-hexenol, methionol, eugenol, guaiacol and γ-nonalactone.© 2000 Society of Chemical Industry
... Cheese, butter 173 [20] Caproic acid (hexanoic acid) Cheese, fatty, baked potato 420 [20] Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) Cheese 2300 [40] 2-Methylbutyric acid (2-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Isovaleric acid (3-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Caprylic acid (octanoic acid) Fatty/unpleasant 500 [40] Capric acid (decanoic acid) Cheese 1000 [40] Chemical structure based on Pubchem database [27]. ...
... Cheese, butter 173 [20] Caproic acid (hexanoic acid) Cheese, fatty, baked potato 420 [20] Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) Cheese 2300 [40] 2-Methylbutyric acid (2-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Isovaleric acid (3-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Caprylic acid (octanoic acid) Fatty/unpleasant 500 [40] Capric acid (decanoic acid) Cheese 1000 [40] Chemical structure based on Pubchem database [27]. ...
... Cheese, butter 173 [20] Caproic acid (hexanoic acid) Cheese, fatty, baked potato 420 [20] Isobutyric acid (2-methylpropanoic acid) Cheese 2300 [40] 2-Methylbutyric acid (2-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Isovaleric acid (3-methylbutanoic acid) Cheese 33 [40] Caprylic acid (octanoic acid) Fatty/unpleasant 500 [40] Capric acid (decanoic acid) Cheese 1000 [40] Chemical structure based on Pubchem database [27]. ...
Volatilomics is a scientific field concerned with the evaluation of volatile compounds in the food matrix and methods for their identification. This review discusses the main groups of compounds that shape the aroma of wines, their origin, precursors, and selected metabolic pathways. The paper classifies fruit wines into several categories, including ciders and apple wines, cherry wines, plum wines, berry wines, citrus wines, and exotic wines. The following article discusses the characteristics of volatiles that shape the aroma of each group of wine and the concentrations at which they occur. It also discusses how the strain and species of yeast and lactic acid bacteria can influence the aroma of fruit wines. The article also covers techniques for evaluating the volatile compound profile of fruit wines, including modern analytical techniques.
... According to Fig. 5b-c, 12 key aroma compounds were common to the seven groups of wines, including 3 alcohols, 3 acids, 5 esters and 1 norisoprenoid. There were 3 key aroma compounds in the UGJ4%, UGJ7%, UGJ8%, UGJ12% and UGJ16% groups, namely, ethyl caprylate, ethyl lactate and ethyl isobutyrate, which impart aromas of pineapple, apple and cream to the wine (Ferreira et al., 2000). Two key odor-active compounds, 1-heptanol and ethyl caprate, coexist in the UGJ2%, UGJ4%, UGJ7%, UGJ8% and UGJ16% groups, which contributed sweet pineapple and orange oil flavor to wine (Ferreira, López, and Cacho, 2000). ...
... There were 3 key aroma compounds in the UGJ4%, UGJ7%, UGJ8%, UGJ12% and UGJ16% groups, namely, ethyl caprylate, ethyl lactate and ethyl isobutyrate, which impart aromas of pineapple, apple and cream to the wine (Ferreira et al., 2000). Two key odor-active compounds, 1-heptanol and ethyl caprate, coexist in the UGJ2%, UGJ4%, UGJ7%, UGJ8% and UGJ16% groups, which contributed sweet pineapple and orange oil flavor to wine (Ferreira, López, and Cacho, 2000). Styrene was found only in the UGJ2% and UGJ16% groups and contributed floral aromas to the wine. ...
... The second subgroup was UGJ12% and UGJ16% (W2-2), which roughly corresponded to the addition gradient of UGJ. For the key aroma compound common to all groups, the OAV of phenethyl alcohol, ethyl isovalerate, ethyl butyrate, isoamyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate was significantly increased in the UGJ2% group compared to CK (p < 0.05), which added pleasant floral and fruity aromas to wines such as apple, banana and rose (Ferreira et al., 2000). Meanwhile, the OAV of β-damascenone and 2-methyl-1-propanol decreased significantly in the UGJ2% group, β-damascenone had a strong rose aroma (Lan et al., 2022), and 2-methyl-1-propanol had a stimulating heteroalcohol odor (Ferreira, López, and Cacho, 2000). ...
Low acid is the main defect in the northwest wine region of China in recent years. The fermentation of unripe grape (UG) and wine grapes with low acid contents was carried out. Compared with control group (CK), the addition of UG addressed the core flaw that low acid grape bring to wine firstly, it significantly increased titratable acid, tartaric acid and malic acid while significantly decreasing alcohol and volatile acids in wine. Secondly, UG significantly improved wine color, the color parameters a*, b*, C* and L* were significantly increased to different degrees. At the same time, the addition of UG significantly improves other qualities of wine, including the phenolic substances and antioxidant capacity of wine. In addition, adding UGJ2% significantly improved the sensory quality, and pleasant volatile substances such as phenethyl alcohol, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl butyrate and isoamyl acetate were significantly increased, giving the wine more prominent floral and fruity aromas.
... Hence, wines treated the PS extracts showed lower contents of 2-methyl-1-butanol, characterized by alcoholic notes, than the control wines. Moreover, the use WP, RP and WL extracts produced wines with higher contents of 2-phenylethyl alcohol, which is characterized by positive floral aromas (Ferreira et al., 2000), and 3-methyl-1-butanol, characterized by banana notes (Etiévant, 1991). A previous study (Mitropoulou et al., 2011) analyzed the effect of different doses of a commercial arabinogalactan (AG) from larch wood on the relative headspace concentration of some volatile compounds in model solutions and observed different results depending on the AG concentration used and the specific volatile compound. ...
... Although C 6 -C 10 fatty acids are usually related to pungent, fatty, rancid, or cheesy odors (Wang et al., 2017;Ferreira et al., 2000), they can contribute to the aromatic equilibrium of wine as they prevent the hydrolysis of esters when they are found in concentrations of 4 to 10 mg L -1 , providing pleasant aromas, while levels above 20 mg L -1 have negative effects (Avram et al., 2015: Malićanin et al., 2022. The mean concentrations of C 6 -C 10 fatty acids in the studied wines were between 3.0 and 6.4 mg L -1 , providing positive effects onto the global aroma quality of wines. ...
... All wines treated with PS extracts showed lower contents of 2-methyl-1-butanol, which would reduce the alcoholic notes associated with this compound. Wines with addition of RP and WM extracts produced wines with higher contents of 2-phenylethyl alcohol at T12, providing positive floral aromas (Ferreira et al., 2000). According with our results, the addition of PS extracts reduced the content of higher alcohols in most of the wines, which suggest that the PS may reduce the hydrolysis of ethyl esters and acetates to alcohols even after twelve months of storage. ...
This paper describes for the first time the use of grape derived polysaccharide extracts as potential fining agents to modulate the volatile composition of Viura white wines. Polysaccharide extracts were obtained from white grape pomace, red wine pomace, white must, red must, white wine, and lees from white wine. Except for higher alcohols, the extracts from white pomace, red pomace and white lees increased the content of most volatile compounds after one and twelve months of bottle aging. They could be used to enhance fruity and floral aromas and reduce unpleasant aromas, showing as good modulators of white wine aroma. The presence of mannoproteins, glucans, non-pectic polysaccharides, and low molecular weight polysaccharides increased the content of most volatile families. Polysaccharides of medium molecular weight showed negative correlations with volatile contents. Our results support the use of winemaking by-products to obtain valuable polysaccharides, contributing to the circular economy.
... Cont.Guth, (1997) in 10% water/ethanol;[2] Ferreira et al., (2000) in 11% water/ethanol, pH = 3.4, 7 g/L glycerol, 5 g/L tartaric acid;[3] Aznar et al., (2003)in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [4] Etievant, (1991) in 12% water/ethanol; [5] Peinado et al., (2004) in 10% ethanol adjusted to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid; [6] Escudero et al., (2007) in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [7] Escudero et al., (2004) in 10% water/ethanol, 5 g/L tartaric acid, pH 3.2; [8] Ferreira et al., (2002) in 10% water/ethanol, pH 3.2; [9] (Juan et al., 2012) in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [10] Otsuka et al., (1974) in 30% water/ethanol; [11] Nakamura et al., (1988) in 10% ethanol/dealcoholized and dearomatized wine; [12] Boidron et al., (1988) in 12% water/ethanol, 8 g/L glycerol and different salts; [13] López et al., (2002) in 10% water/ethanol solution at pH 3.2. ...
... Cont.Guth, (1997) in 10% water/ethanol;[2] Ferreira et al., (2000) in 11% water/ethanol, pH = 3.4, 7 g/L glycerol, 5 g/L tartaric acid;[3] Aznar et al., (2003)in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [4] Etievant, (1991) in 12% water/ethanol; [5] Peinado et al., (2004) in 10% ethanol adjusted to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid; [6] Escudero et al., (2007) in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [7] Escudero et al., (2004) in 10% water/ethanol, 5 g/L tartaric acid, pH 3.2; [8] Ferreira et al., (2002) in 10% water/ethanol, pH 3.2; [9] (Juan et al., 2012) in 10% water/ethanol, pH = 3.2, 5 g/L tartaric acid; [10] Otsuka et al., (1974) in 30% water/ethanol; [11] Nakamura et al., (1988) in 10% ethanol/dealcoholized and dearomatized wine; [12] Boidron et al., (1988) in 12% water/ethanol, 8 g/L glycerol and different salts; [13] López et al., (2002) in 10% water/ethanol solution at pH 3.2. ...
Purpose
The main aim of this study is to characterise and identify specific chemo-sensory profiles of ciders from the Canary Islands (Spain).
Design/methodology/approach
Commercial samples of Canary ciders were compared to ciders from the Basque Country and Asturias. In total, 18 samples were studied, six for each region. The analysis comprised their sensory profiling and chemical characterisation of their polyphenolic profile, volatile composition, conventional chemical parameters and CIELAB colour coordinates. In parallel, the sensory profile of the samples from the Canary Islands was first compared with their Basque and Asturian counterparts by labelled sorting task. Then, their specific aroma profile was characterised by flash profile. Further quantification of sensory-active compounds was performed by GC–MS and GC-FID to identify the volatile compounds involved in their aroma profile.
Findings
Results show that Canary ciders present a specific chemical profile characterised by higher levels of ethanol, and hydroxycinnamic acids, mainly t-ferulic, t-coumaric and neochologenic acids, and lower levels of volatile and total acidity than their Asturian and Basque counterparts. They also present a specific aroma profile characterised by fruity aroma, mainly fruit in syrup and confectionary, and sweet flavours related to their highest levels of vinylphenols formed by transformation of hydroxycinnamic acids.
Originality/value
An integrated strategy to explore the typicity of the currently existing Canary ciders in the market was developed. The results are important in that they will help other regions to identify specific typical chemo-sensory profiles and to promote the creation of certifications supporting regional typicity.
... Quantitative data were obtained according to the internal standard method. The odor activity value (OAV) of each of these compounds was calculated by dividing the compound concentration by its corresponding odor threshold odor threshold to assess its contribution to wine sensory [31,32] . ...
... In this study, irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05) on βdamascone concentration, and fertigation had a significant effect (p<0.05) on citronellol concentration (Table 7). Of these compounds, linalool and citronellol levels were only found above their sensory thresholds; the former provided floral and fruity aromas, while the latter gave rose and grassy aromas [31] . The terpene level in LFMW-treated wine was the highest, but it was still low compared with the levels of other volatile substances. ...
... The concentration of C 6 alcohols was noticeably lower in FD wines, which is in agreement with previous studies (Ntuli et al., 2022(Ntuli et al., , 2023. C 6 alcohols are derived from the lipid oxidation pathway and usually have a typical herbaceous or green note (Ferreira, López, & Cacho, 2000). 28.61 ± 1.61 ** 25.55 ± 1.14 16.08 ± 0.17 *** a *, **, ***, NS: Significant at p ≤ 0.05, 0.01, 0.001, or not significant, respectively, student t-test. ...
... : determined in a 10 % (v/v) ethanol solution adjusted to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid; [2]Ferreira, López, & Cacho (2000): determined in a 11 % water/ethanol solution containing 7 g/l glycerol and 5 g/l tartaric acid, pH adjusted to 3.4 with 1 M NaOH;[3] Franco, Peinado, Medina, & Moreno (2004): determined in a 1:10 alcohol/water mixture; [4] Mottram & Maarse (1991): determined in wine; [5] Tao & Zhang (2010): determined in a 9.72 g/100 g ethanol/water mixture containing 5 g/L tartaric acid at pH 3.2; [6] Peinado, Mauricio, & Moreno (2006): determined in a 10 % (v/v) ethanol-water solution, adjusted to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid; [7] La Guerche, Dauphin, Pons, Blancard, & Darriet (2006): determined in a model solution similar to wine (12 % ethanol, 5 g/L tartaric acid, pH 3.5); [8] Guth (1997): determined in a 10 % water/ethanol solution; [9] Moyano, Zea, Moreno, & Medina (2002): determined in a 14 % (v/v) ethanol solution adjusted to pH 3.5 with tartaric acid; [10] Peng, Wen, Tao, & Lan (2013) determined in a 12 % ethanol/water mixture containing 5 g/L tartaric acid at pH 3.2; [11] Sumby, Grbin, & Jiranek (2010): determined in 10 % (v/v) aqueous ethanol; [12] Culleré, Escudero, Cacho & Ferreira (2004): determined in a 10 % water/ethanol mixture containing 5 g/L of tartaric acid at pH 3.2. [13] Ferreira, Jarauta, Ortega, & Cacho (2004); [14] Ferreira, Pet'ka, & Cacho (2006): determined in ethanol 10 % v/v, tartaric acid 2 g/l, pH 3.4; [15] Ferreira, Ortín, Escudero, López & Cacho (2002): determined in a 10 % ethanol solution at pH 3.2; [16] Martin, Bruno, Etievant, Le Quere, & Schlich (1992): determined in a 12 % water/ethanol mixture. ...
... In general, alcohols are metabolites synthesized by yeasts during fermentation and are then released into wine (Trani, Verrastro, Punzi, Faccia, & Gambacorta, 2016), which is why we find them in the lees; in fact, 1-hexanol and 1-octen-3-ol were only present in experimental biscuits. Therefore, the presence of 1 hexanol may have contributed to the appearance of hints of resin, flower, green that are typical of this compound (Ferreira, López, & Cacho, 2000). On the contrary, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, responsible for rose and green scents (Ferreira et al., 2000), derived by lipid oxidation (Pasqualone et al., 2014) decreased in experimental biscuits probably due to more oxidative resistance conferred by polyphenols (Gutiérrez-del-Río et al., 2021). ...
... Therefore, the presence of 1 hexanol may have contributed to the appearance of hints of resin, flower, green that are typical of this compound (Ferreira, López, & Cacho, 2000). On the contrary, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, responsible for rose and green scents (Ferreira et al., 2000), derived by lipid oxidation (Pasqualone et al., 2014) decreased in experimental biscuits probably due to more oxidative resistance conferred by polyphenols (Gutiérrez-del-Río et al., 2021). The data reported a general reduction of most aldehydes in biscuits added with WLF (F10, F20) compared to F0 (control sample without WLF). ...
... A compound was considered to contribute to wine aroma if OAV ≥ 1. The perception threshold used in this work were those found in the literature [19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. ...
... Figure 2 and Table 1 show the evolution of volatile compounds in wines from the two yeasts after treatment on lees, grouped into chemical families. [18] c [19] d [20] e [21] f [22] g [23] h [24]. Thirty-five volatiles were quantified, and distributed in varietal aromas (terpenols and C13-norisoprenoids), alcohols, acids, lactones, esters, aldehydes and ketones; their total content is given in μg/L for varietal aromas and mg/L for the rest of the compounds. ...
The loss of aromatic and sensory quality in wines because of climate change in traditional winemaking areas is a challenge for winemakers. Aging on lees of the wine fermented with Saccharomyces native yeasts has been tested as a technique to try to improve the sensory characteristics of Malvasia aromatica white wines in PDO “Vinos de Madrid.” The grapes were pre-cold macerated and fermented with S. cerevisiae CLI 271 and CLI 889 (native yeast strains). Then, commercial lees were used for aging of wines for a five-month at low temperature in order to compare with the effect of S. cerevisiae CLI 271 and CLI 889 without lees treatment. Aromatic and organoleptic properties of wines aged on lees were studied using GC-FID and HS-SPME/GC–MS to quantify volatile compounds and a taster panel to sensorial analysis. There was a significant decrease in the ester family in wines aged on lees being more pronounced in CLI 889 wines. The treatment contributed to enhance the fruity and floral aromatic properties in CLI 271 and CLI 889 wines, respectively according to tasting panel, which showed a hedonic preference for CLI 271 wines without lees treatment and CLI 889 wines aged on lees.
... The contribution of each volatile compound to the aroma of studied wines was determined using the odor activity value (OAV). OAV was calculated as the ratio between the concentration and the perception threshold of the individual compound found in the literature [20][21][22]. A possible contribution to the wine aroma was considered when OAV was higher than one. ...
... Although varietal compounds are responsible for the aromatic typicality of wines, the compounds that are formed during alcoholic fermentation may have a positive or negative effect on wine aroma [22]. ...
The objective of the current research was to study the effect of different alcohol reduction technologies on the chemical aromatic composition of La Mancha Tempranillo rosé wines. Volatile compounds were analysed using Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), with previous isolation by solid phase extraction (SPE). C6 compounds were the only group of varietal compounds that was modified when the total dealcoholizing process was used. According to their odor descriptor, the volatile compounds were grouped into six odorant series. The total intensity of each aromatic series was calculated by adding the OAVs of the compounds appointed to this series. All wines showed the same sequence, only modified the intensity of the principal aromatic series, mainly in total dealcoholized wines. These studied wines maintain the aromatic typicality independently from ethanol concentration, which highlights the viability of these techniques as an alternative to the traditional winemaking process, which will allow diversifying wine’s actual market.
... Table 1 (Ref. [26][27][28][29][30][31]) shows the average and standard deviations of the volatile detected in the different fermentations together with their odor threshold (OTH) [26][27][28][29][30][31]. The compounds were classified into chemical families to define their impact on wine and check if there were differences between the yeast strains used. ...
... Table 1 (Ref. [26][27][28][29][30][31]) shows the average and standard deviations of the volatile detected in the different fermentations together with their odor threshold (OTH) [26][27][28][29][30][31]. The compounds were classified into chemical families to define their impact on wine and check if there were differences between the yeast strains used. ...
Background:
In the search of tools to deal with climate change-related effects along with the aim of avoiding the loss of aromatic typicity in wine, two native yeasts strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (CLI 271 and CLI 889) were evaluated to determine their influence on white Malvasia aromatica wines aroma composition and sensory characteristics.
Methods:
The strains were tested versus a commercial yeast strain (LSA). The fermentations were performed on grape must of the Malvasia aromatica variety previously macerated. Wine quality was studied by analysis of oenological parameters together with volatile aroma components using gas chromatography coupled to flame ionization detector (GC-FID) to quantify major volatiles compounds and headspace-solid phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS) to determine terpenoids and C13-norisoprenoids. Sensorial analysis was also realized by an experienced taster panel.
Results:
Wines from locally-selected yeasts strains used had lower volatile acidity levels and higher concentration of aromatic compounds compared to the commercial strain ones. The yeast strain S. cerevisiae CLI 271 provided wines with a higher concentration of esters related to fruity attributes, especially isoamyl acetate. The tasting panel highlighted the strong floral character of wines from S. cerevisiae CLI 889 fermentation.
Conclusions:
The use of microorganisms well adapted to climatic conditions can be used to produce quality wines of the Malvasia aromatica variety.
... 3-Methylbutyl acetate and ethyl octanoate are volatile compounds that were previously detected in red wine from Greek varieties [7] and are associated with fruity aromas [14,18]. [20,27], the matrix was a 10% water/ethanol solution at pH 3.2. In ref. [28], the mixture was 10% in ethanol. ...
... It is well known that esters are generally produced in excess by yeast, which are mainly responsible for the corresponding ester composition of the wines [42], so they contribute to the secondary aroma produced by fermentation [8]. Although the contributions of grapes to the formation of ethyl and acetate esters from fermentation is not fully elucidated, Ferreira et al. [27] have indicated that esters could affect the varietal aroma of young red wines. ...
Despite Xinomavro (Vitis vinifera L.) being a well-known noble red grape variety of northern Greece, little is known about its ''bouquet'' typicity. Volatile compounds of Xinomavro wines produced using a common vinification protocol were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and sensory descriptive analysis was carried out with a trained panel. Wines were characterized by the presence of fatty acids, ethyl and acetate esters, and alcohols, with contributions from terpenes and a volatile phenol. The most active aroma compounds were determined to be 3-methylbutyl acetate, β-damascenone, ethyl esters of octanoic and hexanoic acids, and eugenol. Those compounds positively correlated with fruity and spicy odor descriptors, with the wines being mostly characterized by five typical aroma terms: strawberry, berry fruit, spices, tomato, and green bell pepper. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis was used to visualize relationship between the orthonasal sensory attributes and the volatile aroma compounds with calculated OAVs > 1. Key aroma-active volatiles in the wines were identified using GC-MS/olfactometry, providing a list of 40 compounds, among which 13 presented a modified detection frequency > 70%. This study is the first of its kind and provided strong indications regarding the aroma compounds defining the sensory characteristics of Xinomavro wines.
... Although most plants release constitutive volatile compounds, the composition and quantity of the emitted blend vary greatly in response to biotic stresses, especially after herbivore and pathogen attack [4,6]; they also vary between varieties within plant species [8][9][10][11]. These differences between varieties may result in differences in their attractiveness to herbivores' natural enemies [10,11]. ...
Herbivore-induced plant organic volatiles (HIPVs) have recently been studied to improve biological pest control. In contrast, the effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are not induced by herbivory (non-HIPVs) have received less attention. The latter are essential in the first stages of crop colonization by entomophagous insects (predators and parasitoids) used in biological pest control programs. Furthermore, the effects on entomophagous insects of different cultivars of a cultivated botanical species have not been studied. The aim of this work was to study the different non-HIPVs found in 10 tomato cultivars used in tomato greenhouses on two entomophages: the egg parasitoid Trichogramma achaeae (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) and the zoo-phytophagous predator Nesidiocoris tenuis (Hemiptera, Miridae). The results indicate that although there is considerable quantitative and qualitative variation in the emission of VOCs in the 10 tomato cultivars analysed, this variability made it difficult to determine the influence of the volatiles on the attraction of the predatory species N. tenuis, with only one cultivar (Rebelion) exhibiting a significantly higher attractiveness than the rest of the cultivars. For the parasitoid T. achaeae, these same volatiles had a significant effect (in part) on parasitoid behaviour. However, this attraction was not reflected in the discriminant analysis, at least for the volatiles analysed. The analysis showed four groups of well-differentiated cultivars, according to the non-HIPV composition, and this bore no relation to the levels of attractiveness registered in the different cultivars, with the exception again of the Rebelion cultivar, which seems not to be very attractive for the parasitoid and its parasitism activity. The implications of non-herbivore-induced (non-HPV) VOCs in the biological control of greenhouse pest species are described and discussed.
... It is generally acknowledged that the presence of eugenol in wine is mainly due to aging in contact with wood [2,6,8,9]. However, its presence at very low concentrations has been reported in wines without contact with oak [79][80][81]. In any case, the eugenol concentration in the control wine was always below its sensory threshold [82] and therefore its impact on the aroma of the control wine was insignificant. ...
This work studies the influence of the thickness of oak alternatives on the composition and quality of red wines. A red wine was aged in control conditions and also in contact with oak chips, and with thin and thick oak staves for 12 months. As expected, all the wines aged in contact with all the oak alternatives were enriched in total polyphenols and had a higher colour intensity. In addition, the contact with all the oak alternatives enriched the wine in furfural and total furans, vanilla and total aldehydes and ketones, eugenol and total volatile phenols, and in β-methyl-γ-octalactones. However, the thickness of the oak alternative seems to play an important role in the composition and quality of the wine. Specifically, the wines aged in contact with the two types of staves had a more intense colour than the wine aged with oak chips, as well as a higher total phenolic index and higher eugenol concentration. Moreover, the β-methyl-γ-octalactones concentration was higher in the wine supplemented with thick staves. Finally, the wines supplemented with the two types of staves had a higher intensity of the spicy attribute than the wine aged with oak chips. The wine supplemented with thick staves had a higher intensity of candy/pastry, toasted, smoked, complexity, aromatic intensity, sweetness, structure, and persistence. Finally, the panel preferred the wine aged with thick staves followed by, in descending order, the wines aged with thin staves, oak chips, and the control.
... Thus, of the traditional varieties, the presence of phenylethyl alcohol in the Tempranillo variety under irrigation conditions was of note. In terms of the contribution to the aromatic profile of wines of this group of compounds, C6 alcohols are considered to be responsible for the herbaceous aroma of wines [27], but 2-phenylethyl alcohol is an aromatic alcohol that contributes with rose notes to the wine [28]. ...
Nowadays, the identification and characterization of grapevine cultivars resilient to climate and water stress while preserving quality traits is crucial for the wine industry. Therefore, the objective of this work was to characterize according to their aromatic potential 9 white and 6 red minority cultivars recently recovered from Castilla-La Mancha region (Spain), subjected at two different water deficit regimes: rainfed, with subsistence irrigation, and irrigated. For this, the varietal aromatic potential index (IPAv) and the detailed aromatic composition were analyzed by HS-SBSE-GC/MS, in extracts of two different ph. For IPAv values, red varieties did not show a clear trend with respect to irrigation. However, in white minority varieties, higher values were obtained under irrigation conditions. Thus, a clear differentiation of the minority varieties in comparison to the references was observed, primarily attributed to the content of esters and acids, in both white and red varieties. A notable contrast was observed at different pH, indicating a greater extractability of certain compounds like linalool, under more acidic conditions. This suggests that some recovered minority cultivars could be promising for cultivation in semi-arid regions with limited water, contributing to the wine sector sustainability in the future.
... 1 These compounds play an essential role in the food industry, where they are used as flavoring agents due to their ability to replicate the natural flavors found in fruits, flowers, and other natural sources. 2 In addition to their versatility, flavor esters contribute to the overall sensory appeal of food and beverages. 3 By using these compounds, manufacturers can tune their product's taste and aroma profiles, making them more appealing to consumers since the unique scent of ester compounds can trigger pleasurable associations and evoke memories, creating a sense of familiarity with the product. ...
Flavor esters are organic compounds widely used in the food industry to enhance the aroma and taste of products. However, most chemical processes for the production of these flavoring compounds use toxic organic solvents. Some organic solvents derived from petroleum can leave behind residual traces in food products, which may raise concerns about potential health risks and contamination. In this study, we employ Eversa Transform 2.0, a commercial lipase derived from the lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus, to produce geranyl butyrate in aqueous media. The chemical process was optimized using the Taguchi method, and a conversion of 93% was obtained at the optimal reaction conditions of: 1:5 molar ratio (v/v), 15% biocatalyst load (w/w), at 50°C, in 6 h. Classic (molecular dynamics) and quantum (density functional theory) simulations unveiled amino acid residues involved in the stabilization of the enzyme−substrate complex. Detailed QM/MM mechanistic studies identified the nucleophilic attack of the deacylation reaction as the rate-limiting step of the entire mechanism, which has a free energy barrier of 14.0 kcal/mol.
... In the case of base wines, the harvest date was extended for approximately one week, increasing the total concentration of all acids. As far as sparkling wines are concerned, the later harvests did not significantly modify the concentration of medium carbon chain acids (i.e., hexanoic, octanoic, and decanoic acid), thus potentially preserving the wine aroma of 'cheese-like' negative notes (Ferreira et al., 2000). Additionally, when H3 results were studied, an increased amount of acetic acid was produced in the extended harvest date, especially in 2019. ...
In addition to a balanced production level, the timing of grape harvest is a crucial factor to be considered for the winemaking process of sparkling wines. A sufficient accumulation of sugars and an optimal level of acidity in grapes throughout ripening is necessary not only to achieve the desired alcohol levels in the wine but also to guarantee the biosynthesis of the aromatic precursors. To target optimal grape ripeness and maximise the positive sensory attributes of the wine produced, the work presented herein deals with a study on whether an extended harvest date might have a greater positive organoleptic impact and lead to an increase in important odour-impact compounds. In the resulting Ribolla Gialla monovarietal sparkling wines, a one-week delay after reaching technological maturity of the grapes expressed an improvement in the aromatic profile in the obtained samples by altering the profile and abundance of grape-derived compounds and fermentative esters. This was consequently reflected in the sensory evaluation, as the wines achieved higher scores for 'floral', 'citrus fruit', and 'yeast' sensory descriptors when the grapes were harvested a week after the minimum compromise between total acidity concentration and total soluble solids. Moreover, an extension of the harvest date is not necessarily correlated with the formation of untypical ageing off-flavour substances that could be detrimental to the quality of sparkling wines. Conversely, the lipid content proved to be more dependent on the climatic factors of the individual vintage compared to subsequent harvest time. By merging a multi-targeted approach of exploring wine metabolites and sensory characteristics, it is thus possible to predict an optimal harvest date for obtaining high-quality Ribolla Gialla sparkling wines.
... OAV, odor activity value expressed as concentration/odor threshold; n, number of icewines that the compound was detected and quantified in; min, minimum concentration in the icewine; max, maximum concentration in the icewine; nd, not detected. d (Siebert et al., 2018), e (Chaves, Zea, Moyano, & Medina, 2007), f (Zhang, Tao, Wen, & Wang, 2013), g (Ferreira et al., 2002), h (Cai et al., 2014), i (Ferreira, López, & Cacho, 2000), j (Gómez-Míguez, Cacho, Ferreira, Vicario, & Heredia, 2007), k , l (Mayr et al., 2015), m (Peinado, Moreno, Medina, & Mauricio, 2004), n (Franco, Peinado, Medina, & Moreno, 2004), o (Ferreira et al., 2004), p (Etievant, Issanchou, & Bayonove, 1983), q (Pons et al., 2017). ...
... The concentration of each bound benzenic compound was, in general, higher than those observed in the free one, mainly benzyl alcohol and 2-phenylethanol which have been described as a floral aroma component [25]. Eugenol contributes to the spicy and smoky notes and has a low perception threshold (6 μg/L) [26], thus may have a significant impact on wine aroma. In all grapes evaluated, the concentrations of this compound exceeded its odor threshold with the highest concentration in Tinto Fragoso grapes (26.30 ...
This chapter synthetizes the main results that our research group has obtained about the specific influence of a commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain on the aromatic profile of fermented musts from four minority grape varieties (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivated in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain), that is, Moribel, Tinto Fragoso, Albillo Dorado and Montonera del Casar. In addition, wines made from the grape cultivars Tempranillo and Airén were evaluated. To determine the main yeast-derived odor relevant in these grape varieties, the aromatic profiles of grape cultivars and the resulting wines were studied by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and wines were subjected to Napping, a rapid sensory evaluation method. The results revealed wine sensory differences which are consequence of different aromatic profiles of wines produced with these grape cultivars. The combination of quantitative chemical analysis of volatile compounds together with sensory analysis of wines point out different patterns of aroma compound formation and release. Thus, the yeast strain used in the fermentation step is one of the main factors that affect the sensory properties of wines.
... Less abundant but with a concentration above its odor threshold of 10 µg/L, 2-nonanol, which contributes a floral aroma, was found at a concentration of 29.9 ± 1.3 µg/L. Additionally, the top alcohols with the highest concentration for the PdC modality included phenylethyl alcohol (76.7 ± 4.7 mg/L), isobutyl alcohol (11.5 ± 1.3 mg/L) and 1-hexanol (0.5 ± 0.04 mg/L), of these compounds only phenylethyl alcohol was above its odor threshold of 14000 µg/L (Ferreira et al., 2000). Furthermore, It is noteworthy to point out that the increase in 1-hexanol in the PdC modality is consistent with previously reported results. ...
While most producers in recent decades have relied on commercial yeasts (ADY) as their primary choice given their reliability and reproducibility, the fear of standardising the taste and properties of wine has led to the employment of alternative strategies that involve autochthonous yeasts such as pied de cuve (PdC) and spontaneous fermentation (SF). However, the impact of different fermentation strategies on wine has been a subject of debate and speculation. Consequently, this study describes, for the first time, the differences between the three kinds of fermentation at the metabolomic, chemical, and sensory levels in two wines: Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. The results showed how the yeast chosen significantly impacted the molecular composition of the wines, as revealed by metabolomic analysis that identified biomarkers with varying chemical compositions according to the fermentation modality. Notably, higher numbers of lipid markers were found for SF and PdC than ADY, which contained more peptides. Key molecules from the metabolic amino acid pathway, which are addressed in this article, showed evidence of such variations. In addition, the analysis of volatile aromatic compounds revealed an increase in groups of compounds specific to each fermentation. The sensorial analysis of Chardonnay wine showed a more qualitative sensory outcome (Higher fruit intensity) for ADY and SF compared to PdC. Our finding challenges the common speculation among wine producers that autochthonous yeast fermentations may offer greater complexity and uniqueness in comparison to commercial yeast
The authors conducted a sensory evaluation and measured the phenolic compounds of 35 samples of sake. The maximum contents of phenolic compounds were as follows: p-coumaric acid: 0.4 mg/l; ferulic acid: 5.4 mg/l; 4-vinylphenol: 204.1 μg/l; 4-vinylguaiacol: 282.7 μg/l and guaiacol: 58.0 μg/l. The contents of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol were very low. As a result of a multiple regression analysis, the intensity of phenolic flavor was almost able to be explained by 4-vinyilguaiacol and guaiacol. Using activated carbons, most of the p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, 4-vinylphenol, and 4-vinylguaiacol in sake was removed, but guaiacol could only be removed up to 35%.
Nowadays, the identification and characterization of grapevine cultivars resilient to climate and water stress while preserving quality traits is crucial for the wine industry. Therefore, the objective of this work was to characterize according to their aromatic potential nine white and six red minority cultivars recently recovered from Castilla-La Mancha region (Spain), subjected to two different water-deficit regimes: rainfed, with subsistence irrigation, and irrigated. For this, the varietal aromatic potential index (IPAv) and the detailed aromatic composition were analyzed via HS-SBSE-GC/MS in extracts of two different pHs. For IPAv values, red varieties did not show a clear trend with respect to irrigation. However, in white minority varieties, higher values were obtained under irrigation conditions. Thus, a clear differentiation of the minority varieties in comparison to the references was observed, primarily attributed to the content of esters and acids, in both white and red varieties. A notable contrast was observed at different pHs, indicating a greater extractability of certain compounds like linalool, under more acidic conditions. This suggests that some recovered minority cultivars could be promising for cultivation in semi-arid regions with limited water, contributing to the sustainability of the wine sector in the future.
Volatile phenols impart particular aromas to wine. Due to their distinctive aroma characteristics and low sensory thresholds, volatile phenols can easily influence and modify the aroma of wine. Since these compounds can be formed in wines in various ways, it is necessary to clarify the possible sources of each volatile phenol to achieve management during the winemaking process. The sources of volatile phenols in wine are divided into berry-derived, fermentation-derived, and oak-derived. The pathways and factors influencing the formation of volatile phenols from each source are then reviewed respectively. In addition, an overview of the sensory impact of volatile phenols is given, both in terms of the aroma these volatile phenols directly bring to the wine and their contribution through aroma interactions. Finally, as an essential basis for exploring the scientific problems of volatile phenols in wine, approaches to quantitation of volatile phenols and their precursors are discussed in detail. With the advancement of analytical techniques, more details on volatile phenols have been discovered. Further exploration is worthwhile to achieve more detailed monitoring and targeted management of volatile phenols in wine.
Wine aroma is one of the most frequently used and explored quality indicators. Typically, its assessment involves estimating the volatile composition of wine or highly trained assessors conducting sensory analysis. However, current methodologies rely on slow, expensive and complicated analytical procedures. Additionally, sensory evaluation is inherently subjective in nature. Therefore, the aim of this work is to verify the feasibility of using FTIR spectroscopy as a fast and easy methodology for the early detection of some of the most common off-odors in wines. FTIR spectroscopy was combined with partial least squares (PLS) regression for the simultaneous measurement of isoamyl alcohol, isobutanol, 1-hexanol, butyric acid, isobutyric acid, decanoic acid, ethyl acetate, furfural and acetoin. The precision and accuracy of developed calibration models (R2P > 0.90, range error ratio > 12.1 and RPD > 3.1) proved the ability of the proposed methodology to quantify the aforementioned compounds.
Traditional sparkling wines are produced in a two-step sequence of alcoholic fermentations, followed by extended aging which is an influential factor for the final aroma profile. Traditionally, the second fermentation and aging are conducted in bottles over a minimum of 18 months, resulting in an aroma profile which is shaped by oxidative secondary metabolites like aldehydes, acids and fatty acid esters. In this study, a total of 29 traditional commercial sparkling wines from the categories Champagne, Cava, California Champagne, and others (Prosecco and Cremant) were analyzed. The objective was to determine the impact of microbial activity on the stylistic characteristics of traditional sparkling wines and allow winemakers to reproduce the specific fermentation conditions. The results indicate that malolactic fermentation plays an important role in Champagne and some Cavas, but not in the other sparkling wine categories. The metabolic activity of lactic acid bacteria results in an altered acid profile, amino acid utilization, and aroma production. While primary fermentation esters like phenylethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate are significantly reduced in Champagne and Cava, aroma compounds from secondary microbial activity like ethyl lactate and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline are increased. This underlines the importance of diverse microbial activity of the characteristic style of traditional sparkling wines.
Effective sulfur dioxide (SO2) management is crucial in winemaking to minimize oxidative changes in wine flavor during storage. This study explored the impact of various SO2 management techniques on Solaris white wine’s flavor components and sensory properties. Five treatments were administered: ‘SO2 in juice’ (50 mg/L SO2 added to juice pre-fermentation), ‘Control’ (60 mg/L SO2 added post-fermentation), ‘Low SO2’ (50 mg/L SO2 post-fermentation), ‘High SO2’ (100 mg/L SO2 post-fermentation), and ‘No SO2’ (no SO2 added). The ‘Control’ followed a standard procedure, in which the achieved level of free sulfite is measured and extra SO2 added to reach the recommended level of free sulfite for the pH of the wine. Here, 50 + 10 mg/L was added. Volatile compounds were analyzed using dynamic headspace sampling coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry after 0, 3, 6, and 12 months of storage. Sensory evaluation by a trained panel after 12 months revealed stronger perceptions of ‘overall impression’, ‘chemical’, ‘bitter’, ‘overripe fruit’, and ‘honey’ notes in the ‘No SO2’ and ‘SO2 in juice’ wines. The data underscore the significant influence of SO2 management on the flavor stability of Solaris white wines, emphasizing the need for strategic SO2 interventions during winemaking to enhance sensory quality over time.
Wine exerts a fundamental influence on the global market, and its aroma remains a crucial attribute contributing to its commercial value. The market could benefit significantly if a simple and cheap method of analyzing a wine’s aromatic profile were developed. The purpose of this study is to develop such a method. A multi-analytical method for quantifying 39 volatile compounds of wine aroma was developed and validated using liquid–liquid extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The method was validated for its linearity, reproducibility, recovery, limit of detection, and limit of quantification and showed excellent results for almost all compounds. The method was applied to 25 commercial Protected Designation of Origin “Nemea” wines, and the results were compared and correlated with the sensory analysis results by a trained panel. The correlations among the parameters indicated that the newly developed GC-MS/MS method produces similar results to human responses.
Boğazkere (BG) is one of the primary grape varieties that Turkey utilizes to produce premium red wine. Using chemometrics, this research was to investigate the aroma composition and sensory attributes of BG wines from various vintages and locations (Çermik/Diyarbakır, Güney/Denizli, and Pendore/Manisa). Using GC/MS/FID, GC-O, and Descriptive Analysis, aroma, aroma-active compounds, and sensory evaluations were identified and quantified, respectively. To determine the relationship between chemical result and sensory perception, PLS Regression (PLSR) was used. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to evaluate the sensory results. There have been identified 93 aroma compounds, 29 of which are aroma-active compounds for which modified frequency (MF%) values have been determined. Compounds with high MF% values in BG wines include ethyl-3-methyl-butanoate/ethyl-2-methyl-butanoate (86), ethyl-2-methyl-propanoate (83), isoamylalcohol (82), ethylhexanoate (80), diethylsuccinate (77), and 2-phenylethylalcohol (75). The most prominent attributes associated to these compounds are those of black-fruit, red-fruit, strawberry, raspberry, banana, dry-fruit, cheery and spicy. PCA indicated that the most prevalent aroma descriptors for BG wines are black fruit, dried fruit, red fruit, confectionery, and spicy. Although dry-fruit, black-fruit, and spicy notes are more prevalent in wines from Diyarbakır, red-fruit and confectionary odours are more prevalent in wines from Denizli and Manisa. Red-fruit attributes in wines were positively correlated with diethyl-dl-malate, ethyl-butanoate, ethyl-hexanoate, ethyl-octanoate, ethyl-decanoate, ethyl-3-methylbutanoate, and ethyl-2-methylbutanoate, depending on PLSR. Ethyl-2-hydroxy-methylpentanoate, 4-ethoxycarbonyl-gamma-butyrolactone, gamma-nonalactone, pantolactone, and ethyl-2-methyl-propanoate were positively correlated with the dark fruit attribute of wines. Ethyl-2-hydroxy-4-methyl-pentanoate and gamma-nonalactone compound, which gives the odours of black fruit (blackberry), is particularly noticeable in Diyarbakır wines.
This study explored the potential of pulsed electric field (PEF) as an alternative wine-aging method in four Xinomavro red wines with the implementation of several wood chips (apricot, peach, apple, cherry, acacia, and oak trees). The evolution of total polyphenol content (TPC) and sensory properties of the wines were investigated. Sensory evaluation revealed that PEF treatment increased volatile compound extraction from each wood chip, thereby enhancing the overall quality of the wines. The utilization of acacia tree wood chips in Goumenissa wine led to a notable increase of 10.84% in TPC from the control sample, reaching 2334.74 mg gallic acid equivalents/L. A notable outcome was that PEF decreased TPC, a trend that was also verified through correlation analyses. The highest positive impact of PEF was observed in peach tree wood chips in Goumenissa wine, with a significant increase of 11.05% in TPC. The results from the volatile compound analysis revealed an increase in alcohols and esters from 0.24% to 23.82%, with the highest proportion found in 2-phenylethanol (16.92 mg/L) when utilizing peach tree wood chips in the production of Amyndeo wine. This study could provide a benchmark for rapid, efficient, and cost-effective wine aging through the implementation of the PEF process.
Traditionally and alternatively aged wines' odour activity values (OAVs) are investigated to differentiate and highlight the differences between the selected methods. An analysis of the volatile aroma compounds of wines derived from ageing in barrels, oak chips, and staves was performed using stir bar sorptive extraction chromatography-mass spectroscopy (SBSE-GC-MS). The results showed that alcohols, esters, and oak compounds were the main contributors to aroma, and their OAVs were higher in the stave samples after 3 months than in the samples from the other two systems of ageing. Furthermore, wines aged with staves have stronger fruity, spiced, and woody aromas, while samples aged in barrels present more chemistry-driven, floral, caramelly, and creamy aromas. The staves-medium plus toast (SMPT at 3 months > 225) and chips-medium plus toast (CMPT at 3 months > 170) showed the highest levels of aromatic series, suggesting that alternative systems provided more powerful aromas than traditional systems, such as barrels-medium plus toast (BMPT at 3 months > 150). A principal component analysis (PCA), orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS) analysis, and cluster analysis allowed for a clear differentiation to be made between red wines according to ageing systems and ageing times. The odour activity values fingerprint in winemaking is a feasible approach to characterise and distinguish wines. Moreover, OAVs provide important information on the effects of production methods on wine quality and aroma profile.
Separation process is one of the key processes in the production of fruit spirits, including the traditional distillation method and the new pervaporation membrane method. The separation process significantly determines the constituents and proportions of compounds in the fruit spirit, which has a significant impact on the spirit quality and consumer acceptance. Therefore, it is important and complex to reveal the changing rules of chemical substances and the principles behind them during the separation process of fruit spirits. This review summarized the traditional separation methods commonly used in fruit spirits, covering the types, principles, and corresponding equipment of distillation methods, focused on the enrichment or removal of aroma compounds and harmful factors in fruit spirits by distillation methods, and tried to explain the mechanism behind it. It also proposed a new separation technology for the production of fruit spirits, pervaporation membrane technology, summarized its working principle, operation, working parameters, and application in the production of fruit spirits, and outlined the impact of the separation method on the production of fruit spirits based on existing research, focusing on the separation of flavor compounds, sensory qualities, and hazard factors in fruit spirits, along with a preliminary comparison with distillation. Finally, according to the current researches of the separation methods and the development requirement of the separation process of fruit spirits, the prospect of corresponding research is put forward, in order to propose new ideas and development directions for the research in this field.
Sparkling wines have a relevant economic value, and they are mostly produced worldwide with the Traditional method (in bottles) or with the Charmat method (in autoclaves). Many varieties are employed in different viticultural areas to obtain white or rosé wines and red (Italy and Australia), with different sugar content. This review illustrates the most recent studies (last 5 years) on sparkling wines concerning innovative yeasts, aromatic profile, aging on lees, sugar types, base wine, new varieties, and innovative oenological techniques, which consider the effects on the sensory characteristics and the consumer preferences.
Many authors have investigated the role of mannoproteins on wine quality, but very few have analyzed the use of grape-derived polysaccharides as they are not commercially available. In this study, purified grape-derived polysaccharides from red wine (WPP) and winemaking by-products (DWRP: Distilled Washing Residues Polysaccharides) were used as potential fining agents to modulate white wine flavor. Phenolics and volatile compounds were analyzed in the control and wines treated with WPP, DWRP, and commercial mannoproteins (CMs) after one and twelve months of bottling, and a sensory analysis was conducted. WPP and DWRP, rich in rhamnogalacturonans-II, showed themselves to be good modulators of wine aroma and astringency. Improvement in wine aroma was related to an increase in all volatile families expect higher alcohols and volatile acids. The modulation of astringency and bitterness was related to a reduction in the proanthocyanidin content and its mean degree of polymerization. Extracts with polysaccharides with higher protein contents presented a higher retention of volatile compounds, and DWRP extract had more positive effects on the overall aroma. Our novel results present the possibility of obtaining valuable polysaccharides from distilled washing residues of wine pomaces, which could promote its valorization as a by-product. This is the first time the potential use of this by-product has been described.
To determine the concentrations of aroma compounds involved in the fruity aroma of red wines, an analytical method was developed and optimized using liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The aim was to reduce sample preparation and analysis time, with a single sample preparation and a single injection being needed to quantify 43 compounds. 19 esters, 13 monoterpenes, 5 C13-norisoprenoids, and 6 C6-aldehyde and alcohol compounds were quantified in 14 red wines made from different grape varieties grown in the Mediterranean basin. Samples were selected based on typical varietal aroma by a panel of experts, who produced 7 olfactory descriptors linked to desirable or non-desirable wine aromas. The instrumental analysis showed variations in concentrations of the quantified compounds among the wines. The wines described using positive fruity descriptors had higher mean total concentrations of esters, C6-alcohols, monoterpenes, and C13-norisoprenoids. Some non-ester compounds were positively correlated with the fruity descriptors. Sensory profile results obtained by a panel of 16 trained judges revealed that the addition of non-ester compounds (including 2 cyclic esters) to a red wine initially described as having cooked fruit aromas had a positive contribution to some fresh fruity notes. This study opens up new avenues for research on the potential involvement of non-ester compounds in the fruity expression of red wines.
This study investigated the effect of controlled oxygen addition during alcoholic fermentation (4 mg/L, at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 10th, 14th, 16th, 20th day) and aging on lees (2 mg/L, every 15 days for 3 months) in a stainless-steel tank for white wine production from a nearly neutral grape. Under less reductive conditions (Ox), alcoholic fermentation was completed in 27 days, whereas one extra week was required under more reductive conditions (no-Ox). The greatest amount of dissolved oxygen in Ox wine triggered the increase of redox potential (EH) starting from the end of alcoholic fermentation and throughout aging (169 and 150 mV in Ox and no-Ox wine, respectively), also improving the wine resistance to browning. Oxygen addition from the early stages of winemaking significantly modulated volatile composition and sensory attributes, which may contribute to the diversification of wine style.
There has been a controversy concerning the use of Brettanomyces in wines due to its questionable behavior. Some authors reported that this yeast causes adverse effects in wines; other authors reported that this yeast could promote a floral and fruity aroma for wines. In this context, this study analyzed Brettanomyces anomalus as alternative yeast for winemaking, providing the relationship between chemical and sensory approaches. Isoamyl acetate (159 μgL⁻¹), linalyl acetate (20.6 μgL⁻¹), ethyl butanoate (176 μgL⁻¹), ethyl hexanoate (29.2 μgL⁻¹), and ethyl octanoate (6.30 μgL⁻¹) were related to flavor acceptance, providing a sweet, fruity, and floral profile for the wines. Terpenes (β-myrcene, 20.7 mgL⁻¹, and levomenol, 10.3 μgL⁻¹) and acids, synergistically, drove the aroma and body acceptance. The overall acceptance was related to carbonilic compounds (nonanal) giving a citrus/green scent and benzene compounds, the latter contributing synergistically. This study showed the relevance of the use of Brettanomyces to improve the Vitis labrusca wine quality, resulting in sweet, fruity, and floral aroma, features very appreciated by Brazilian consumers.
The Bohai Bay region is a famous wine-growing area in China, where the rainfall is concentrated in the summer due to the influence of the temperate semi-humid monsoon climate. As such, the vineyard terrain has a significant impact on the flavor quality of the grapes and the resulting wines. To explore the relationship between the ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ wine style and terrain, this study takes four different plots in the Jieshi Mountain region to investigate the differences in the aroma profile of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and wines of two consecutive vintages. Based on two-way ANOVA, there were 25 free and 8 glycosylated aroma compounds in the grapes and 21 and 10 aroma compounds with an odor activity value greater than 0.1 in the wines at the end of alcohol fermentation (AF) and malolactic fermentation (MLF), respectively, that varied among the four plots. Wines from the four plots showed a significant difference in floral and fruity aroma attributes, which were mainly related to esters with high odor activity values. The difference in concentration of these compounds between plots was more pronounced in 2021 than in 2020, and a similar result was shown on the Shannon–Wiener index, which represents wine aroma diversity. It has been suggested that high rainfall makes the plot effect more pronounced. Pearson’s correlation analysis indicated that concentrations of (E)-3-hexen-1-ol in grapes and ethyl 3-methylbutanoate, ethyl hexanoate, isoamyl acetate, isopentanoic acid, and phenethyl acetate in wines were strongly positively correlated with the concentrations of N, P, K, Fe, and electrical conductivity in soil but negatively correlated with soil pH. This study laid a theoretical foundation for further improving the level of vineyard management and grape and wine quality in the Jieshi Mountain region.
An examination of hydrolysates produced by glycosidase enzyme or pH 3.2 acid treatment of C18 reversed-phase isolates from juices of "non-floral" vitis vinifera vars. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon demonstrated that these grapes contain conjugated forms of monoterpenes, C13 norisoprenoids, and shikimic acid-derived metabolites. The volatile compounds obtained hydrolytically from the conjugates were produced in sufficient concentration to permit ready analysis by GC/MS. The products of pH 3.2 hydrolysis have sensory significance when assessed in a neutral wine. The study further develops the precursor analysis approach as a technique to facilitate research into varietally specific constituents of grapes.
A decrease in citric acid and increases in acetic acid, acetoin and diacetyl were found in the test red wine after inoculation of intact cells of Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. lactosum ATCC 27307, a malo-lactic bacterium, grown on the malate plus citrate-medium. Citric acid in the buffer solution was transformed to acetic acid, acetoin and diacetyl in the pH range of 2 to 6 after inoculation with intact cells of this bacterial species. It was concluded that citric acid in wine making involving malolactic fermentation, at first, was converted by citrate lyase to acetic and oxaloacetic acids, and the latter was successively transformed by decarboxylation to pyruvic acid which was subsequently converted to acetoin, diacetyl and acetic acid. Both the activities of citrate lyase and acetoin formation from pyruvic acid in the dialyzed cellfree extract were optimal at pH 6.0. Divalent cations such as Mn2+, Mg2+, Co2+ and Zn2+ activated the citrate lyase. The citrate lyase was completely inhibited by EDTA, Hg2+ and Ag2+. The acetoin formation from pyruvic acid was significantly stimulated by thiamine pyrophosphate and CoCl2, and inhibited by oxaloacetic acid. Specific activities of the citrate lyase and acetoin formation were considerably variable among the six strains of malo-lactic bacteria examined. Some activities of irreversible reduction of diacetyl to acetoin were found in the cell-free extracts of four of the malolactic bacteria strains and the optimal pH was 6.0 for this activity of Leu. mesenteroides.
The gas−liquid partition coefficients (GLPC) of a series of compounds in hydroalcoholic solutions have been determined experimentally in order to show that it is possible to establish a direct relationship between the odor unit values (actual concentration/odor threshold) and the flavor dilution values from an aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA). GLPCs depend primarily on the chemical functionality of the compound and secondarily on its intrinsic volatility, and it is shown that GLPCs can be estimated from GC retention data. The GLPC of a compound is directly proportional to Iap1.32 and inversely proportional to ΔI4.61, ΔI being the difference between the retention indexes of the compound in a Carbowax 20M column and in a BP-5 column, while Iap is the RI of the compound in the latter column. The function has been applied to the determination of the odor spectrum of Grenache red wine from FD values and has yielded satisfactory results. Keywords: Gas chromatography/olfactometry; AEDA; flavor; odorant; wine
Forty-four odor-active compounds were quantified in Scheurebe and Gewürztraminer wines, respectively. Calculation of odor activity values (OAVs) of odorants showed that differences in odor profiles of both varieties were mainly caused by cis-rose oxide in Gewürztraminer and by 4-mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-one in Scheurebe. On the basis of their high OAVs, ethyl octanoate, ethyl hexanoate, 3-methylbutyl acetate, ethyl isobutyrate, (E)-β-damascenone, and 3a,4,5,7a-tetrahydro-3,6-dimethylbenzofuran-2(3H)-one (wine lactone) were further potent odorants in both varieties. The compounds were dissolved in a water/ethanol mixture in various combinations and in concentration levels equal to those in wine. The results indicated that the aromas of Gewürztraminer and Scheurebe models were in good agreement with the original wines. Keywords: Gas chromatography; stable isotope dilution assay; quantitation; white wine; Gewürztraminer; Scheurebe
A specific experimental procedure suitable for the quantification of four esters recently identified in a wine of Vitis vinifera cv. Pinot Noir, ethyl dihydrocinnamate (A), ethyl cinnamate (B), methyl anthranilate (C), and ethyl anthranilate (D), was developed and applied to 33 Burgundy wines (calculated on three replicates). The method, involving a stable isotope dilution assay, allows the determination of concentrations from 0.05 μg L-1, with a repeatability better than 10%. The mean, maximum, and minimum amounts found for the four esters were as follows (in μg L-1): (A) 1.6, 3.2, 0.8; (B) 0.8, 1.6, 0.5; (C) 0.2, 0.6, 0.06; (D) 2.4, 4.8, 0.6. Differences between wines, according to their concentrations and the nature of the esters, were visualized by principal component analysis. An analysis of variance indicated that ethyl anthranilate was the most important for wine differentiation. Keywords: Pinot noir; wine; aroma; stable isotope SIM-MS
Since objective measures of appellations are needed for wine, California Vitis vinifera Var. Chardonnay wines (n = 48) were surveyed for several aroma compounds including esters, norisoprenoids, and terpenes. For the first time concentrations of volatile fragrances were directly correlated with descriptive analysis scores that statistical analysis of the sensory data showed were associated with regional uniqueness and distinctness. Sensory scores for 10 terms used by industry quality experts to describe wines from four regions were compared to the concentrations of over 30 wine chemical compounds. Frequency of use of individual grape-based aroma terms were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with linalool, 1,1,6-trimethyldihydronaphthalene, 3-methylbutyl acetate, ethyl 2-hydroxypropanoate, and 2-phenylethanol. Linalool concentrations were also correlated with α-terpineol. Also, 4-terpineol, geraniol, nerol, and linalool oxide (furan) were found in Chardonnay wines from all of the regions of California. Keywords: Aroma; Chardonnay; descriptive analysis; flavorants; norisoprenoids; sensory analysis; terpenoids; terroir; Vitis vinifera; wine
The major steam-volatile phenols present in distillates from grain alcohol ferments are p-vinylphenol, p-ethylphenol, 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, and 4-ethylguaiacol. p-Vinylphenol and 4-vinylguaiacol are formed when corn is cooked, apparently by the thermal decarboxylation of p-coumaric and ferulic acids, respectively. Microbiological decarboxylation of these acids by yeast and bacteria also occurs during fermentation. p-Ethylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and 4-methylguaiacol are produced during alcoholic fermentation by bacteria from p-coumaric and ferulic acids and vanillin, respectively. The vinyl phenols appear to be intermediates in the production of the ethylphenols. Ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and vanillin were found in corn and barley malt. The amounts in corn are increased by the cooking process.
Twelve volatile phenols were identified in a red wine manufactured and stored without any contact with wood and determined by using exchange chromatography, gas chromatography, and combined capillary GC-MS.
A young Grenache red wine from 1995 harvest was continuously extracted with Freon-11 and the extract cleaned up with aqueous NaHCO3 in order to remove fatty acids. An Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis was carried out with that extract in a Carbowax 20M capillary column with simultaneous MS and olfactometric detections. The AEDA analysis showed that there are 43 flavour active regions in the chromatogram whose aromatic intensities ranged from less than 16 to more than 1000 arbitrary flavour dilution coefficients. To isolate the odorants, the extract was further washed with propylglycol, concentrated, and then fractionated by normal phase HPLC with UV detection at 220 nm in order to obtain 29 fractions. All the fractions were concentrated and analysed in the same HRGC-MS-olfactometric system in which the AEDA experiment was performed. The strategy allowed to isolate most of the odorants, and 30 of them, among which were the most important, could be clearly identified. Some others could not be identified but their mass spectra are given. Among the most important odorants there are some well known fermentation esters but, surprisingly, the role played by some minor esters, such as the ethyl esters of isobutyric, isovaleric and 2-methylbutyric acids, seems to be very important. Equally important could be the role played by some volatile phenols, terpenols, lactones and some nor-isoprenoids. © 1998 SCI.
An Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA) has been carried out on three monovarietal young red wines plus a mixture of wines aged one year. The aromograms contain 85 odour-active regions classified in four categories of intensity. The 11 most powerful odorants, 14 out of the 17 second-most powerful, and 34 of the rest could be identified using a HPLC prefractionation method and standard HRGC-MS-olfactometric techniques. The most active odorants of the monovarietal wines were isoamyl and β-phenylethyl alcohols, the ethyl esters of butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl butyric and hexanoic acids, γ-nonalactone and eugenol. Some others worth mentioning are ethyl isovalerate, isoamyl acetate, hexanol, c-3-hexenol, linalool, geraniol, guaiacol, ethyl cinnamate, ethyl dihydrocinnamate, β-damascenone, δ-decalactone and wine lactone. Compounds with less aromatic intensity but also present in some of the wines were sotolon, isopropyl- and isobutylmethoxypyrazines and 4-mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-one. Data show that there are no impact compounds characteristic of only one variety, and that differences between varieties are quantitative rather than qualitative.© 1999 Society of Chemical Industry
Volatile constituents of experimental wines from five white vine cultivars (Terret, Ugni Blanc, Clairette, Sauvignon, Picpoul) and from five red vine cultivars (Cinsaut, Carignan, Grenache, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Syrah) were analysed using standard liquid-liquid extraction, chemical fractionation, adsorption chromatography on silica gel, low- and high-performance gas-liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. One hundred and twenty two substances were positively identified and 15 tentatively identified. Fourteen of them had not been detected previously in wine. Some sensory evaluation of the various separated compounds was also attempted and a total of 131 volatile constituents were quantified in triplicate with calculation of the 95% confidence limits. The proportions and biogenesis of these constituents are briefly discussed.
A GC–MS method for analysing the most important flavour active odorants of wine has been developed. The method combines a two-step preconcentration stage (demixing+microextraction) and a GC–ion trap MS determination. In the method, 50 ml of wine are previously adjusted to 13% (v/v) alcohol, and the alcoholic fraction is demixed by salting out. That fraction is partially rediluted, extracted with 0.1 ml of 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane (freon 113) and analysed by GC–MS to obtain quantitative information on 25 analytes whose concentrations range from 0.1 to more than 1000 μg/l. Those analytes are esters, alcohols, terpenols, aromatic ketones, lactones, ethers and volatile phenols. The overall method R.S.D. ranges from 3 to 7%, and the linear behaviour is very good except for the most concentrated analytes. Standard addition experiments and analyses of spiked samples have demonstrated that both the MS quantification and the overall method are free of matrix effects, and that only two internal standards are needed. The limits of detection range from 20 to 1000 ng/l, and all the analytes can be detected at the concentration in which they become flavour active.
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