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Factors in the Victim that Mediate Between Disaster and Psychopathology: A Review
Abstract
A review of the research literature is provided regarding vulnerability and psychological resource characteristics of the victim that mediate between disaster and psychopathology. Common generalizations about the effect of vulnerability variables such as age, gender, and previous level of functioning are seldom supported. Coping styles appear promising predictive variables. Attitude variables deserve further attention. More complex designs are suggested to determine interaction effects between disaster and victim variables.
... The assumption that psychologically distressed individuals will have greater increases in emotional dysfunction than their nondepressed neighbors after experiencing a disaster has not been supported or even examined in most previous studies (Gibbs, 1989). The extant literature is difficult to interpret, however, because most studies have relied on retrospective reports of mental health (e.g., Smith, North, McCool, & Shea, 1990), which lead to inflated estimates of post-disaster psychopathology (Rubonis & Bickman, 1991). ...
... Existing disaster research has yet to provide definite results regarding gender differences in the disaster-psychopathology relationship (Gibbs, 1989). Some studies have found that women report more emotional distress, while men report more substance abuse or behavioral problems (Gibbs, 1989;Solomon et al., 1987). ...
... Existing disaster research has yet to provide definite results regarding gender differences in the disaster-psychopathology relationship (Gibbs, 1989). Some studies have found that women report more emotional distress, while men report more substance abuse or behavioral problems (Gibbs, 1989;Solomon et al., 1987). In this study, the relationship between flood impact and depressive symptoms was moderated by gender, with slightly higher symptoms for impacted men. ...
A statewide sample of 1735 Iowa residents, approximately half of whom were victims of the 1993 Midwest Floods, participated in interviews 1 year prior to, and 30 to 90 days after, the disaster. Employing a rigorous methodology including both control‐group comparisons and predisaster assessments, we performed a systematic evaluation of the disaster's impact. Overall, the disaster led to true but small rises in depressive symptoms and diagnoses 60–90 days postflood. The disaster–psychopathology effect was not moderated by predisaster depressive symptoms or diagnostically defined depression; rather, predisaster symptoms and diagnoses uniquely contributed to increases in postdisaster distress. However, increases in symptoms as a function of flood impact were slightly greater among respondents with the lowest incomes and among residents living in small rural communities, as opposed to on farms or in cities. Implications for individual‐ and community‐level disaster response are discussed.
... Individual characteristics, for example pre-morbid personality, age, and gender have all been postulated as risk factors for subsequent development of PTSD following the experience of a traumatic event. Gibbs (1989), in a review of the literature suggests that the findings are inconsistent with regard to age and gender -older people and women are not consistently found to be at a greater risk for developing PTSD. However, prior psychological difficulties have, in some cases, been associated with an increased risk of developing PTSD. ...
... The concept of locus of control is one which has been considered relevant to this issue. For example, Gibbs (1989) cites evidence which suggests that perceived control, that is to say a more internal locus of control in disaster survivors is related to reduced psychological difficulties following the disaster. Similarly, foimd that perception of helplessness during disaster was a predictor of the experience of intrusive symptoms at a 30 month follow-up of survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. ...
... Ideally, with a larger sample size one would be able to perform analyses that would more fully address the potential influence of these variables on the results obtained however, previous research (e.g. Gibbs' (1989) review of the literature -see Section 1.1.4 of Introduction chapter) indicates that such factors are not influential in terms of participants' symptoms ofPTSD. ...
An investigation of the Constructivist Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder was undertaken. A within subjects design was used. Participants completed symptom measures and the Life Events Repertory Grid before receiving psychological therapy for PTSD. Thirteen participants were interviewed and, given this small sample size, the results obtained should be interpreted with caution as they do not allow for a confident confirmation or rejection of the research hypotheses. Exploratory data analysis revealed that these participants seemed to be viewing the traumatic event as more distant from all other life events than non-trauma events. There was some evidence to suggest an association between this variable (distance of trauma from other life events) and participants' scores on the Intrusion subscale of the Impact of Events Scale. Cases illustrating this relationship and outliers presenting a contradiction to the association are described. Other variables (extremity of rating of the traumatic event and the designation of the construct poles used by participants) seem to suggest that the trauma was being rated more extremely than other life events for these participants. The utility of a further variable - the level of elaboration of the traumatic event within the construct system - was not demonstrated in this study. In addition three case studies are described for those participants who were interviewed post-therapy and changes in their construct systems are discussed in relation to the model. The results suggest that further exploration and testing of the potential of the Constructivist Model for informing theoretical understanding of the psychological processes involved in trauma-based disorders would be of benefit. Implications for theory and practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... It is a common assumption that children are exceptionally vulnerable from the effects of trauma, because they are on the stage of development, so are their cognition. As the level of cognition is underdeveloped, they are more vulnerable to be affected, and due to this fact, they are not able to adopt the cognitive coping mechanisms (Gibbs, 1989). They also rely on their adults because they are at that age not able to deal with all necessities of life (Atkins, 1991). ...
... Exposure to trauma brings children more behavioral and emotional disturbances in varying degrees. Compared to adults, young children get more impact, because they have underdeveloped cognitions, and due to this reason, they have underdeveloped coping mechanisms (Gibbs, 1989). They also rely on adults due to this resilience they are not able to adopt the coping strategies (Atkins, 1991). ...
... Green, Korol, Grace, and Vary (1991) in their recent studies have reported mixed findings concerning the relationship between gender and traumatic stress. Children are believed to be remarkably susceptible to the affects of disaster due to their immature cognitive coping mechanisms (Gibbs, 1989) and their reliance on adults (Atkins, 1991). ...
... The degree to which the victim experiences loss of sentimental possessions, increased demand for additional time and money to repair the home, and strains on the ability to work afterward can further increase the psychological distress [34]. While little research has been done on the specific psychological effects of losing a home during a HEC event, victims of home damage or loss during a natural disaster or residential fire experience a broad range of psychosocial problems including anxiety disorders, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and an increase in the occurrences of domestic violence and divorce [35,36]. Further, the unexpected destruction of a family shelter can be traumatic for both adults [35] and children [37], with symptoms of distress lasting for up to six months, even when no physical injuries resulted from the event [38,39]. ...
... While little research has been done on the specific psychological effects of losing a home during a HEC event, victims of home damage or loss during a natural disaster or residential fire experience a broad range of psychosocial problems including anxiety disorders, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and an increase in the occurrences of domestic violence and divorce [35,36]. Further, the unexpected destruction of a family shelter can be traumatic for both adults [35] and children [37], with symptoms of distress lasting for up to six months, even when no physical injuries resulted from the event [38,39]. ...
Human-wildlife conflict has direct and indirect consequences for human communities. Understanding how both types of conflict affect communities is crucial to developing comprehensive and sustainable mitigation strategies. We conducted an interview survey of 381 participants in two rural areas in Myanmar where communities were exposed to human-elephant conflict (HEC). In addition to documenting and quantifying the types of direct and indirect impacts experienced by participants, we evaluated how HEC influences people's attitudes towards elephant conservation. We found that 99% of participants suffered from some type of indirect impact from HEC, including fear for personal and family safety from elephants and fear that elephants will destroy their home. Despite experiencing moderate levels of indirect impacts from HEC at the community level, participants expressed attitudes consistent with supporting future elephant conservation programs.
... R esearchers have consistently demonstrated that exposure to natural disasters has a negative impact on individual psychological functioning, including increases in posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms (e.g., Brewin, Andrews, & Valentine, 2000;Gibbs, 1989;Ginexi, Weihs, Simmens, & Hoyt, 2000), and that low-income individuals, women, and Blacks are at increased risk for postdisaster adjustment problems (e.g., Gibbs, 1989;Morrow, 1997;Rubonis & Bickman, 1991). More recently, researchers have broadened their focus to examine the positive changes resulting from trauma including disasters. ...
... R esearchers have consistently demonstrated that exposure to natural disasters has a negative impact on individual psychological functioning, including increases in posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms (e.g., Brewin, Andrews, & Valentine, 2000;Gibbs, 1989;Ginexi, Weihs, Simmens, & Hoyt, 2000), and that low-income individuals, women, and Blacks are at increased risk for postdisaster adjustment problems (e.g., Gibbs, 1989;Morrow, 1997;Rubonis & Bickman, 1991). More recently, researchers have broadened their focus to examine the positive changes resulting from trauma including disasters. ...
This mixed-methods study aimed to gain knowledge of the lived experience of posttraumatic growth (PTG) in 32 low-income Black mothers whose New Orleans’ homes were damaged or destroyed by Hurricane Katrina, and half of whom had relocated indefinitely to Houston. Data from in-depth interviews with participants were examined in conjunction with quantitative scores on the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). Participants were interviewed face-to-face on a range of postdisaster experiences, including positive changes, in 2009. Participants also completed the PTGI via a telephone survey within six months of being interviewed. Most (26 out of 32) participants described experiencing PTG within the 5 domains of the PTGI, with the domains most frequently coded, in descending order, being New Possibilities, Relating to Others, Personal Strength, Appreciation for Life, and Spiritual Change. PTG stemmed heavily from exposure to opportunities in survivors’ postdisaster communities, including increased racial diversity, improved neighborhoods, and new educational and economic opportunities. Participants’ frequency of all PTG codes was associated with their overall PTGI scores with a small-to-moderate effect size (r = .32; p = .078) in a relationship that trended toward significance. Without minimizing the catastrophic losses they entail, disasters may in some cases create spaces for PTG for survivors, including through new opportunities in areas where survivors formerly experienced oppression. Policymakers should examine how to make such opportunities available, visible and accessible to individuals absent a disaster.
... 3 The lack of knowledge was likely attributable to the difficulty of conducting studies on the effects of a disaster; indeed, crowding at the shelter typically occurs during the acute phase of a disaster, when epidemiological study has little priority over the relief activity. 30 Furthermore, experimental study to examine the impact of crowding in this setting is ethically inappropriate. 30 To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to demonstrate the association between crowding at shelter and sleep disturbance among evacuees. ...
... 30 Furthermore, experimental study to examine the impact of crowding in this setting is ethically inappropriate. 30 To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to demonstrate the association between crowding at shelter and sleep disturbance among evacuees. ...
Objectives We determined whether crowding at emergency shelters is associated with a higher incidence of sleep disturbance among disaster evacuees and identified the minimum required personal space at shelters.
Design Retrospective review of medical charts.
Setting 30 shelter-based medical clinics in Ishinomaki, Japan, during the 46 days following the Great Eastern Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011.
Participants Shelter residents who visited eligible clinics.
Outcome measures Based on the result of a locally weighted scatter-plot smoothing technique assessing the relationship between the mean space per evacuee and cumulative incidence of sleep disturbance at the shelter, eligible shelters were classified into crowded and non-crowded shelters. The cumulative incidence per 1000 evacuees was compared between groups, using a Mann-Whitney U test. To assess the association between shelter crowding and the daily incidence of sleep disturbance per 1000 evacuees, quasi–least squares method adjusting for potential confounders was used.
Results The 30 shelters were categorised as crowded (mean space per evacuee <5.0 m2, 9 shelters) or non-crowded (≥5.0 m2, 21 shelters). The study included 9031 patients. Among the eligible patients, 1079 patients (11.9%) were diagnosed with sleep disturbance. Mean space per evacuee during the study period was 3.3 m2 (SD, 0.8 m2) at crowded shelters and 8.6 m2 (SD, 4.3 m2) at non-crowded shelters. The median cumulative incidence of sleep disturbance did not differ between the crowded shelters (2.3/1000 person-days (IQR, 1.6–5.4)) and non-crowded shelters (1.9/1000 person-days (IQR, 1.0–2.8); p=0.20). In contrast, after adjusting for potential confounders, crowded shelters had an increased daily incidence of sleep disturbance (2.6 per 1000 person-days; 95% CI 0.2 to 5.0/1000 person-days, p=0.03) compared to that at non-crowded shelters.
Conclusions Crowding at shelters may exacerbate sleep disruptions in disaster evacuees; therefore, appropriate evacuation space requirements should be considered.
... education, socioeconomic deprivation, and marginal ethnic or racial status. Some studies have suggested women to be more at risk, at least for the development of PTSD, but others have emphasized their resilience in the face of adversity (Gibbs, 1989). Such variables are not themselves readily amenable to intervention at the time of disaster but may help to target programs to those in greatest need. ...
... Problem-solving active styles may be more significant in the emergency; other styles, such as expression of feelings, may prove more adaptive subsequently. Gibbs (1989) reviewed many of these factors and found that there is evidence that more active, approach coping styles, rather than avoidance/denial may be more effective, and there is considerable support for the value of active coping. Higher internal locus-ofcontrol scores have been associated with better outcome in some studies, but these may really represent an active coping process. ...
Compassionate and humanitarian concerns have dictated the intense response that occurs following most major disasters throughout the world. Such catastrophes are evocative, fill the onlookers with vicarious dread, and, at the same time, provide a focus for the altruism and good will that will strengthen and sustain those affected throughout the crisis period. Although the shock, horror, and grief that may follow have long been recognized, the more profound psychological consequences that will affect significant numbers of people are only now being systematically and consistently quantified (Raphael, 1986).
... Religious support can be defined as all the resources and support that one can obtain from one's religious commitment to help manage stressful events (Fiala et al. 2002). Religion could serve as a coping strategy in the face of disaster, and victims do use religious belief to deal with the anxiety and uncertainty of a catastrophe (Gibbs 1989). For some, culture is simply the way of life that expresses certain meanings and values of people (Williams 1961). ...
The purpose of this study is to understand the informal response and local participation as the implementation of the decentralisation system in disaster management in Indonesia from the 2018 Lombok Earthquake. The study takes form of an exploratory case study situated in Lombok, Indonesia. The district, located in West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) Province, is selected as the case study because it had just experienced significant losses from the 2018 Lombok Earthquake triggering the responses from many actors and stakeholders to the calamities, as well as informal responses and participation among local people. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 12 key informants with the knowledge to the case and policy documents analysis regarding the disaster management in Indonesia. The research revealed that the informal responses and local participation among citizens in Lombok had increased the resilience and local capacity to respond to the disasters. Some improvements also appeared during the responses in the Lombok Earthquake, such as the significant development of policy documents which guide the community participation and the increase of awareness in the informal response among local people. Another result, however, revealed that local response is often hampered by certain problems such as the tension between local and national governments as instability of decentralisation system, lack of capacity among stakeholders, less of budget and human resources capacity.
... Compared to personal resources and characteristics measured in this study, demographic variables did not contribute as significantly to group prediction, even though troop subsets differed in ethnicity, education, and rank, factors that have been found to be related to negative mental health outcomes to war stress in some veteran subsets (Kulka et al., 1990;Sutker et al., 1990;Ursano et al., 1981;Zeiss & Dickman, 1989). In a comprehensive review, Gibbs (1989) reported that higher education and income levels may be associated with lower postdisaster psychological distress. However, in the present analyses, these variables were not sufficiently powerful to contribute significantly to group differentiation, particularly when the constellation of personality hardiness characteristics and coping strategies were considered. ...
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can occur subsequent to war stress, but not all troops are negatively affected. A discriminant function model was used to study associations between personal and environmental resources and psychological outcomes subsequent to war zone stress. Among 775 Persian Gulf War exposed troops, 2 subsets were identified: 97 with PTSD diagnoses and 484 who had no psychological distress. A discriminant function, double cross-validated in random subsamples, classified 87% of troops, and demographic and stress severity variables did not alter results significantly. Personality hardiness commitment, avoidance coping, and perceived family cohesion emerged as consistent predictors of PTSD diagnosis. Findings suggest personal characteristics and environmental factors may alter vulnerability to negative war stress outcomes. Work is needed to identify mechanisms and causal pathways by which resource factors enhance or lower stress resistance.
... Foa et al. (1992) have noted that individual differences in information processing should render some people more vulnerable to PTSD than others. Other researchers have suggested that individual differences in cognition and coping may be important moderators of response to traumatic stress (Gibbs, 1989;Green, Wilson, & Lindy, 1985).' However, limited progress has been made in incorporating individual-differences variables into traumatic stress accounts of sexual abuse. ...
A review of theories to predict the mental health effects of child sexual abuse suggests that existing models have not adequately defined stress and coping constructs and have not specified how those variables might interact with other environmental factors. This article outlines a transactional model that conceptualizes sexual abuse as a stressor consisting of a series of abuse events, abuse-related events, and disclosure-related events that each tend to increase risk for maladaptive outcomes. The model also proposes that cognitive appraisals and coping responses mediate the effects of these events, that developmental and environmental factors may moderate relationships between sexual abuse stressors and victim responses, and that victims' initial responses may effect subsequent levels of abuse-related stress. Empirical studies relevant to the major components of this model are reviewed, and the implications of these findings for future research are considered.
... All rights reserved. (Pollock, 2007;Bradfield et al., 1989;Mitchell, 2003;Rajkumar et al., 2008;Gibbs, 1989;Alawiyah et al., 2011;Falk, 2010). Studies in psychology indicate that people use different coping strategies (including thoughts and actions) to deal with distress and problems caused by adverse events (Folkman, 2013;Lim et al., 2019;Pargament et al., 2011;Peres et al., 2007). ...
The role of religious belief in disasters has become a burgeoning research area in recent years. There is concern among disaster researchers about resilience enhancement, but knowledge about the religious belief‐disaster resilience nexus is limited. This article shows that religious belief can generate disaster resilience through the pathways of disaster framing, mental health, and disaster behaviour. Drawing on interviews conducted with Tibetan Buddhist believers in the Yushu earthquake‐struck area, this study indicates that the notions of Tibetan Buddhism, including karma, the four primary elements, impermanence, and existence being equal, as well as religious practices, such as prayer, chanting and the god dance, helped locals make sense of the occurrence of the earthquake, obtain spiritual support in the aftermath of the earthquake, foster a sense of community, and develop a prosocial post‐earthquake environment. These religious notions and practices also assisted in sustaining a faith‐based network consisting of two kinds of important local social relationships, i.e., layperson‐layperson and layperson‐monk relationships, which increased local disaster resilience at the level of response behaviour. The findings enrich our understanding of the religious source of disaster resilience and offer insights for disaster risk reduction in religious regions, especially in areas where Buddhist belief is prevalent.
... Disasters affect health and well-being in a multitude of ways [1], including mental health [2][3][4][5][6]. In addition to mental health challenges that appear shortly after disasters, many people experience long-term impacts [7][8][9]. ...
Some communities recover more quickly after a disaster than others. Some differentials in recovery are explained by variation in the level of disaster-related community damage and differences in pre-disaster community characteristics, e.g., the quality of housing stock. But distinct communities that are similar on the above characteristics may experience different recovery trajectories, and, if so, these different trajectories must be due to more subtle differences among them. Our principal objective is to assess short-term and long-term post-disaster mental health for Vietnamese and African Americans living in two adjacent communities in eastern New Orleans that were similarly flooded by Hurricane Katrina. We employ data from two population-based cohort studies that include a sample of African American adults (the Gulf Coast Child and Family Health [GCAFH study]) and a sample of Vietnamese American adults (Katrina Impacts on Vietnamese Americans [KATIVA NOLA study]) living in adjacent neighborhoods in eastern New Orleans who were assessed near the second and thirteenth anniversaries of the disaster. Using the 12-Item Short Form Survey (SF-12) as the basis of our outcome measure, we find in multivariate analysis a significant advantage in post-disaster mental health for Vietnamese Americans over their African American counterparts at the two-year mark, but that this advantage had disappeared by the thirteenth anniversary of the Katrina disaster.
... Some community members exhibit a "maximalist" reaction of distress, and others a "minimalist" reaction of little impact (Fowlkes and Miller, 1987). It has been noted that women often display more pronounced stress reactions to CEC and technological disasters than men (Gibbs, 1989). ...
We sought to undertake a systematic review to assess the current research and to provide a platform for future research on the psychological health impact of chronic environmental contamination (CEC). CEC is the experience of living in an area where hazardous substances are known or perceived to be present in air, water, or soil at elevated levels for a prolonged and unknown period of time. We employed a systematic review approach to assess the psychological health impact of CEC in literature from 1995-2019, and conducted a meta-analysis of available findings (k = 60, N = 25,858) on the impact of CEC on anxiety, general stress, depression, and PTSD. We also present a narrative synthesis of findings that suggest risk factors for the experience of psychological health impacts in the wake of CEC. Likely factors increasing risk for elevated psychological health impact from CEC experience are institutional delegitimization of community concerns and the real or perceived presence of health effects from CEC. The meta-analyses observed small-to-medium effects of experiencing CEC on anxiety, general stress, depression, and PTSD. However, there was also evident risk of bias in the data. Our review suggests that psychological health in the context of CEC is an important potential public health burden and a key area for future improved research.
... The environment of these shelters increased feeling of unsafe, sleep disturbance, negative emotions and diminishes the capacity of natural problem solving skills. Some other researchers also shown that other health effects include post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder (ASD), depression and at times suicide and other mental illness due to natural hazards (Adams and Boscarino, 2006;Cassidy, 2013;Gibbs, 1989;Hussain, Weisaeth and Heir, 2011b;Keskinen-Rosenqvist, et al., 2011 andLiu et al., 2016). ...
... In such situations, avoidance and distraction can be considered adaptive by reducing stress in a short period. However, these strategies are considered positive for short-term stressors, and negative if used long term regarding the traumatic situation (Gibbs, 1989;Suls & Fletcher, 1985). The participants in the third category are observed to be describing just such use of long-term trauma avoidance and distraction strategies that might have negative impact on their mental health outcome in the long-run. ...
Purpose: The aim of the study was to explore and describe experiences of daily life after having experienced an avalanche three decades ago.
Method: This paper presents a qualitative study of 12 male survivors of an avalanche during their military service, interviewed 30 years post-disaster.
Findings: A comprehensive understanding of the categories led to the latent theme “Finding my own way of managing and dealing with life”. Findings revealed three categories describing experiences of daily living: (i) A comfortable life; (ii) A challenging, yet accomplished life; (iii) A demanding life. The first category represents a greater degree of using adaptive coping strategies for managing everyday life compared to the other two categories. The third category represents the group having the most challenging consequences. Among the three, the latter category conveys the most maladaptive coping strategies.
Conclusions:The participants had different experiences with regards to their health and how they coped with their everyday life after the avalanche disaster. Insights into coping strategies may provide a guide for appropriate interventions for survivors dealing with traumatic events.
... The other common topic regarding religious belief in the context of disasters is the functions of religious belief. First, existing studies have indicated that religious belief and behaviors motivated by religious belief [which build the relationship between believers and God(s)] provide emotional support for people coping with disasters (Gibbs 1989;Pargament et al. 1998;Pollock 2007;Falk 2010). For example, in the eyes of religious victims of disasters, religious belief can offer answers to questions about the meaning of disasters and death (Li-ju 2005) and thus help them handle and recover from disasters. ...
Based on data from a questionnaire survey about the 2010 Ms 7.1 Yushu earthquake in Qinghai Province, China, this study examines the impacts of belief in Tibetan Buddhism on Tibetans' response to the earthquake disaster. The results reveal that (1) impacted by their belief in Tibetan Buddhism, some Tibetans attribute the cause of the earthquake to punishment from God even though some of them understand a naturalistic explanation of the earthquake. Religious attribution of the earthquake has negative effects on Tibet-ans' awareness of the importance of earthquake disaster risk reduction such as learning about earthquakes and developing earthquake survival skills; their ability with regard to their behavioral response is affected, but their psychological reaction is not. (2) Tibetan Buddhist belief and Tibetan Buddhist clergy served as important resources and support to help Tibetans cope with the earthquake disaster. The degree of religiosity was found to be positively correlated with people's willingness to seek religious support and with their self-evaluations on the importance of religious support for disaster response. The findings of this study highlight the need to carefully consider local religious beliefs when planning disaster risk reduction strategies in Tibetan communities.
... There is inconsistent evidence regarding older age as a risk factor for conflict-induced mental distress. Some studies have found that older persons may be more resilient and less likely to experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms following human induced disasters [25,26]. However, most studies reviewed found greater risk among older persons. ...
Background:
Older persons are often unable to leave conflict areas; however, little is known about the mental and physical health among this population. Our objective was to determine the prevalence of and whether there was an association between psychological distress and disability among older persons affected by conflict in eastern Ukraine.
Methods:
We conducted a cluster-randomized cross-sectional household survey of persons aged ≥60 years in government and non-government controlled areas (GCA and NGCA) of Donetsk and Luhansk regions in January-March 2016. Psychological distress and dependency (degree of disability) were measured using the Kessler K6 Psychological Distress Scale and Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living, respectively. Association between psychological distress and dependency was assessed using logistic regression adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.
Results:
Final sample included 758 and 418 persons in GCA and NGCA, respectively. Prevalence of serious psychological distress was 33.6% (95% Confidence Interval (CI), 28.0-39.7%) in GCA and 42.5% (95%CI, 36.1-49.2%) in NGCA. Overall, 32.2% (95%CI, 27.9-36.7%) of independent persons and 74.0% (95%CI, 65.2-81.2%) of moderately/severely dependent persons reported serious psychological distress (P < .0001). Being dependent, a woman, and having a chronic disease were all significantly associated with psychological distress in a logistic regression model.
Conclusions:
Prevalence of serious psychological distress was very high compared with rates reported from developed countries and was highly associated with disability. Health services for the disabled, including psychological as well as physical support, could help in reducing the proportion of people needing mental health services not normally identified.
... For many religions, religious practices, which function as communication links between the believer and the God(s) in whom they believe [12], could serve as a direct support channel from God(s) to the believers. As stated by Gibbs [52], "religion could serve as a coping strategy in the face of disaster, and victims apparently do use religious belief to deal with the anxiety and uncertainty of a disaster". Similarly, Pargament asserted that in the face of a stressful life event, general religious belief and religious practices can be translated into specific forms of coping [53]. ...
... For many religions, religious practices, which function as communication links between the believer and the God(s) in whom they believe [12], could serve as a direct support channel from God(s) to the believers. As stated by Gibbs [52], "religion could serve as a coping strategy in the face of disaster, and victims apparently do use religious belief to deal with the anxiety and uncertainty of a disaster". Similarly, Pargament asserted that in the face of a stressful life event, general religious belief and religious practices can be translated into specific forms of coping [53]. ...
This study aims to understand the ways in which religious belief impacts public disaster response and to evaluate the current knowledge regarding this topic. By reviewing the literature related to the “religion-hazard/disaster nexus”, this paper identifies two important impact pathways. First, religious belief impacts how religious persons interpret natural hazards and perceive risks (disaster awareness) while also governing their behaviours and affecting public emotions in a disaster situation. Second, religious belief and religious identity link individual believers with God(s) and create bonds among different adherents, which can become important resources (religious support) for survivors when coping with physical and emotional wounds. As an important contextual and identity factor in the two pathways to response, religious belief has both constructive and harmful impacts. In certain contexts, religious belief and the associated religious interpretation of natural hazards constrain people's initiative to cope with disaster, but in terms of a psychological response, religious attributes can foster and promote individual and social disaster resilience. In the face of a disaster, people can obtain vital spiritual support from the God(s) in whom they believe and can also have access to and rely on important support and resources that are generated or mobilized by their belief-based social network. Regarding disaster risk reduction, it is important for policymakers and practitioners to value and capitalize on the constructive impacts of religious belief and to make an effort to moderate those impacts where they may be obstacles.
... Prevalence between genders was not significantly different. This finding is consistent with previous studies [20][21][22][23][24] and suggests that women may be more sensitive to the impact of flood than men. This study also found that males victims aged 25 years and above had higher PTSD rates than did males victims under aged 18 to 25 years while females victims aged 18 to 25 years had higher PTSD rates than did females victims aged 25 years and above but there was no significantly different between age groups. ...
Floods can lead to direct economic and property losses and result not only in physical injuries and deaths but also in psychological trauma. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a commonly used indicator to evaluate psychological injuries after disaster. This study aimed to determine the relationship between PTSD prevalence and related perceived severity of post flood impact by economical, non-economical and flood status severity domains besides relevant socio-demographic factors according to gender specific analysis. This cross-sectional study was conducted among community in Kampung Hulu Takir, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia in 2015 two weeks after flood. It included a total of 98 males and 110 females aged 18 years and above. Data was collected by interview-guided questionnaire to determine the prevalence of PTSD. SPSS version 21.0 was used for analysis of the relationship between socio demographic factors, perceived economic, non-economic and flood severity with PTSD. Finally chi square test was used to assess the predictors of PTSD according to gender. The prevalence of PTSD was 9.2% in males and 10.9% in females, giving a total of 10.1%. Significantly higher prevalence of PTSD was found in severely perceived economic and flood impact categories (33.3% and 23.8% in males; 23.8 % and 37.5% in females) and giving in overall 44.0% and 31.3 % respectively. Effective PTSD management strategies targeting females post flood victims who severely perceived economically and nature flood impact should be implemented in order to prevent further consequences of PTSD.
... Conversely, individuals with an external locus of control believe their successes or failures are a result of fate, luck, and/or powerful forces (Rotter & Mulry, 1965). Research has documented that individuals with an internal locus of control are generally less affected by disasters than those with an external locus (Gibbs, 1989;Schill & Beyler, 1992). Within the scope of this study, Gordon (1995) examined the academic resilience of 138 African American high school students from the eastern United States. ...
Entry into post-secondary studies from high school presents students with an assortment of challenges that extend far beyond conventional academic demands. These students are often required to modify their orientations to learning, foster, and maintain new social support networks, manage complex responsibilities, regulate personal freedoms, and navigate the many environmental and psychological stressors that will likely appear along the way. In the empirical literature, there is consensus that high school grade point average (HSGPA) represents the best predictor of success during this time of transition. Although HSGPA is often used to screen for entrance into higher education, little is known as to how or why it facilitates positive adjustment. Some have argued that HSGPA is influential because it is represents an interaction of internal and external factors. The purpose of this study was to undertake an empirical investigation to determine whether academic resilience, as defined by specific traits found within students that help them overcome situational adversity to achieve academically, mediates the relation between HSGPA and post-secondary success (i.e., achievement and retention outcomes). Using structural equation modeling, the responses from 655 first-year undergraduate participants were examined and demonstrated positive findings. Specifically, academic resilience accounted for approximately 5% of shared variance between HSGPA and post-secondary academic achievement. Due to the limited number of students who identified themselves as leaving academic studies, the mediational properties of academic resilience could not be explored within the context of post-secondary retention. The limitations of this study and future directions are discussed in relation to the obtained results.
Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants.
Studies find that psychological distress is common after disasters and that women experience more stress than do men. These studies have relied mainly on cross-sectional data, sometimes using case matching and respondent recall to infer causality. They have not directly assessed whether disasters cause psychological distress. Using data from a survey of two representative samples of community residents—one before the hurricane and one shortly afterwards—, I assess whether levels of well-being changed within the same community and if women and men were differentially impacted in this natural quasi-experiment. I find that levels of social support and the sense of purpose to one's life did decrease on average after the hurricane, although the sense of control did not. While women's well-being decreased on average after the hurricane, men's perceptions of social support and sense of having a purpose to their lives increased. Differential impacts on women were not explained by gender differences in social roles or socioeconomic status.
The increased concern over the well-being of emergency workers has been demonstrated at an organizational level by the implementation of formal critical incident stress debriefing programs in recent years. As well as recognizing the need for an organizational response to stress management, it is also important to recognise that individuals will have their own patterns of coping strategies that may or may not fit in with organizational expectations. In the emergency context there is relatively little documentation on the nature or effectiveness of these strategies. The present paper examines one coping strategy, humor, which is frequently mentioned by emergency workers and researchers as a common and presumably helpful strategy, but one for which there is very little systematic data. Interviews with emergency workers revealed a common belief that humor helps mitigate stress, but there was no association between quantitative measures of humor and stress in the present data. Emergency organizations may be uncomfortable with the overt acknowledgement of humor in the emergency context, but this paper suggests that it is generally used sensitively and within the emergency group only. It is possible that an alternative research approach is needed to further understand positive coping strategies such as humor.
Seventy-eight emergency workers at the AVIANCA aircrash at Cove Neck, New York, filled out questionnaires dealing with their reactions to the disaster, The number of fatalities witnessed was strongly predictive of number of symptoms, while the proportion of injured dealt with who survived was negatively correlated with number of symptoms. Cognitive variables were related to the distress measures. Contrary to hypothesis, disaster training was unrelated to the distress measures, even when training was rated as effective.
This study used the Conservation of Resources stress model to examine the role of psychosocial resource loss in the aftermath of Midwest flooding. Questionnaires were distributed through churches and completed by 131 adults in flood‐affected communities 6 weeks and 6 months after the flood's crest. Frequent psychosocial losses included losses of routine, sense of control, sense of optimism, accomplishing goals, and lime with loved ones. Path analysis revealed that psychosocial resource loss mediated the effects of flood exposure on both psychological distress and physical symptoms at 6 months postflood. The findings suggest that interventions designed to prevent psychosocial resource loss may reduce the long‐term effects of disasters.
This prospective investigation applied the Experience Sampling Method to examine the mood and behavioral responses of individuals facing the risk of community violence (in anticipation of the second Rodney King verdicts). Threatened participants experienced more negative affect and were less stable in behavioral involvement than individuals not under threat. Threatened participants also avoided social contact except for well‐known individuals, and were more likely to be traveling than nonthreatened participants. Social contact with family or close friends and being at home (one's own home or the home of familiar individuals) were associated with large reductions in negative affect for those at risk for urban violence. The findings are discussed in terms of risk factors for trauma following community‐wide stressors.
The earthquake that hit Armenia, Colombia, on January 25, 1999, dramatically impacted the lives of thousands of people, including children and adolescents. This study used the Hispanic MMPI‐A to clinically assess for ongoing psychopathology in a group of 59 adolescent earthquake victims. Their scores on the basic, content, and supplementary scales of the instrument were compared to those of a control group of 62 Colombian adolescents with similar socioeconomic, educational, and ethnic backgrounds. The results showed no clinically significant elevations for the earthquake victims indicating that the disaster had not resulted in diagnosable psychopathology. When compared to controls, earthquake victims showed significant elevations on D, Pt, and Sc indicating that they were mildly affected (but within the normal range) by the earthquake. The results are discussed in the context of cultural factors and the contemporary disaster and resiliency literature.
This cross‐national study examined preparation for and psychological functioning following Hurricane Georges in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and the United States. Four to five weeks after the storm made landfall, 697 college students (222 men, 476 women) completed a questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, preparation, social support, resource loss, and symptoms associated with acute stress disorder. Location, resource loss (especially personal characteristic resources) and social support accounted for a significant portion of psychological distress variance. The findings support the conservation of resources stress theory (Hobfoll. 1989. 1998). Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.
Volunteering in emergency medical services (EMS) plays a fundamental role in the improvement and maintenance of collective and community health. However, this work often requires rescuers to deal with very stressful situations with consequences in terms of decreased quality of life and psychological well‐being. The aim of this work was to analyze the resources that can be positively associated with volunteers’ quality of life. In particular, based on social identity and social cure approaches, we tested the effect of self‐efficacy and identification with a volunteer category on both positive and negative aspects of the volunteers’ professional quality of life. A self‐report questionnaire was administered to 203 EMS volunteers (53.7% men) from a large nonprofit volunteer association. Results are mostly supportive of predictions from the social identity (and specifically the “social cure”) approach, and show that professional identification and self‐efficacy were differently linked to the dimensions of the volunteers’ quality of life. More precisely, professional identification was negatively associated with burnout and positively associated with compassion satisfaction, and both effects were mediated by self‐efficacy. On the contrary, self‐efficacy and volunteer identification were not associated with secondary traumatic stress. Practical implications for volunteers’ wellbeing are discussed in the light of the policies of volunteer associations to improve collective resources.
Presents a unifying set of empirically based theories that seek to explain the experience of perceived toxic exposure for individuals, families, and communities. Impacts to lifestyle, lifescape, and emotion, as well as social and societal dynamics are explored. Given the myriad fears and dangers associated with residential toxic exposure, it is surprising that until now no comprehensive examination of the social dynamics of exposure has been available. In Contaminated Communities, Michael R. Edelstein provides a foundation for understanding complex responses to incidents of toxic contamination-responses of the public, government agencies, members of the helping professions, and victims themselves. Drawing upon social psychological theory and an extensive survey of documented cases of toxic exposure, enlivened by excerpts drawn from more than a thousand interviews with victims, the author presents a candid and moving portrayal of the toxic victim's experience and the key stages in the course of toxic disaster. Of particular value is Edelstein's analysis of the effects of toxic exposure on life-style and on cognition, in which he explains how individuals' perceptions of themselves, their families, their community, the environment, and their government gradually change after exposure. The analysis provides both a descriptive and a theoretical framework for interpreting individual, family, community, and societal dynamics and their mutual influences and important insights into the culture of contamination. An outstanding example of "action research," this book seeks to improve our understanding of the threat of toxic disaster as a means of enhancing our ability to respond effectively.In the second edition to this groundbreaking text, the author updates and supplements the existing material with hundreds of new citations and an greatly expanded bibliography.
The economic impact of disasters is well known; however, the link between financial loss and behavioral health problems is unknown. Participants included 198 adults of ages 21 to 82, living within 10 miles of the Gulf Coast during the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and were involved in the fishing, harvesting, seafood processing, or service/tourism industries. The functional impact of financial resource loss at 2.5 years post spill was measured using the 26-item Financial Life Events Checklist (FLEC). Individuals responded to financial distress by reducing social events and utility bills and changing food-shopping habits. The FLEC significantly predicted higher drug use (Drug Abuse Screening Test), alcohol use (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test), mood problems (Profile of Mood States), and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory II) (p values ≤ 0.05) 4.5 years after the spill. This preliminary study supports the notion that the functional impact of financial loss has a long-term impact on behavioral health after an oil spill.
Extreme events, such as natural and human-made disasters, often have short- and long-term psychological impacts that far exceed the degree of medical morbidity and mortality that ensues. Indeed, Lechat (1979) defined a disaster as a “disruption exceeding the adjustment capacity of the affected community” (p. 11). Since World War II, a number of studies have assessed the emotional consequences of a variety of natural disasters, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes, as well as technological and human-made catastrophes, such as the nuclear power plant accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI) in the United States and Chernobyl in Ukraine (Bromet and Dew 1995; Havenaar et al. 1996; Raphael 1986; Weisaeth 1993), the Nazi Holocaust (Robinson et al. 1994), and the Cambodian massacre (Kinzie et al. 1989). Studies aimed at describing the prevalence of psychological impairment or disorders in populations exposed to disasters are best conceptualized as epidemiologic in nature.
It was a warm spring morning. Because of a very sore throat, Mrs. Claven had a doctor’s appointment. All proceeded smoothly until her throat was swabbed for a culture. Suddenly, Mrs. Claven became shaky, nauseated, grabbed the physician’s arm, pulled the swab out of her mouth, and ran sobbing out of the clinic. She drove to her home and, after calming herself, telephoned the detective who had arrested her rapist of 3 years previous. She was totally unaware as to why she was calling this detective, but her fear was so great that she instinctively knew only that he would make her feel safe. She told him about her throat examination.
Extreme Ereignisse wie Naturkatastrophen oder von Menschen ausgelöste Katastrophen haben oft kurz oder langfristige psychische Auswirkungen, die das Ausmaß der traumatischen medizinisch bedingten Morbidität und Mortalität bei weitem übersteigen. Lechat (1979) definierte Katastrophen auch tatsächlich als einen „Bruch, der die Anpassungsfähigkeit der betroffenen Gemeinschaft übersteigt“ (ebd., S. 11).
Emergency responder groups now encompass a broader variety of expert professionals and organizations than our local police, firebrigades, health care organizations, ambulance services or social services departments. This is an important development of relatively recent origin. A further change is that in many instances operational commitments may be geographically removed from their host communities. Historically, emergency services were established to respond to critical incidents and disasters affecting particular localities. In return for services that aim to minimize damage within a community, that same community supports and meets the costs of maintaining emergency response capabilities. This damage limitation and containment is affected at a physical and a psychological level. By largely confining exposure to extreme situations to specialist emergency services personnel the broader public is protected from traumatic events that, as predicted by Janoff-Bullman and Frieze (1983), might destabilize belief systems that underpin a given social order.
Many disaster victims require intervention at the level of the individual, the family, a small group, or the school, as described in earlier chapters in this book. However, certain disasters are so enormous in scope that they require communitywide intervention. Federally funded agencies such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the National Guard, as well as nonprofit relief groups such as the Red Cross and the Salvation Army, have been trained in disaster preparedness, particularly in recognition of the physical and financial need to reach hundreds, even thousands, of families after a large-scale disaster.
Objectives:
To demonstrate a spatial epidemiologic approach that could be used in the aftermath of disasters to (1) detect spatial clusters and (2) explore geographic heterogeneity in predictors for mental health and general wellness.
Methods:
We used a cohort study of Hurricane Ike survivors (n=508) to assess the spatial distribution of postdisaster mental health wellness (most likely resilience trajectory for posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS] and depression) and general wellness (most likely resilience trajectory for PTSS, depression, functional impairment, and days of poor health) in Galveston, Texas. We applied the spatial scan statistic (SaTScan) and geographically weighted regression.
Results:
We found spatial clusters of high likelihood wellness in areas north of Texas City and spatial concentrations of low likelihood wellness in Galveston Island. Geographic variation was found in predictors of wellness, showing increasing associations with both forms of wellness the closer respondents were located to Galveston City in Galveston Island.
Conclusions:
Predictors for postdisaster wellness may manifest differently across geographic space with concentrations of lower likelihood wellness and increased associations with predictors in areas of higher exposure. Our approach could be used to inform geographically targeted interventions to promote mental health and general wellness in disaster-affected communities. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2016;page 1 of 13).
Since the Vietnam War, numerous epidemiologic researches have attempted to determine the factors influencing the risk of appearance of war psychic disorders among soldiers taking part in foreign missions. The study of the various individual, collective and specific to experienced situations factors shows combat exposure constitutes the main risk factor. Nevertheless, other situations particularly induce such a risk: taking part in or witnessing atrocity scenes, taking part in mortuary tasks of identification and conditioning of corpses or some individual characteristics such as the existence of psychic antecedents and the previous confrontation with traumatizing events such as childhood ill-treatment or physical and sexual assaults. On the contrary, the quality of the family and social background constitutes a protective factor. Finally, if the psychopathological characteristics peculiar to the new peace-keeping missions have been analyzed in many reviews, their real impact on psychic morbidity still remains to be studied as well as comparing it with other operational missions.
A simple and powerful idea underlies this chapter as well as the volume as a whole. In essence it stipulates that good clinical practice must be guided by state-of-the-art knowledge concerning the topic of interest. Relevant sources of information may include: (1) psychosocial theory and associated empirical research; (2) prior clinical experience; (3) and personal life experiences. The remainder of the chapter provides an overview of available knowledge concerning the nature of traumatic stress. The material represents a synthesis of the aforementioned sources of information.
This paper presents a case study of a 9-year-old girl who sustained 38% burn injuries on the face, back, hands, palms and shoulder and diagnosed with stress disorders three and half months after a school fire tragedy. The key objectives were to: identify harmful psychological reactions and associated behaviour in the child which could have long-term psychiatric implications; administer different play therapy activities to facilitate the ventilation of negative thoughts and emotions; apply and find out the suitability and appropriateness of a 10-days home-based psychosocial intervention program for children who encountered such traumatic life events; discuss the problems with the parents and to provide Psycho-education to them for a speedy recovery process of the child. The child was selected randomly for the pilot testing of the program. Trained disaster psychosocial care professionals applied different play therapy methods to facilitate the ventilation of thoughts and emotions in the child. The home-based intervention spanned for a period of 10 days. The comparison between the pre and post intervention psychological symptoms and behaviour were analysed on Impact of Event Scale (Horowitz, Wilner, & Alvarez, 1979) validated by Dyregrov and Yule (1995) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). A significant reduction in psychosomatic symptoms, especially stress and anxiety symptoms was noted at post-intervention/treatment assessment. The mean scores on the IEC and BAI were also minimal. Psycho-education to the parents on the nature and course of stress disorder proved useful in the entire duration of intervention. Parents, neighbours and relatives corroborated the behavioural change in the child observed by the team. Reduced anxiety, apprehension, shyness also validated the intervention. The findings basically highlighted the significance of providing right kind of mental health care services/ interventions to alleviate stress and other reactions associated with such traumatic life events encountered by children.
In this chapter, I will explore the effects of political repression, chronic unrest, and structural violence on children, adolescents, and families, reviewing the world literature, and using the specific example of local experience in South Africa, a chronically repressive society. The text is based on presentations to the conference “Bårn i Krig,” held in Bergen, Norway, in May, 1988 (Simpson, 1988b; Simpson et al., 1988).
Although much attention, in terms of clinical and research efforts, has been given to the psychological effects of various traumatic events, systematic study of trauma following accidents has been virtually ignored until recently. This omission is striking given that some of the earliest descriptions of what is now referred to as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were related to traumatic accidental injury. For instance, in 1871, Rigler described the effects of injuries caused by railroad accidents (e.g., passenger car derailments, train crashes), labeling the resultant outcome “compensation neurosis” (Trimble, 1985). This term captured the intermingled effects of having incurred a traumatic injury and the seeking of compensation (e.g., legal, medical, and financial) for such injuries. The possibility of malingering was recognized early on, particularly in the case of individuals seeking compensation for psychological distress (Trimble, 1985).
This chapter explores Martha Nussbaum’s capabilities approach to justice as a set of ideas and concepts for thinking and reasoning about how governments in liberal democratic societies should respond to climate change. It also argues that a stable climate system should be understood as part of a broader environmental meta-capability which enables all the capabilities worthy of protection as constitutional entitlements.
Religious and non-religious approaches to life provide complementary coping approaches that uniquely affect psychological adjustment to life stressors. In this chapter, we explore the role of flood-related coping self-efficacy on the psychological health of flood affected residents three months post-disaster in the state of Queensland in Australia. The flood events occurred in 2008, 3 years before the onset of the 2011 Mega Floods that affected 75% of the State of Queensland. Our results showed that greater flood-related coping self-efficacy was associated with decreased general and traumatic distress for all flood victims (religious and non-religious). However, no difference was found between the distress levels of religious and non-religious Queensland flood victims. In general, the results in this chapter emphasize the importance of non-religious coping factors on psychological adjustment of all flood victims.
Our knowledge about the role of aging as a moderating or mediating influence on the expression of posttraumatic symptoms, and their remission and resolution, is nascent. This is reflected in the current state of empirically supported psychotherapies for older adults with PTSD. At this time, there are no empirically validated psychotherapeutic or psychopharmacologic treatments for this age group. This chapter highlights general issues and other factors unique to aging, such as changes in cognition, that must be taken into consideration when embarking on PTSD treatment with older adults. We review extant psychotherapy research that has applicability to this cohort: treatment studies on anxiety and depression for older adults, as well as treatment studies for younger adults with PTSD. Next, we describe promising PTSD interventions for older adults that have yet to be tested on large samples or in randomized controlled trials. The chapter culminates in the presentation of a multi-modal psychotherapy intervention designed to address factors unique to aging, and which involves a gentler version of trauma-related therapy that allows exposure to be optional.
Two years after serious flooding, a study was conducted involving 177 disaster victims. This article presents the results of analyses aiming to identify the principal factors associated with post-disaster psychological problems by examining mediating or moderating influences of social support and adjustment strategies in the stressor-health link. The results show, within the variables studied, that there are very few significant differences between men and women; however, women did receive more help for evacuation, cleaning, and rebuilding. The results also demonstrate that exposure to the stressor is the greatest contributor in explaining manifestations of post-traumatic stress, while variables like social support and adjustment strategies are more likely to explain the existence of depression symptoms and psychological stress. The analyses also allow conclusions to be drawn about mediating and moderating effects of adjustment strategies in the stressor-health link. In other respects, the observed effects involving social support variables are direct.
Background: Despite national and international policies to develop social capital in disaster-affected communities, empiric evidence on the association between social capital and disaster mental health is limited and ambiguous.
Objective: The study explored the relationship between social capital and disaster mental health outcomes (PTSD, anxiety, and depression) in combination with individual factors (appraisal, coping behavior, and social support).
Design: This is a community-based cross-sectional study in a flood-affected town in northern England. The study is part of the MICRODIS multi-country research project that examines the impact of natural disasters. The study included 232 flood-affected respondents.
Results: The findings showed that a considerable part of the association between cognitive and structural social capital and mental health is exerted through individual appraisal processes
(i.e. property loss, primary and secondary appraisal), social support, and coping behavior.
These individual factors were contingent on social capital. After the inclusion of individual characteristics, cognitive social capital was negatively related to lower mental health problems and structural social capital was positively associated to experiencing anxiety but not to PTSD or depression. Depression and anxiety showed a different pattern of association with both components of social capital.
Conclusions: Individual oriented stress reducing interventions that use appraisal processes, social support, and coping as starting points could be more effective by taking into account the
subjective experience of the social context in terms of trust and feelings of mutual support and reciprocity in a community. Findings indicate that affected people may especially benefit
from a combination of individual stress reducing interventions and
psychosocial interventions that foster cognitive social capital.
The victims of five crime types were contrasted on victim characteristics, crime characteristics, and coping responses to the crime and on four measures of 1- and 6-month psychological distress. Significant sociodemographic and coping response differences were found between victims of different crime types. Changing telephone numbers and staying home more were associated with significantly higher levels of 1- and 6-month psychological distress. Victims of all crime types declined in average 6-month distress levels regardless of whether or not they had selected a coping response, with one notable exception: Those who reported changing telephone numbers actually showed an increase in average fear level across the 6-month study period. These results suggest that although certain coping responses may vary by crime type and may serve as indicators of high levels of initial distress, common responses do not appear to significantly facilitate the recovery process.
A large body of evidence indicates that women are more likely than men to show unipolar depression. Five classes of explanations for these sex differences are examined and the evidence for each class is reviewed. Not one of these explanations adequately accounts for the magnitude of the sex differences in depression. Finally, a response set explanation for the sex differences in depression is proposed. According to this explanation, men are more likely to engage in distracting behaviors that dampen their mood when depressed, but women are more likely to amplify their moods by ruminating about their depressed states and the possible causes of these states. Regardless of the initial source of a depressive episode (i.e., biological or psychological) men’s more active responses to their negative moods may be more adaptive on average than women’s less active, more ruminative responses.
The present study used a model of individual response to catastrophic events to guide the analysis of data collected from survivors of the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire of 1977. One hundred seventeen subjects were seen 1-year postfire, and 67 subjects were reinterviewed a year later. Hierarchical regression analyses for multiple outcome measures showed that the most predictable symptoms at 1 year were those associated with stress disorders. The independent variables contributing most to that prediction were aspects of the individual’s fire experience (e.g., bereavement and injury). Predictability shifted somewhat in the second year for the outcome measures: Secondary measures (those with a Hostility component) became more predictable. Overall, up to 45% of outcome variance 1-year postfire could be explained by the individual’s experiences surrounding the fire. The role of mediating variables was also addressed.
Administered a fear survey to 29 10–13 yr old children and their mothers who had been participants or observers when lightning struck a soccer game with a force that knocked down most of the participants and observers and led to the death of 1 participant. Two control children were matched to each lightning-strike (LS) child for age, sex, and SES, making a total of 58 controls. In addition, measures of Ss' sleep disturbances and somatic complaints were obtained from their mothers, and the interviewer rated each LS S for the extent of emotional upset caused by the disaster. Results show that differences between the LS and control groups were most pronounced for child-reported fears. The generalization gradient was fairly consistent with expectations from classical conditioning theory. The correspondence between the mothers' and children's reports of intense storm-related fears was markedly larger in the LS Ss than in the controls. Child-reported fears showed a number of substantial relations with mother-reported sleep and somatic problems and with interviewer-rated emotional upset. (26 ref)
38 Three Mile Island (TMI) residents (mean age 33.3 yrs) were compared with 32 people (mean age 35.8 yrs) living near an undamaged nuclear power plant, 24 people (mean age 34.1 yrs) living near a traditional coal-fired power plant, and 27 people (mean age 30.9 yrs) living in an area more than 20 miles from any power plant. A number of self-report measures of psychological stress were evaluated by administering the Symptom Checklist-90 and the Beck Depression Inventory more than 1 yr after the nuclear accident. Two behavioral measures of stress were obtained: performances on a proofreading task and an embedded-figures task. Urinary catecholamine levels were assayed to examine chronic stress-related sympathetic arousal. Results indicate that Ss in the TMI area exhibited more symptoms of stress more than 1 yr after the nuclear accident than did Ss living under different circumstances. Although the intensity of these problems appears to be subclinical, the persistence of stress may be cause for some concern. (25 ref)
Two interview reports for each of 207 children (aged 4–17 yrs) were available as a result of litigation requesting damages for "psychic impairment" of the survivors of a flood. Evidence was present that certain of the symptom scales on the Psychiatric Evaluation Form (PEF) could be reliably rated from the diagnostic reports by nonclinicians. Ratings from interviews conducted 6 mo apart by interviewers with different styles and purposes were significantly correlated. Information was also given about relationships among the scales, and a suggestion was made for clustering them. Clusters from each interview were significantly correlated with a global clinical impairment rating made at the time of the 2nd interview. Clusters from the 2 reports were also differentially predictive of 2 physical symptoms, enuresis and obesity. Evidence thus suggests that the PEF scales are a useful and valid means of quantifying children's interview data and can be used to examine research questions in clinical settings. (14 ref)
Against the backdrop of ever-expanding technological systems, the effects of accidents or breakdowns in human-made technology are examined and contrasted with those of natural disasters. A number of differences are identified, and research on these forms of cataclysmic events is reviewed. These data, as well as this analysis, suggest that technological catastrophes are more likely to have long-term effects, to affect people beyond the point of impact, and to pose different types of threat than are natural disasters.
Examined the effectiveness of different coping styles in the face of a chronic and unique stressor—the accident at Three Mile Island and its 2-yr aftermath. Psychological, biochemical, and behavioral aspects of stress were measured in 70 Ss during a protracted stress situation and were compared to indices of coping provided by a ways of coping inventory. Because stress was chronic and the sources of stress were not easily changed, reappraisal-based emotional management appeared to be more effective in reducing psychological and behavioral consequences of stress. The use of denial or problem-oriented modes of coping under these conditions was less useful in reducing stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several researchers have called for an interdisciplinary approach to the study of disaster. In this article, the authors discuss conceptual issues related to stress, distress, and disaster; survey pertinent contributions by reseachers; and provide a rationale for the use of a comprehensive, psychoepidemiologic model of distress as a possible means of systematizing research in the area. A review of the model's components, which include exposure to stressors, vulnerability, and psychological and social resources, is presented. Various ways to implement the model practically and methodologically in disaster research also are discussed.
• Six-month prevalence rates for selected DSM-III psychiatric disorders are reported based on community surveys in New Haven, Conn, Baltimore, and St Louis. As part of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area program, data were gathered on more than 9,000 adults, employing the Diagnostic Interview Schedule to collect information to make a diagnosis. The most common disorders found were phobias, alcohol abuse and/or dependence, dysthymia, and major depression. The most common diagnoses for women were phobias and major depression, whereas for men, the most predominant disorder was alcohol abuse and/or dependence. Rates of psychiatric disorders dropped sharply after age 45 years.
Clinicians have gained considerable knowledge about psychopathology and treatment but this knowledge is poorly systematized and hard to transmit. One way to organize clinical knowledge is to circumscribe a limited area and describe within it the interactions between personality dispositions, states of disorder, and treatment techniques.
This report models such an approach by limiting disorder to stress response syndromes, personality to obsessional and hysterical neurotic styles, and treatment to focal dynamic psychotherapy. Within this domain, an information processing approach to working through conflicted ideas and feeling is developed. The result is a series of assertions about observable behavior and nuances of technique. Since these assertions are localized conceptually, they can be checked, revised, refuted, compared, or extended into other disorders, dispositions, and treatments.
In Centralia, Pennsylvania, a twenty-four-year-old underground coal mine fire has slowly destroyed the physical community, leaving in its wake much community conflict and suffering. And yet, unlike in most cases of natural disasters, local religious institutions and community residents failed to assign religious meaning to the problems associated with the fire. The paper argues that the failure of local religion to respond effectively is related to the chronic technical nature of the disaster agent. Unlike a tornado or hurricane, the mine fire struck slowly, lasted a long time, was caused by human beings, and required sophisticated technical apparatus to detect and abate. In addition, the patterns of victimization associated with the chronic technical disaster are different from those resulting from immediate impact natural disasters. These differences resulted in the acceptance of a technical, not moral or religious, definition of the problem. Implications of this for religion's response to other chronic technical disaster situations are discussed.
• The reactions of patients in the community mental health system to the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island (TMI), Middletown, Pa, were assessed. The sample was composed of 151 patients from the TMI area and 64 patients from a comparison site where a similar nuclear plant is located. Mental health status was determined for the period immediately after the accident, nine to ten months later, and one year later. No significant differences were found between the TMI group and the comparison group. To isolate risk factors within the TMI group, patients who were most distressed were compared with patients with the least distress. The results showed that quality of network support and viewing TMI as dangerous were significantly associated with mental health.
Although specific victimizations may differ, there appear to be common psychological responses across a wide variety of victims. It is proposed that victims' psychological distress is largely due to the shattering of basic assumptions held about themselves and their world. Three assumptions that change as a result of victimization are: 1) the belief in personal invulnerability; 2) the perception of the world as meaningful; and 3) the view of the self as positive. Coping with victimization is presented as a process that involves rebuilding one's assumptive world. Introductions to the papers that follow in this issue are incorporated into a discussion of specific coping strategies adopted by victims.
A field study investigated the role of knowledge, experience, and warning in medi-ating the stress associated with urban flooding. Among residents of an urban floodplain, knowledge about flooding was associated with less trauma during the last flood and reluctance to support indiscriminate government intervention. Increased prior warning of a flood, however, was related to intensified residual fear and feelings of desperation, to more frequent somatic manifestations of stress, and to greater support for all government intervention programs. Previous flood experience (especially recurring experience) was associated with increased fear, depression, and health-stress outcomes. Commitment to adaptive community intervention programs was related to recency of one's flood experience. Having flood insurance was unrelated to stress measures.
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The importance of a therapeutic community has been proposed as a useful mechanism for overcoming the trauma and stress experienced by disaster victims. This article reviews the origin, components, and applications of the therapeutic community concept for natural disaster situations. The question is raised whether such a mechanism emerges in response to environmental hazards other than rapid onset, natural disaster agents. Using case study data from two technological events, one involving the aerial application of pesticides, and the other the disposal of asbestos tailings, it is concluded that under certain circumstances, the classic therapeutic community is unlikely to develop in technological disasters. The factors mitigating against its development are examined with a primary focus on the question of "true victimization," the formation of victim clusters, and the emergence of community conflict.
This study examined individuals either personally or indirectly exposed to disaster and hypothesized that social involvement would differentially mediate the effect of exposure on the mental health of male and female victims. The study reinterviewed individuals previously interviewed just prior to disastrous floods and the discovery of unsafe levels of dioxin. Results indicated that males and females differ in their response to disaster exposure. Males showed increased symptoms of alcohol abuse and depression as a result of either personal, or both personal and indirect, exposure to disaster. In contrast, females' s]ymptomatology was not directly elevated by personal disaster exposure. Both sexes were sensitive to demands for support as a mediator of disaster effects. That is, victims both personally exposed to disaster and heavily relied upon by network members were far more likely to somatize (females) or abuse alcohol (males) than personally exposed individuals subject to more moderate network demands. Although excellent spouse support attenuated male symptomatology, its presence was associated with an exacerbation of symptoms in personally exposed females. Results suggest the importance of considering both the positive and negative consequences of social involvement because, for women in particular, very strong social ties may be more burdensome than supportive in times of extreme stress.
This book presents an evaluation of the psycho-social impacts of hazardous technology. Using a multiple research strategy, the authors show the possible effects of restarting the undamaged reactor at Three Mile Island. The book includes background information concerning environmental policy, the accident and restart issues, and forecasted impacts and implications for environmental management. The topic, however, extends well beyond that of TMI and nuclear power. Linkages are made with other environmental problems including chemical accidents such as Bhopal and waste disposal problems such as Love Canal.
A review of clinical, experimental, and field research on stress, together with the author's own research, provides the background for a theory that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #370 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contains articles on life in cities. Topics include environmental load and the allocation of attention, urban norms on the subway, urban commuting, aggression and heat, helpfulness in the urban environment, crowding, and socio-psychological approaches to urban life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Most of the 224 children who were survivor-plaintiffs of the Buffalo Creek disaster were emotionally impaired by their experiences. The major factors contributing to this impairment were the child's developmental level at the time of the flood, his perceptions of the reactions of his family, and his direct exposures to the disaster. The responses of children under 12 to fantasy-eliciting techniques are described and their observed behavior after the flood compared with developmental norms for their age and reports of their previous behavior. These children share a modified sense of reality, increased vulnerability to future stresses, altered senses of the power of the self, and early awareness of fragmentation and death. It is pointed out that these factors could lead to "after-trauma" in later life if they cannot make the necessary adaptations and/or do not receive special help to deal with the traumas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Forty-six victims of the Cocoanut Grove fire were given neuropsychiatric examinations and were followed up for an 11-month period. There were no essential sex differences in the reactions. Twenty-nine of the 46 lost consciousness from a few minutes to over one hour, one patient having retrograde amnesia for the disaster. Forty-one remembered the outburst of flames at the start of the fire. Twenty-six developed psychiatric complications, and the majority of these persons had been unconscious only a few minutes and remembered being choked and trampled. Patients could be classed under the syndromes of general nervousness or anxiety neurosis. Symptoms of the former were irritability, fatigue, and insomnia, and two thirds of these cases cleared up within 9 months. Patients classed as anxiety neurosis complained of uncontrollable fears and anxieties, and after 9 months the symptoms were unabated in two thirds of them. Nightmares occurred in one third of the patients while they were in the hospital, but nightmares persisting after discharge occurred only in patients with anxiety neurosis. Psychiatric patients experienced no greater loss of friends and relatives nor greater severity of burns than those who did not show psychoneurotic symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
report our findings in respect to predictors of psychological distress in the Staten Island community study and also attempt to replicate these results using the Linden-Perth Amboy community sample
post-incident psychological distress / number of psychological symptoms before the incident / demographics / attitudinal measures
the factors that lead to psychological distress after a toxic exposure event (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
draw upon extant theories of human development to create a "holistic look at how the Vietnam war affected the veterans' reentry into the mainstream of society . . . " / addresses such questions posed by Vietnam veterans as "Why can't I feel more at home now?" "Why do I feel depressed even though I've survived?" / concludes . . . that Vietnam veterans who entered the military, served and fought in Vietnam, and were released into a hostile American society were severely handicapped in terms of either ego-retrogression (associated with severe estrangement and identity diffusion that may manifest in mistrust and self-doubt) or psychosocial acceleration (premature, precocious ego development that may manifest in, for example, acute anxiety and periodic self-estrangement), or all these patterns (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
this chapter highlights methodological considerations of importance in planning systematic assessments of the effects of disaster / intent is . . . not to discuss how such studies should be conducted, but rather to describe when these techniques are most appropriately applied to the study of disaster and to note the likely pitfalls and opportunities awaiting the investigator of disaster's effects
actual dimensions of the disaster-response syndrome / methodological dimensions affecting estimates of disaster effects (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several researchers have called for an interdisciplinary approach to the study of disaster. In this article, the authors discuss conceptual issues related to stress, distress, and disaster; survey pertinent contributions by reseachers; and provide a rationale for the use of a comprehensive, psychoepidemiologic model of distress as a possible means of systematizing research in the area. A review of the model's components, which include exposure to stressors, vulnerability, and psychological and social resources, is presented. Various ways to implement the model practically and methodologically in disaster research also are discussed.
Ninety-eight individuals rendered homeless by flooding of the Mississippi were interviewed shortly after the disaster and one year later. Data included demographic information, severity of property damage, personal reactions to the disaster, and the 20-item Mental Status Index, a symptom checklist designed to quantify emotional stress. Just after the flood victims were asked to complete the Mental Status Index twice, using as a frame of reference their mental/emotional state before the disaster and their mental/emotional state since the disaster experience. The results indicated a significant increase in emotional distress immediately after the flood. One year later, the level of emotional distress had declined somewhat relative to that reported shortly after the disaster; however, it still remained significantly above pre-flood levels. Although victims continued to show effects of the disaster after 12 months, none developed a major mental illness for the first time. Findings of this and similar followup studies suggest that the most appropriate and cost/effective role for the mental health worker in times of natural disaster is that of a consultant in crisis management to primary caregivers such as family physicians, clergy, and full-time disaster personnel.
Approximately 300 Italian elementary school children who were victims of a devastating earthquake were surveyed in an epidemiological study. The measure used was the Rutter Behavioral Questionnaire for Completion by Teachers. In one village a treatment program was developed and implemented. A frequency count of the expressed earthquake-related fears and anxieties was taken during every treatment session. Treatment consisted of a gradual series of steps that led to a replaying of the earthquake. It was hypothesized that the number of children shown to be at risk for developing neurotic or antisocial problems would be positively correlated with the amount of destruction in a village. This was not verified. It was also hypothesized that treatment would reduce earthquake fears and the number of children at risk. This was verified. The village where treatment was carried out for 1 academic year showed a significant drop in the at-risk scores. Conclusions were that treatment alleviates symptoms but that the number of children at risk seems to be more related to the length of time needed for the community to reorganize after the disaster.
This paper reviews empirical findings of the past decade concerning the incidence and effects of child sexual abuse. First, incidence studies which consider intrafamilial and extrafamilial abuse victims of both sexes are reviewed. Research findings on short- and longterm consequences to female incest victims are then reported. Risk factors are identified for the child, the perpetrator, and the nonoffending caretaker. Theoretical literature is discussed to a limited extent throughout. To date, few empirical studies have utilized large sample sizes, adequate comparison groups, objective measures, and statistical data analysis. More well-designed research is needed so that fuller explanatory models of child sexual abuse can be developed. Symptomatology of the abuser, characteristics of the abused, and situational variables must be considered concurrently to strengthen prediction, develop effective prevention programs, and clarify treatment goals.
An investigation into the health of people in Bristol flooded in July 1968 was made by means of a controlled survey and a study of mortality rates. There was a 50% increase in the number of deaths among those whose homes had been flooded, with a conspicuous rise in deaths from cancer.Surgery attendances rose by 53%, referrals to hospital and hospital admissions more than doubled. In all respects the men appeared less well able to cope with the experience of disaster than the women.
Bibliography: p. [319]-322
How do communities respond to disasters? What implications do these responses have for the mental health of the impacted population? How one answers the first question depends, in part, upon one's formulation of a "community." The second question has yet to be systematically explored by disaster researchers. In this paper, we present findings from research on community responses to disaster events and, where possible, draw relevant inferences about possible links between these responses and the mental health of affected residents. First, however, some discussion of conceptions of community structure and functioning seems warranted.