No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
A cetacean biopsy system using lightweight pneumatic darts, and its effect on the behavior of killer whales
Abstract
A bstract
Lightweight untethered pneumatic darts were used to biopsy killer whales, Orcinus orca , for genetic and toxicological analysis. Samples of epidermal, dermal, and hypodermal tissue weighing approximately 0.5 g were obtained by 65% of the 91 darts fired during the study. Sufficient DNA for multiple analyses was extracted from the biopsies, which were also used for fatty acid and toxic contaminant analyses. Reactions such as momentary shakes or accelerations were observed after 81% of the dart hits and 53% of the misses. Aversion to the research vessel was assessed by reapproaching target whales after the sampling attempts. In 6% of the hits and 8% of the misses aversion to the research boat increased immediately following the attempt. No similar increases in aversion were seen when killer whales were reapproached one day to one year after being hit. The darts were also tested successfully on humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae . In view of the simplicity of the system, its effectiveness in acquiring multipurpose samples, and the apparently short‐term disturbance it caused, it is recommended for future cetacean biopsy studies.
... Controlling the kinetic energy of a projectile at a desired distance has long been key in many scientific, industrial, medical, and other applications [1]. Scientific applications include the distance biopsy of animals and the implantation of tracking chips [2]. ...
... Industrial applications include modulating the velocity and thickness of ferrofluid dispositions in additive manufacturing, ensuring proper function of presses and solenoids, and precise control of other automated components [3]. Medical veterinary or biological research applications include ensuring proper injection of sedatives and other drugs into animals from a safe distance [1,4,5]. Although firearms and air guns suffer from intrinsic limitations in ensuring consistent delivery of kinetic energy into projectiles, functional electromagnetic accelerators offer a more consistent solution [3]. ...
... Impact research tests materials by accelerating projectiles to a desired velocity to simulate collisions. Biologists and veterinarians rely on dart projectors to inject animals with drugs, take biopsies from specimens, or inject tracking chips [1,8,9]. Due to the potential danger posed by animals that may be wild, confused, or sick, researchers may prefer to keep their distance during such interventions. ...
Biologists and veterinarians rely on dart projectors to inject animals with drugs, take biopsies from specimens, or inject tracking chips. Firearms, air guns, and other launchers are limited in their ability to precisely control the kinetic energy of a projectile, which can injure the animal if too high. In order to improve the safety of remote drug delivery, a lidar-modulated electromagnetic launcher and a soft drug delivery dart were prototyped. A single-stage revolver coilgun and soft dart were designed and tested at distances up to 8 m. With a coil efficiency of 2.25%, the launcher could consistently deliver a projectile at a controlled kinetic energy of 1.00 ± 0.006 J and an uncontrolled kinetic energy of 2.66 ± 0.076 J. Although modifications to charging time, sensors, and electronics could improve performance, our launcher performed at the required level at the necessary distances. The precision achieved with commercial components enables many other applications, from law enforcement to manufacturing.
... The biopsy punch is designed to suit the integument thickness of the target species. Among some dart projectors reported in the literature are recurve crossbows (Lambertsen, 1987;Palsbøll et al., 1991;Clapham & Mattila, 1993;Patenaude & White, 1995;Weller et al., 1997;Gauthier & Sears, 1999;Hooker et al., 2001;Gorgone et al., 2008;Kiszka et al., 2010;Kowarski et al., 2014;Reisinger et al., 2014;Sinclair et al., 2015;Fruet et al., 2017), pneumatic (CO2) dart rifles with variable pressure regulation (Bearzi, 2000), a modified powderactuated 0.22 caliber rifle with variable pressure regulation (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krutzen et al., 2002;Parsons et al., 2003;Tezanos-Pinto & Baker, 2012;Pagano et al., 2014;Liu et al., 2019), and a modified powder-actuated 0.22 caliber rifle without a pressure adjustment valve (Balmer et al., 2011;Sinclair et al., 2015; see also unpub. marine mammal research cruise reports at https://www. ...
... Gales et al. (2009) recommended that remote biopsy device power be evaluated before sampling live animals, and Bearzi (2000) recommended researchers constantly review procedures and equipment out of an abundance of caution. Palsbøll et al. (1991) and Patenaude & White (1995) tested the tissue collection efficacy for a range of recurve crossbow power levels with certain biopsy dart designs in development, and Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) measured the speed and energy of one device/dart combination. However, despite the widespread use of these different tools, there is relatively little detailed information available on the energy transferred to the sample subjects at impact. ...
... Weller et al. (1997) and Kowarski et al. (2014) found crossbows with draw-weights of 40 to 45 kg to be effective for common bottlenose dolphins and long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), respectively. The projection device used by Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) to sample killer whales (Orcinus orca) and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) had three power level settings, similar to the variable-power devices used by other researchers to sample polar bears (Ursus maritimus; Pagano et al., 2014) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.; Krutzen et al., 2002;Parsons et al., 2003). However, even if all devices in use were identical, the weight and style of darts and the biopsy punches used may differ considerably among research programs and, thus, the energy calculated for one device/dart combination may not be applicable to the equipment of another researcher or appropriate for a different species. ...
... The failed darts that bounced off from the wildebeests without cutting any tissue could be attributed to dart tip dimensions [14] or length of the biopsy needle [13]. Those darts that got stuck to the wildebeests and failed to bounce off were probably shot at acute angles [18], or they could have been fired directly perpendicular by a device that has its pressure set too high [14]. Generally, darting at long distances can lead to increased failure rates due to missed targets. ...
... The terrain was open grass-land allowing proper visibility of the wildebeests and ease of movement while tracking wildebeests. The frequency of successfully hitting animals with darts increases at closer distances of less than 23 m [20], while the frequency of missed darts increases with more distant firing ranges of more than 15 m [18] or more than 30 m [21]. It is important to note that definitions of ''close" and ''far" distances vary across species of animals to be darted [15]. ...
... The ability to attain suitably large, intact samples is linked to the angle of impact as well as part of the body where the dart strikes [15]. Previous studies in whales indicate that if the dart hits high on the back where it curves toward the dorsal ridge, the dart tends to glance off with no sample or with only a minute sample of skin [18]. Our findings revealed that there was no statistical difference on the amounts of tissue collected whether the wildebeest was darted on the shoulder or thigh irrespective of the distances (Fig. 2). ...
The use of biopsy darts for remote collection of tissue samples from free-ranging terrestrial and aquatic animal species has gained popularity in the recent past. The success of darting is very important since scientists may not have many chances to re-dart the same animal, especially with the free-ranging elusive wildlife species. We used wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) as a model to estimate the optimum shooting distance, pressure and the shot part of the body through which a researcher can optimize the success and amount of tissue collected from similar wild land mammalian species. Wildebeests were darted at six categories of distances ranging between 10 and 45m and dart gun pressures of 5–14millibar. The number of failed darts increased by increasing the darting distance: 0% (10m), 0% (20m), 6% (30m), 20% (35m), 71% (40m), and 67% (45m). There was a notable effect of the distances on the amount of tissue collected 20m offered the best results. Dart gun pressure had no effect on the amount of tissue samples obtained. The amount of tissue obtained from successful darts was the same whether the animal was darted on the shoulder or thigh. In this paper, we present a practical guideline for remote biopsy darting of wildebeest to obtain optimum amount of tissue samples, which could be generalized for similar wild land mammalian species.
... Since the early 1990s, dart biopsying has become one of the most common collection methods for obtaining biological tissue samples from free-ranging cetaceans (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Noren and Mocklin, 2012). These samples have traditionally provided information about diet (lipid composition and stable isotopes), pollutant exposure, and genetics (Noren and Mocklin, 2012). ...
... Dart biopsy samples are predominantly collected using either a crossbow or a pneumatic rifle with modified dart tips (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). The tips are usually hollow, thin-walled, surgical grade stainless-steel cylinders, ~4-6 mm in diameter and 20-40 mm in length, each with a cutting lead edge and small internal barbs to retract the sample ( Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Larsen, 1998). ...
... Dart biopsy samples are predominantly collected using either a crossbow or a pneumatic rifle with modified dart tips (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). The tips are usually hollow, thin-walled, surgical grade stainless-steel cylinders, ~4-6 mm in diameter and 20-40 mm in length, each with a cutting lead edge and small internal barbs to retract the sample ( Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Larsen, 1998). The core sample collected from the dart is usually 4-6 mm in diameter with varying lengths, usually between 5 and 30 mm (Fig. 3). ...
... Reactions of various species of cetaceans to biopsy darting have generally been mild (e.g. International Whaling Commission, 1989;Whitehead et al., 1990;Brown et al., 1991;Weinrich et al., 1991Weinrich et al., , 1992Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Weller et al., 1997). The most common response is a "startle" reaction, although the level of reaction varies slightly between species, and also between populations and individuals. ...
... tically from a 12-m sailing vessel, operated under power at speeds of 1-4 knots. The biopsy dart had a 2.5-cm-long, 0.6-cm-diameter cylindrical punch fi tted with a dental broach (a barbed fi lament to hold a sample in place) (as illustrated in Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996), attached to the end of a standard crossbow bolt (total weight 28.5 g). A cylindrical stopper, set 2.5 cm back from the tip of the punch, caused the bolt to rebound after impact with the whale. ...
... The response rate of northern bottlenose whales to biopsy hits (89%) was greater than that found for baleen whales (right whales, Eubalaena glacialis, 19%;Brown et al., 1991;humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, 50%, Weinrich et al., 1991), but was similar to that recorded for other odontocetes. A 100% response rate was found for sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) (Whitehead et al., 1990) and for bottlenose dolphins (Weller et al., 1997), and an 81% response rate was found for killer whales (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). Reactions of bottlenose dolphins consisted of an observable short-term change in behavior (Weller et al., 1997). ...
The effects of invasive or intrusive research techniques need to be thoroughly documented in order to satisfy appropriate standards of animal care. How cetaceans react to either biopsy darting or tag attachment procedures has been studied for several species, and considerable interspecific variability in responses has been demonstrated; however, few studies have compared reactions to both techniques. In the family Ziphiidae (the beaked whales) nothing has been previously reported on responses to either technique. We examined and compared the reactions of northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus) to biopsy darting and tagging. Reactions to both these procedures were generally low-level and short-lived; stronger responses were given to hits than to misses. There was no statistical difference in observed response to tag versus biopsy hits. The prior behavioral state of the whales appeared to influence the magnitude of reaction to both hits and misses and thus may be an important factor to consider in such impact assessment. Whales lying still at the surface showed stronger reactions than traveling or milling animals. Sea state appeared to affect whether there was a reaction to misses. Whales were more likely to respond to a miss in calm sea conditions. No avoidance of the research vessel was observed following a tag or biopsy attempt, and in most cases whales approached the research vessel again within several minutes.
... tructive tissue sampling has been increasingly used to support the conservation and management of cetaceans. Biopsy sampling has permitted remote collection of small cores of skin and blubber to address questions on population size and structure, toxicological burdens, and feeding ecology for both large (e.g., Brown et a[. 1991, Palsbdl et a/. 1991, Barrett-Lennard et a[. 1996) and small (e.g., Weller et a[. 1997, Fossi et a/. 2000 cetaceans (see Bearzi 2000 for review). Concern about the possible disturbance and physical impact caused by biopsy sampling has led to the development of less-invasive methods of tissue sampling (e.g., Harlin et a/. 1999, Parsons et a[. 1999). However, the relative success of thes ...
... Tissue sampling was conducted from June to October, 1998October, -2000, in the NE Bahamas. Our objective was to obtain tissue samples for use in molecular analyses from known individuals using both remote biopsy sampling and collection of dolphin feces. Skin and blubber biopsy samples were obtained using the pneumatic darting system described in Barrett-Lennard et a[. (1996). This system uses a variable-power dart projector (Pneudart Inc., Model 196) to deploy a lightweight, hollow aluminum dart body terminating with a nylon "stopper" and a stainless steel biopsy tip. Darts were modified for use on subtropical bottlenose dolphins by decreasing the tip length to limit the depth of penetration to 17 mm (based ...
... Corresponding to the decrease in tip length, the length of the aluminum dart body was shortened from 138 mm to 104 mm, thereby decreasing the overall mass of the dart by 1.22 g and minimizing the striking energy (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996), while providing sufficient volume to ensure floatation. ...
... Since the early 1990s, dart biopsying has become one of the most common collection methods for obtaining biological tissue samples from free-ranging cetaceans (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Noren and Mocklin, 2012). These samples have traditionally provided information about diet (lipid composition and stable isotopes), pollutant exposure, and genetics (Noren and Mocklin, 2012). ...
... Dart biopsy samples are predominantly collected using either a crossbow or a pneumatic rifle with modified dart tips (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). The tips are usually hollow, thin-walled, surgical grade stainless-steel cylinders, ~4-6 mm in diameter and 20-40 mm in length, each with a cutting lead edge and small internal barbs to retract the sample ( Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Larsen, 1998). ...
... Dart biopsy samples are predominantly collected using either a crossbow or a pneumatic rifle with modified dart tips (Lambertsen, 1987;Mathews et al., 1988;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). The tips are usually hollow, thin-walled, surgical grade stainless-steel cylinders, ~4-6 mm in diameter and 20-40 mm in length, each with a cutting lead edge and small internal barbs to retract the sample ( Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Larsen, 1998). The core sample collected from the dart is usually 4-6 mm in diameter with varying lengths, usually between 5 and 30 mm (Fig. 3). ...
Large whales are subjected to a variety of conservation pressures that could be better monitored and managed if physiological information could be gathered readily from free-swimming whales. However, traditional approaches to studying physiology have been impractical for large whales, because there is no routine method for capture of the largest species and there is presently no practical method of obtaining blood samples from free-swimming whales. We review the currently available techniques for gathering physiological information on large whales using a variety of non-lethal and minimally invasive (or non-invasive) sample matrices. We focus on methods that should produce information relevant to conservation physiology, e.g. measures relevant to stress physiology, reproductive status, nutritional status, immune response, health, and disease. The following four types of samples are discussed: faecal samples, respiratory samples (‘blow’), skin/blubber samples, and photographs. Faecal samples have historically been used for diet analysis but increasingly are also used for hormonal analyses, as well as for assessment of exposure to toxins, pollutants, and parasites. Blow samples contain many hormones as well as respiratory microbes, a diverse array of metabolites, and a variety of immune-related substances. Biopsy dart samples are widely used for genetic, contaminant, and fatty-acid analyses and are now being used for endocrine studies along with proteomic and transcriptomic approaches. Photographic analyses have benefited from recently developed quantitative techniques allowing assessment of skin condition, ectoparasite load, and nutritional status, along with wounds and scars from ship strikes and fishing gear entanglement. Field application of these techniques has the potential to improve our understanding of the physiology of large whales greatly, better enabling assessment of the relative impacts of many anthropogenic and ecological pressures.
... Mothers with calves under 2 years of age and animals with apparently compromised health conditions (e.g., deformities, open lesions, signs of disease) were not sampled. The field methodology was adapted from the standard methodology used in similar studies throughout the world (see Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krützen et al., 2002;Fair et al., 2003;Parsons et al., 2003;Jefferson and Hung, 2008;Kiszka et al., 2010;Tezanos-Pinto and Baker, 2012;Fruet et al., 2017). Dart biopsy sampling is a well-established field method routinely used with free-ranging cetaceans (Whitehead et al., 1990;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Weller et al., 1997;Fair et al., 2003;Jefferson and Hung, 2008;Fruet et al., 2017). ...
... The field methodology was adapted from the standard methodology used in similar studies throughout the world (see Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krützen et al., 2002;Fair et al., 2003;Parsons et al., 2003;Jefferson and Hung, 2008;Kiszka et al., 2010;Tezanos-Pinto and Baker, 2012;Fruet et al., 2017). Dart biopsy sampling is a well-established field method routinely used with free-ranging cetaceans (Whitehead et al., 1990;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Weller et al., 1997;Fair et al., 2003;Jefferson and Hung, 2008;Fruet et al., 2017). Dart biopsy procedures employed in this study were designed to minimize discomfort and risk to the animals of the small population inhabiting the mangrove estuarine ecosystem of the REVISEM. ...
The bottlenose dolphin is one of the most common cetaceans found in the coastal waters, estuaries, and mangroves of Ecuador. However, its population size is gradually declining in the Gulf of Guayaquil, and anthropogenic factors including habitat degradation, uncontrolled dolphin watching, dredging activities, increasing maritime traffic, underwater noise, bycatch, and marine pollution have been implicated in their decline. Very little is known about contamination by persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and mercury in bottlenose dolphins from the Pacific coast of South America. To address this research gap, the first assessment of total mercury (THg) and POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), in free-ranging bottlenose dolphins in mangroves (El Morro Mangrove Wildlife Refuge) of the Gulf of Guayaquil, was conducted in Ecuador in 2018. Dolphin samples (i.e., skin and blubber; n = 9), were obtained using dart biopsy field methods for contaminant analysis. POP concentrations ranged from 0.56 to 13.0 mg/kg in lipid weight, while THg ranged from 1.92 to 3.63 mg/kg in dry weight. The predominant POPs were OCPs (50% of ΣPOP), followed by PCBs (46%) and PBDEs (6.0%); particularly, p,p′-DDE, the main DDT metabolite and a potent anti-androgenic, accounting for 42% of ΣPOP, ranging from 0.12 to ∼7.0 mg/kg lw, followed by PCB 153 (8.0%) and PCB 180 (5.0%). PBDE 47 accounted for 2.0% of ΣPOP. While the POP concentrations are lower than those found in dolphins from many other regions of the world, some of the THg concentrations are within the concentration range found in dolphins from the southeastern coast of the United States. The ecotoxicological risk assessment showed that some of the sampled dolphins are exposed to immunotoxic and endocrine disruption effects by POPs and mercury. The low genetic diversity of this distinctive dolphin population, likely exhibiting genetic isolation and a unique evolutionary heritage, could be lost if the population continues to decline in the face of anthropogenic threats, including chemical pollution. Our finding shows that bottlenose dolphins in coastal Ecuador are exposed to environmental contaminants and can be used as sentinel species for ecosystem health to monitor pollution in the region and to support ecotoxicological risk assessment and regional pollutant management.
... Over the past several decades, skin biopsy sampling under permission has become an important and widely-used technique for studying cetaceans in the wild (Hunt et al., 2013). Early concerns about the possible disturbance and physical impact of skin biopsy sampling have widely been allayed by subsequent studies, and further largely been alleviated/avoided with the use of less-destructive systems and appropriate sampling protocols (e.g., Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krützen et al., 2002;Noren and Mocklin, 2012;Fruet et al., 2017). Therefore, epidermis assay as a low-impact surrogate approach is especially useful for the monitoring and assessment of contaminants in wild and healthy mammal populations, and has obtained attention in recent studies in cetaceans (Aubail et al., 2013;Borrell et al., 2015;C aceres-Saez et al., 2015). ...
... Early concerns about the possible disturbance and physical impact of skin biopsy sampling have widely been allayed by subsequent studies, and further largely been alleviated/avoided with the use of less-destructive systems and appropriate sampling protocols (e.g., Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krützen et al., 2002;Noren and Mocklin, 2012;Fruet et al., 2017). Therefore, epidermis assay as a low-impact surrogate approach is especially useful for the monitoring and assessment of contaminants in wild and healthy mammal populations, and has obtained attention in recent studies in cetaceans (Aubail et al., 2013;Borrell et al., 2015;C aceres-Saez et al., 2015). ...
... Prior studies on centrifugal accelerators included modulating the velocity and thickness of ferrofluid dispositions in additive manufacturing [8], shot peening and shot blasting in metalworking [1], collision analysis [3], and impact analysis of agricultural products [2,5]. Medical veterinary applications of centrifugal accelerators involve ensuring the proper injection of medicines into animals from a safe distance [9]. Firearms and air guns suffer from intrinsic limitations in the consistent delivery of kinetic energy into projectiles, and electromagnetic accelerators offer a more consistent solution. ...
Shot peening is a metallurgical technique that improves resistance to wear and fatigue. Many types of peening use techniques involving ultrasound, plasma, and lasers, while shot peening uses kinetic impacts from ball bearings and pellets. The large size and power requirements of peening machines preclude their use outside of industrial facilities or specialized laboratories. Centrifugal launchers are efficient electromechanical launch systems but largely theoretical and limited in practical applications. A compact, portable centrifugal launcher can make the metallurgical techniques currently constrained by bulky equipment more affordable and accessible. This paper evaluates the interactions of atmospheric drag and limited power supplies on kinetic energy. A portable prototype, consisting of a 20 W motor driving a flywheel launcher, was tested with ball bearings, delivering a consistent kinetic energy of 60.0 ± 1.2 J at 1 m. Despite a low efficiency of 3.044%, the prototype launcher met the performance requirements and demonstrated the practicality of flywheel-based centrifugal accelerators for shot peening and other applications.
... Ultimately, UAS sampling of respiratory blow presents a promising approach that can be adapted to other species and systems, perhaps particularly to those species that show heightened behavioural responses to biopsy sampling (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Best et al., 2005;Gauthier & Sears, 2006;Hooker et al., 2001). Highly depleted cetacean species of IUCN Endangered ranking, such as the blue whale (Cooke, 2018), could benefit from a more streamlined data collection protocol. ...
In coastal British Columbia, Canada, marine megafauna such as humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) and fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus velifera) have been subject to a history of exploitation and near extirpation. While their populations have been in recovery, significant threats are posed to these vulnerable species by proposed natural resource ventures in this region, in addition to the compounding effects of anthropogenic climate change. Genetic tools play a vital role in informing conservation efforts, but the associated collection of tissue biopsy samples can be challenging for the investigators and disruptive to the ongoing behaviour of the targeted whales. Here, we evaluate a minimally intrusive approach based on collecting exhaled breath condensate, or respiratory 'blow' samples, from baleen whales using an unoccupied aerial system (UAS), within Gitga'at First Nation territory for conservation genetics. Minimal behavioural responses to the sampling technique were observed, with no response detected 87% of the time (of 112 UAS deployments). DNA from whale blow (n = 88 samples) was extracted, and DNA profiles consisting of 10 nuclear microsatellite loci, sex identification and mitochondrial (mt) DNA haplotypes were constructed. An average of 7.5 microsatellite loci per individual were successfully genotyped. The success rates for mtDNA and sex assignment were 80% and 89% respectively. Thus, this minimally intrusive sampling method can be used to describe genetic diversity and generate genetic profiles for individual identification. The results of this research demonstrate the potential of UAS-collected whale blow for conservation genetics from a remote location.
... The collection of multiple tissues increases the potential number of analyses that can be performed, such as genetics on the epidermis (possibly including dermis) (Dalebout et al., 1998), endocrinology, and toxicology on blubber (Mansour et al., 2002;Trana et al., 2015Trana et al., , 2016Yordy, Mollenhauer et al., 2010, and consequently expands the range of information that can be obtained from an individual. Biopsy samples from free-ranging cetaceans have been obtained using crossbows (Lambertsen, 1987;Weinrich et al., 1992) or rifles (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996) with a biopsy tip. However, these approaches use devices with high dart velocities, which may be fatal to smaller cetaceans, and apply primarily to a limited number of species (Krützen et al., 2002). ...
Biopsy has recently become a preferred protocol for sampling the skin and blubber of many cetacean species, although it is desirable to collect as minimally invasive as possible. Here, the effect of biopsy sampling on the captive common bottlenose dolphins was evaluated by analyzing the process of wound healing and changes in hematological and blood biochemical parameters after biopsy using a puncher developed to collect up to the inner layer of the dolphin blubber. Results showed that the wounds caused by biopsy were closed in as early as 1 day and completely covered with the epidermis within 5–11 days. Blood fibrinogen, which generally increases due to a wound‐induced inflammatory response or activation of the coagulation system, was significantly elevated after the biopsy indicating ongoing tissue repair, while other parameters did not exhibit significant differences. Furthermore, histological observation and RNA extraction of samples were performed to investigate the versatility of this method to cetacean research. Histological examination revealed three distinct layers of the blubber in the biopsy samples. Moreover, total RNA extracted from biopsy samples exhibited sufficient quality and quantity for gene expression analyses. Overall, the puncher utilized in our study represents a valuable and minimally invasive tool for investigating various aspects of small cetacean studies.
... Wound healing usually progresses well after sampling, with no evidence of infection at the biopsy site (Krützen et al. 2002). Furthermore, there are no known long-term behavioral consequences of collecting biopsies, as individuals resume their activities often within minutes after having been sampled (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996;Krützen et al. 2002). Alternative, less invasive sampling methods have been proposed for cetaceans such as DNA sampling from blow (Frère et al. 2010c), skin swabs (Harlin et al. 1999), or feces (Parsons et al. 2003a). ...
The primary purpose of sex is reproduction. However, because not all mating events result in fertilization and only a small number of species provide biparental care to their young, successfully reproducing individuals can rarely be identified from behavioral observations alone. Genetic tools permit reliable identification of an individual’s parents and thus of successfully reproducing individuals, because each parent passes on half of their genetic material to their offspring. In cetaceans, genetic tools are required to identify a female’s already weaned offspring and to detect successfully reproducing males due to the absence of paternal care. To date, relatively few studies have investigated variables linked to reproductive success in this taxon, owed to the difficulty of sampling entire cetacean populations. We summarize currently known factors that are linked to successful reproduction in whales, porpoises, and dolphins, as well as in terrestrial mammals with comparable life histories that give birth to single young.
... Epidermal samples were collected from live killer whales using remote dart biopsy methods, and from dead stranded animals during routine post-mortem necropsy protocols (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Parsons et al., 2003). Sampled individuals included in the methylation analyses include identified individual whales from the Southern Resident, Alaska Resident and Transient killer whale populations. ...
Epigenetic approaches for estimating the age of living organisms are revolutionizing studies of long-lived species. Molecular biomarkers that allow age estimates from small tissue biopsies promise to enhance studies of long-lived whales; addressing a fundamental and challenging parameter in wildlife management. DNA methylation (DNAm) can affect gene expression, and strong correlations between DNAm patterns and age have been documented in humans and non-human vertebrates and used to construct "epigenetic clocks". We present several epigenetic clocks for skin samples from two of the longest lived cetaceans, killer whales and bowhead whales. Applying the mammalian methylation array to genomic DNA from skin samples we validate four different clocks with median errors of 2.3 - 3.7 years. These epigenetic clocks demonstrate the validity of using cytosine methylation data to estimate the age of long-lived cetaceans, and have broad applications supporting the conservation and management of long-lived cetaceans using genomic DNA from remote tissue biopsies.
... No sign of long term altered-behaviours was observed, including probability of recapture. Despite this, all biopsy sampling involves some level of risk (Bearzi, 2000), and different individuals from the same species may react differently to similar stressful situations depending on gender (Brown et al., 1991) or individual physiological and psychological factors (Barrett-Lennard et al, 1996;Gauthier & Sears, 1999). With regards to animal welfare, Paris et al. (2010) assessed the impact of different DNA sampling methods on individual welfare in frogs. ...
The use of DNA data is ubiquitous across animal sciences. DNA may be obtained from an organism for a myriad of reasons including identification and distinction between cryptic species, sex identification, comparisons of different morphocryptic genotypes or assessments of relatedness between organisms prior to a behavioural study. DNA should be obtained while minimizing the impact on the fitness, behaviour or welfare of the subject being tested, as this can bias experimental results and cause long-lasting effects on wild animals. Furthermore, minimizing impact on experimental animals is a key Refinement principle within the ‘3Rs’ framework which aims to ensure that animal welfare during experimentation is optimised. The term ‘non-invasive DNA sampling’ has been defined to indicate collection methods that do not require capture or cause disturbance to the animal, including any effects on behaviour or fitness. In practice this is not always the case, as the term ‘non-invasive’ is commonly used in the literature to describe studies where animals are restrained or subjected to aversive procedures. We reviewed the non-invasive DNA sampling literature for the past six years (380 papers published in 2013-2018) and uncovered the existence of a significant gap between the current use of this terminology (i.e. ‘non-invasive DNA sampling’) and its original definition. We show that 58% of the reviewed papers did not comply with the original definition. We discuss the main experimental and ethical issues surrounding the potential confusion or misuse of the phrase ‘non-invasive DNA sampling’ in the current literature and provide potential solutions. In addition, we introduce the terms ‘non-disruptive’ and ‘minimally disruptive’ DNA sampling, to indicate methods that eliminate or minimise impacts not on the physical integrity/structure of the animal, but on its behaviour, fitness and welfare, which in the literature reviewed corresponds to the situation for which an accurate term is clearly missing. Furthermore, we outline when these methods are appropriate to use.
... The dolphin in question was a 162 cm subadult with an unusually thin blubber layer (7 mm). This dolphin was sampled from a typical distance of 6 m with a dart calculated to carry significantly less energy than that used in this study [27,36], however the dart did not rebound and was found to penetrate deeply into the dorsal musculature, causing suspected vertebral trauma [35]. No darts were found to impact the ends of the transverse processes of the spinal vertebrae in this study, though this may be a possible scenario for bottlenose dolphins due to the limited tissue depth covering the transverse processes, and the proximity of some dart impacts (~1 cm). ...
To explore the potential macroscopic tissue effects of select remote biopsy tools to common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), carcasses were darted and their traumatic effects on the anatomy in target and non-target areas of the body were described. In total, 87 samples were collected (target area, n = 19; non-target area, n = 68) within standardized grid partitions from five carcasses of sub-adult to adult age classes with a range of body condition scores. We broadly classified impacts penetrating completely through the blubber into muscle or deeper internal tissues as over-penetrations (n = 51/87, 59%). For samples collected in the defined target area, there was a low number of over-penetrations (n = 5/51; 10%). However, for samples collected in the defined, non-target areas, a much higher number of over-penetrations occurred (n = 45/51 88%). A visual examination of some samples indicated that sample length and appearance may not be reliable guides to assess the penetration depth of the wounds. These preliminary results suggest samples collected in non-targeted areas could pose much higher risk to the individual. We encourage other researchers considering the use of remote biopsy tools to conduct similar assessments prior to field sampling to better understand the potential consequences of misplaced samples with a view towards continually improving remote biopsy tools and techniques for the benefit of cetacean welfare.
... DNA samples for this study are part of a long-term tissue collection not collected explicitly for this study. Skin samples used were collected from free-swimming whales for previous work using a pneumatic dart system 46 , except for one sample that was collected from a freshly deceased carcass. During biopsy sampling, biopsy darts collect a small piece of skin from the dorsal surface of the animal, near its dorsal fin. ...
The cumulative effects of non-lethal stressors on the health of biodiversity are a primary concern for conservation, yet difficulties remain regarding their quantification. In mammals, many stressors are processed through a common stress-response pathway, and therefore epigenetic changes in genes of this pathway may provide a powerful tool for quantifying cumulative effects. As a preliminary assessment of this approach, we investigated epigenetic manifestations of stress in two killer whale populations with different levels of exposure to anthropogenic stressors. We used bisulfite amplicon sequencing to compare patterns of DNA methylation at 25 CpG sites found in three genes involved in stress response and identified large differences in the level of methylation at two sites consistent with differential stress exposure between Northern and Southern Resident killer whale populations. DNA methylation patterns could therefore represent a useful method to assess the cumulative effects of non-lethal stressors in wildlife.
... Estas diferencias en la ecología trófica tienen importancia en el Rosero, P. 2011. Competencia entre orcas y pescadores de la piedra por el atún rojo en el Estecho de Gibraltar 7 modo de organización social y en el comportamiento de estos cetáceos (Bigg, 1985;Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996; Baird y Dill 1996; Baird y Whitehead, en prensa). ...
Desde el 9 de julio al 31 de agosto, se realizó un estudio encaminado a determinar la competencia entre orcas y pescadores por el atún rojo. Se dedicó 220,40 horas en la toma de datos. Se capturó un total de 103 atunes rojos, de 19.054,4 kg en total, cotizados en 221.397,60 euros; de los cuales, la frecuencia de talla más capturada abarca a los especímenes de entre 220 a 230 cm de longitud total. Por otro lado, se capturaron con más frecuencia individuos de 150 y 190 kg de peso.
El grupo de orcas que interactúa directamente con los pescadores de la piedra está compuesto por 8 individuos. De la captura total realizada por la flota de pescadores de la piedra, se contabilizaron un total de 22 atunes mordidos por las orcas, de los cuales 10 fueron observados directamente en altamar. De estos ataques, 6 fueron directos al atún y 4 a las líneas de pesca donde sólo dejaban la cabeza del pez enganchando al anzuelo. Seis interacciones fueron registradas a partir de encuestas a pescadores y 6 atunes mordidos llegaron a la lonja pesquera de Tarifa, los cuales fueron vendidos en 6.575 euros. Por lo cual, las orcas solo consumen el 12,7 % de la captura total de la pesquería, lo que no supone una competencia por el recurso.
Entre los pescadores, la preocupación por el impacto de las orcas sobre el recurso es mínima, ya que únicamente el 2,6% de los mismos están en contra de su presencia, abogando por su eliminación, mientras que el 97,40 % se encuentran familiarizados con su presencia y son conscientes del escaso impacto. Por lo contrario, la totalidad de los pescadores se muestran preocupados por la competencia desleal ejercida por pescadores marroquíes, que no tienen limitación de captura ni controles de tallas mínimas.
Palabras Claves: Competencia, orcas, pescadores de la piedra, atún rojo, Thunnus thynnus.
... Skin biopsies from free-ranging killer whales were collected using projected biopsy darts 63 , concurrent with the collection of photographic, photogrammetry and behavioural data, allowing sampled individuals to be binned to ecotype/morphotype a priori to genetic analyses. Most samples were selected from separate collection dates and identified groups (when known) to minimize chances of collecting close relatives or replicate individuals. ...
The interaction between ecology, culture and genome evolution remains poorly understood. Analysing population genomic data from killer whale ecotypes, which we estimate have globally radiated within less than 250,000 years, we show that genetic structuring including the segregation of potentially functional alleles is associated with socially inherited ecological niche. Reconstruction of ancestral demographic history revealed bottlenecks during founder events, likely promoting ecological divergence and genetic drift resulting in a wide range of genome-wide differentiation between pairs of allopatric and sympatric ecotypes. Functional enrichment analyses provided evidence for regional genomic divergence associated with habitat, dietary preferences and postzygotic reproductive isolation. Our findings are consistent with expansion of small founder groups into novel niches by an initial plastic behavioural response, perpetuated by social learning imposing an altered natural selection regime. The study constitutes an important step toward an understanding of the complex interaction between demographic history, culture, ecological adaptation and evolution at the genomic level.
... DNA was extracted from epidermal biopsies collected by firing a lightweight dart with a sterilised stainless-steel cutting tip from a sterilised projector (e.g. Palsbøll et al., 1991;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996) at the flank of the killer whale. As a study on captive killer whales found low variability in the taxonomic composition of the skin microbiome from different body sites (Chiarello et al. 2017), small variation in the exact location on the flank from which the biopsy was taken should not bias our results. ...
Recent exploration into the interactions and relationship between hosts and their microbiota has revealed a connection between many aspects of the host’s biology, health and associated microorganisms. Whereas amplicon sequencing has traditionally been used to characterise the microbiome, the increasing number of published population genomics datasets offer an underexploited opportunity to study microbial profiles from the host shotgun sequencing data. Here, we use sequence data originally generated from killer whale Orcinus orca skin biopsies for population genomics, to characterise the skin microbiome and investigate how host social and geographic factors influence the microbial community composition. Having identified 845 microbial taxa from 2.4 million reads that did not map to the killer whale reference genome, we found that both ecotypic and geographic factors influence community composition of killer whale skin microbiomes. Furthermore, we uncovered key taxa that drive the microbiome community composition and showed that they are embedded in unique networks, one of which is tentatively linked to diatom presence and poor skin condition. Community composition differed between Antarctic killer whales with and without diatom coverage, suggesting that the previously reported episodic migrations of Antarctic killer whales to warmer waters associated with skin turnover may control the effects of potentially pathogenic bacteria such as Tenacibaculum dicentrarchi . Our work demonstrates the feasibility of microbiome studies from host shotgun sequencing data and highlights the importance of metagenomics in understanding the relationship between host and microbial ecology.
... Specifically, we used all the NEP skin samples (n = 29) analyzed for stable isotopes by Busquets et al. (2017) and collected skin biopsies from the CRD (n = 16) and ETP (n = 22). Skin biopsies were collected via dart sampling methods (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996) and sloughed skin was collected from the sea surface with a net near the footprint of the whales (Gendron and Mesnick, 2001), or from suction cups of tagged whales. Skin samples were stored frozen at −80 • C or in a 20 salt saturated solution of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which does not affect stable isotope values of blue whale and cetacean skin if samples are lipid-extracted before stable isotope analysis (Busquets-Vass et al., 2017;Newsome et al., 2018). ...
Migratory marine megafauna generally move vast distances between productive foraging grounds and environmentally stable breeding grounds, but characterizing how they use these habitats to maintain homeostasis and reproduce is difficult. We used isotope analysis of blue whale skin strata (n = 621) and potential prey (n = 300) to examine their migratory and foraging strategies in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Our results suggest that most whales in the northeast Pacific use a mixed income and capital breeding strategy, and use the California Current Ecosystem as their primary summer-fall foraging ground. A subset of individuals exhibited migratory plasticity and spend most of the year in the Gulf of California or Costa Rica Dome, two regions believed to be their primary winter-spring breeding grounds. Isotope data also revealed that whales in the southern Eastern Tropical Pacific generally do not forage in the northeast Pacific, which suggests a north-south population structure with a boundary near the equator
... From 1994 through 2002, biopsy samples were collected from 98 free-ranging North Pacific killer whales. Remote biopsy sampling techniques were similar to those described in Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) and Ylitalo et al. (2001). A small core containing skin and blubber (approximately 2.0 to 3.0 cm in length and 0.5 cm in diameter) was obtained from each animal and the blubber portion of the biopsy sample was stored at −20°C until chemical analysis. ...
Organochlorine (OC) profiles have been used as chemical “fingerprints” to infer an animal's foraging area. North Pacific killer whale (Orcinus orca) populations are exposed to different levels and patterns of OCs based on their prey, distribution, and amount of time spent in a particular area. To characterize concentrations and profiles of OCs found in various populations of North Pacific killer whales, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), including dioxin-like congeners, DDTs, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), were measured in biopsy blubber samples of photo-identified resident (fish-eating) and transient (mammal-eating) killer whales collected from 1994 through 2002 from Russian Far East waters to the waters of the west coast of the United States, representing 10 populations. We compared blubber OC concentrations based on ecotype (resident vs. transient), sex and reproductive maturity, and geographic area and over OC mixtures were examined to determine if we could detect segregated geographical areas (foraging areas) among the six populations with sufficient sample sizes. Transients had significantly higher OC concentrations than residents and adult male whales had consistently higher OC levels compared to adult females, regardless of ecotype. Our OC profile findings indicate segregated foraging areas for the North Pacific killer whales, consistent with observations of their geographic distributions. Several potential health risks have also been associated with exposure to high levels of contaminants in top-level predators including reproductive impairment, immune suppression, skeletal deformities, and carcinoma. The results of this baseline study provide information on the geographic distribution of OCs found in North Pacific killer whales, results which are crucial for assessing the potential health risks associated with OC exposure in this species.
... Andrews et al. 2006Andrews et al. , 2010. This field protocol assured quality genetic samples with generally a minimal negative impact on the animals involved (IWC 1991;Aguilar & Borrell 1994;Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Total genomic DNA was extracted using a non-hazardous and economical salt extraction protocol (Aljanabi & Martinez 1997). ...
... Cost-effective, efficient, less-invasive alternative methods for obtaining accurate age estimates for large numbers of animals, without the need for capture, would be very useful. Biopsy dart sampling is a well-established technique for obtaining small tissue samples from cetaceans (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996;Krutzen et al., 2002), and efforts have been made to use such samples for age estimation. Initial work has included the analysis of chromosomal telomere length and lipid accumulation in skin samples of cetaceans (Herman et al., 2009;Olsen et al., 2012). ...
Age constitutes a critical parameter for the study of animal populations, providing information about development, environmental effects, survival, and reproduction. Unfortunately, age estimation is not only challenging in large, mobile and legally protected species, but often involves invasive sampling methods. The present work investigates the association between epigenetic modifications and chronological age in small cetaceans. For that purpose, DNA methylation at age-linked genes was characterized in an extensively studied, long-term resident common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) community from Sarasota Bay (FL, United States) for which sampled individuals have a known age. Results led to the identification of several CpG sites that are significantly correlated to chronological age in this species with the potential for sex to play a role in the modulation of this correlation. These findings have allowed for the development and validation of the “Bottlenose dolphin Epigenetic Age estimation Tool” (BEAT), improving minimally-invasive age estimation in free-ranging small cetaceans. Overall, the BEAT proved to be accurate in estimating age in these organisms. Given its minimally-invasive nature and potential large-scale implementation using skin biopsy samples, this tool can be used to generate age data from free-ranging small cetacean populations.
... Skin samples from 399 Heaviside's dolphins were collected at seven sites along the west coast of South Africa and Namibia: Table Bay ( with a stopper and a small stainless steel biopsy tip, which assures quality genetic samples with generally a minimal negative impact on the animals involved (IWC 1991, Aguilar & Borrell 1994, Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996, Krützen et al. 2002. ...
... Andrews et al. 2006Andrews et al. , 2010. This field protocol assured quality genetic samples with generally a minimal negative impact on the animals involved (IWC 1991;Aguilar & Borrell 1994;Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Total genomic DNA was extracted using a non-hazardous and economical salt extraction protocol (Aljanabi & Martinez 1997). ...
... The behaviour of cetaceans was noted when apparent and effort was taken to visually identify individual minke whales based on their unique natural markings portrayed in Towers (2011). Effort to biopsy these known whales using the technique outlined in Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) was also undertaken in Cormorant Channel in the summers of 2013 and 2014. Figure 1. ...
The minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) is a small species of baleen whale with a cosmopolitan distribution. Despite extensive study on the vocalizations of other balaenopterids, the acoustic repertoire of minke whales is not well known. Individuals of the North Pacific subspecies (B. acutorostrata scammoni) produce unique vocalizations (‘boings’) during their putative breeding season from fall to spring. However, no vocalizations have been previously reported for this subspecies in any eastern North Pacific feeding ground. We present two call types recorded in the presence of six minke whales, two of which were confirmed as female, in Cormorant Channel, British Columbia, Canada, during the summer of 2012. The calls consist of downsweeps and pulse chains. These call types share some characteristics with calls described elsewhere, although they are not identical to similar call types observed for other populations. Calling rates for minke whales in this study region are very low compared to those reported for this subspecies on its putative breeding grounds, as well as for other subspecies on their feeding grounds. We propose predation risk, sexual segregation and acoustic masking as potential causes of the low calling rates observed for minke whales in Cormorant Channel.
... The behaviour of cetaceans was noted when apparent and effort was taken to visually identify individual minke whales based on their unique natural markings portrayed in Towers (2011). Effort to biopsy these known whales using the technique outlined in Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) was also undertaken in Cormorant Channel in the summers of 2013 and 2014. Figure 1. ...
The minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) is the smallest species of baleen whale and has a cosmopolitan distribution. Despite extensive study on the vocalizations of other balaenopterids, the acoustic repertoire of minke whales is not well known. Individuals of the North Pacific subspecies of common minke whale (B. a. scammoni) are known to produce unique vocalizations ("boings") during their putative breeding season from fall to spring. However, no vocalizations have been previously reported for this subspecies in summer feeding grounds. We present four novel call types recorded in the presence of minke whales in Cormorant Channel, in coastal British Columbia, Canada, during the summer of 2012. These calls consist of broadband pulses, tonal wavers, downsweeps, and pulse trains. Calling rates for minke whales in this study region were very low compared to those reported for North Atlantic minke whales on their feeding grounds. We compare our candidate call types with vocalizations described for other minke whale populations and propose predation risk as a cause of the low calling rates observed for minke whales in Cormorant Channel.
... DNA was extracted from epidermal biopsies collected by firing a lightweight dart with a sterilised stainless-steel cutting tip from a sterilised projector (e.g. Palsbøll et al., 1991;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996) at the flank of the killer whale. As a study on captive killer whales found low variability in the taxonomic composition of the skin microbiome from different body sites (Chiarello et al. 2017), small variation in the exact location on the flank from which the biopsy was taken should not bias our results. ...
Recent exploration into the interactions and relationship between hosts and their microbiota has revealed a connection between many aspects of the host's biology, health and associated microorganisms. Whereas amplicon sequencing has traditionally been used to characterise the microbiome, the increasing number of published population genomics datasets offer an underexploited opportunity to study microbial profiles from the host shotgun sequencing data. Here, we use sequence data originally generated from killer whale Orcinus orca skin biopsies for population genomics, to characterise the skin microbiome and investigate how host social and geographic factors influence the microbial community composition. Having identified 845 microbial taxa from 2.4 million reads that did not map to the killer whale reference genome, we found that both ecotypic and geographic factors influence community composition of killer whale skin microbiomes. Furthermore, we uncovered key taxa that drive the microbiome community composition and showed that they are embedded in unique networks, one of which is tentatively linked to diatom presence and poor skin condition. Community composition differed between Antarctic killer whales with and without diatom coverage, suggesting that the previously reported episodic migrations of Antarctic killer whales to warmer waters associated with skin turnover may control the effects of potentially pathogenic bacteria such as Tenacibaculum dicentrarchi. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of microbiome studies from host shotgun sequencing data and highlights the importance of metagenomics in understanding the relationship between host and microbial ecology.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... The technique of remote biopsy sampling of cetaceans was initially developed in the 1970s ( Winn et al. 1973) and continued to evolve into the 1990s (Barrett- Lennard et al. 1996). Genetic data obtained from biopsy samples remotely collected can be used towards determining the levels of relatedness within and among populations as well as the toxin loads and diets of those populations (Barrett-Lennard 2000;Ross et al. 2000;Krahn et al. 2007) Additionally, genetic samples of live cetaceans can be used to determine their sex and reproductive status ( Winn et al. 1973). ...
Patagonian toothfish longliners operating around South Georgia regularly
experience high levels of depredation by killer and sperm whales. Between May 7 and
June 15 I spent 40 days aboard the fishing vessel, San Aspiring, conducting research
into this issue. In addition to undertaking effort to photo-identify every killer and sperm
whale encountered, I collected genetic samples from eight killer and six sperm whales
and applied a satellite tag to one individual of each species. Initial analyses of the
photo-identification data indicate that at least 58 unique individual killer whales from
three socially cohesive groups and at least 44 unique individual sperm whales were
involved in depredation. Several sperm whales and groups of killer whales were resighted
depredating in different locations up to 268 nautical miles apart. Genetic and tag
data have yet to be analyzed. However, in this report I provide a description of the issue
at hand, research methods used, preliminary results and recommendations for both
further studies and mitigation.
... It is well-known that stranded dolphins might originate from un-healthy individuals, which could not represent the natural status of the wild population. Contrary to the internal organs, epidermis tissues can be sampled using a biopsy darting, providing a high number of samples from free-ranging, healthy individuals in the wild populations (Lambertsen et al. 1994;Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Previous studies showed positive correlations of Hg concentrations between the epidermis and liver tissues in Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) (Yang et al. 2002), striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) (Monaci et al. 1998), and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) (Stavros et al. 2011). ...
Trace element accumulation in the epidermis of cetaceans has been less studied. This study explored the feasibility of using epidermis as a surrogate tissue to evaluate internal contaminant burdens in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis). Eleven trace elements were analyzed in the epidermis, muscle and liver tissues from 46 individuals of dolphins stranded along the Pearl River Estuary (PRE) coast between 2007 and 2013. Trace elemental concentrations varied among the three tissues, generally with the highest concentrations found in liver tissues and lowest in the epidermis (except Zn, As, and Pb). Zn concentration in the epidermis was the highest among all tissues, indicating that Zn could be an important element for the epidermis physiology. High concentrations of Hg and Cr in liver were likely due to an excessive intake by dolphins which consumed high Hg and Cr contaminated fishes in the PRE. Hg concentrations in epidermis and muscle tissues were significantly higher in the females than in males. Concentrations of V and Pb in liver, Se and Cd in both muscle and liver, and As and Hg in all tissue samples showed significantly positive relationships with body length. Hepatic Cu concentrations were significantly negatively correlated with the body length. Hg and As concentrations in epidermis showed significantly positive correlations with those in liver tissues. Thus this study proposed that epidermis could be used as a non-invasive monitoring tissue to evaluate Hg and As bioaccumulation in internal tissues of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins populations.
... Skin samples were collected during marine mammal surveys conducted by NOAA-SWFSC, CRC, and CICIMAR-IPN. Skin biopsies were collected via dart sampling methods [66], and sloughed skin was directly collected from the water with a net [67] or from suction cups of satellite-tagged whales. ...
Stable isotope analysis in mysticete skin and baleen plates has been repeatedly used to assess diet and movement patterns. Accurate interpretation of isotope data depends on understanding isotopic incorporation rates for metabolically active tissues and growth rates for metabolically inert tissues. The aim of this research was to estimate isotopic incorporation rates in blue whale skin and baleen growth rates by using natural gradients in baseline isotope values between oceanic regions. Nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and carbon (δ¹³C) isotope values of blue whale skin and potential prey were analyzed from three foraging zones (Gulf of California, California Current System, and Costa Rica Dome) in the northeast Pacific from 1996–2015. We also measured δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values along the lengths of baleen plates collected from six blue whales stranded in the 1980s and 2000s. Skin was separated into three strata: basale, externum, and sloughed skin. A mean (±SD) skin isotopic incorporation rate of 163±91 days was estimated by fitting a generalized additive model of the seasonal trend in δ¹⁵N values of skin strata collected in the Gulf of California and the California Current System. A mean (±SD) baleen growth rate of 15.5±2.2 cm y⁻¹ was estimated by using seasonal oscillations in δ¹⁵N values from three whales. These oscillations also showed that individual whales have a high fidelity to distinct foraging zones in the northeast Pacific across years. The absence of oscillations in δ¹⁵N values of baleen sub-samples from three male whales suggests these individuals remained within a specific zone for several years prior to death. δ¹³C values of both whale tissues (skin and baleen) and potential prey were not distinct among foraging zones. Our results highlight the importance of considering tissue isotopic incorporation and growth rates when studying migratory mysticetes and provide new insights into the individual movement strategies of blue whales.
... Specifically, the analysis of stable carbon (d 13 C) and nitrogen (d 15 N) isotopes is used as a means of exploring the diet composition, trophic position, and ecological niche of marine predators, including baleen whales (e.g., Witteveen et al. 2011b, Ryan et al. 2013, Gavrilchuk et al. 2014. Because whales can be biopsied remotely using relatively simple and noninvasive techniques (Lambertsen 1987, Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996, analyzing the stable isotope composition of whale skin is now a viable means of obtaining diet information from a large number of free-ranging cetaceans. ...
Fin and humpback whales are large consumers that are often sympatric, effectively sharing or partitioning their use of habitat and prey resources. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the skin of fin and humpback whales from two regions in the western Gulf of Alaska, Kodiak, and Shumagin Islands, were analyzed to test the hypothesis that these sympatric baleen whales exhibit trophic niche partitioning within these regions. Standard ellipse areas, estimated using Bayesian inference, suggested that niche partitioning between species is occurring in the Kodiak region but not in the Shumagin Islands. Isotopic mixing models based on stable isotopes from whales and local prey samples, were used to estimate possible diet solutions for whales in the Kodiak region. Comparison of isotopic niches and diet models support niche partitioning, with fin whales foraging primarily on zooplankton and humpback whales foraging on zooplankton and small forage fish. The results of this study show that niche partitioning between sympatric species can vary by region and may be the result of prey availability, prey preferences, or both.
... Samples of zooplankton prey and a scat sample were collected using a fine-mesh dip net deployed from a small skiff travelling in the whale's wake. A sample of skin and blubber was collected from this individual using a small biopsy dart deployed from a dart projector (see Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996) for details). ...
Background: The eastern North Pacific population of right whale (Eubalaena japonica) is considered to be one of the smallest whale populations in the world and is at serious risk of extirpation. During the past century, there have been only six records of North Pacific right whales off the west coast of Canada. All six were taken by whaling operations, the last in 1951. Results: Two independent and extremely rare sightings of North Pacific right whales were made off the coast of British Columbia, Canada, in 2013. We describe observations made of these two whales and include information on prey and genetic identity for one individual. Conclusions: These sightings represent the first time this species has been confirmed in Canadian waters in 62 years, and likely the only time in the last 15 years that the species has been sighted south of the Kodiak Island area, Alaska, in the eastern North Pacific Ocean. It can be concluded that, although extremely rare, the species has not been extirpated from waters off Canada's Pacific coast.
... Genetic, stable isotope, fatty acid, and pollutant studies can be carried out using samples from biopsied and stranded animals. Samples can be collected from free-ranging animals using a crossbow or a modified rifle that collect both skin and blubber samples (Figure 1.2a, Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996;Krützen et al. 2002). Several studies reported that the behavioral reactions of cetaceans were limited and only short-term, and no healing complications or infections were reported (e.g. ...
Les patrons de structuration des espèces animales à fine et à large échelles peuvent être façonnés par des facteurs environnementaux et des traits comportementaux individuels. Les objectifs de cette thèse combinant des approches sociales, génétiques, isotopiques et morphométriques sont de décrire et comprendre i) les structures sociale, écologique et génétique de la population de grands dauphins du golfe Normand-Breton (NB) et ii) la structure de population de l’espèce à l’échelle de l’Atlantique Nord-Est (ANE). Les grands dauphins du golfe NB forment une unique population génétique qui est composée de trois ensembles sociaux et écologiques distincts. Les associations entre individus semblent être influencées par l’écologie et non par les liens de parenté. La structure génétique du grand dauphin à l’échelle de l’ANE est hiérarchique, avec deux écotypes, l’un côtier et l’autre pélagique, qui sont chacun divisé en deux populations. Les populations côtières sont issues d’une population pélagique et auraient colonisé les habitats côtiers libérés lors de la dernière déglaciation, ce qui a permis la diversification de l’espèce. Cette structure semble maintenue par les spécialisations écologiques et le comportement social des individus. Par ailleurs, l’origine pélagique des grands dauphins du golfe NB pourrait expliquer certains de leurs traits sociaux. Pour conclure, les patrons de structuration à fine et à large échelles de ce prédateur supérieur semblent influencés par les comportements sociaux et écologiques, les conditions environnementales présentes et passées ainsi que par son histoire évolutive. L’absence de différences morphologiques marquées entre les deux écotypes pourrait s’expliquer par leur divergence relativement récente ou par un faible contraste entre les habitats pélagiques et côtiers dans l’ANE. Ce travail souligne l’intérêt de combiner de multiples approches à différentes échelles temporelles et spatiales pour comprendre la structure sociale et la structure de population d’espèces mobiles et cryptiques. Ces résultats ont également des implications majeures pour la conservation, en particulier pour la définition d’unités de gestion.
... Three distinct blubber layers were evident: outer, central, and inner. Three replicate microdart biopsies were fired into the sample according to methods described elsewhere (Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996). The depth of dart penetration was ca. ...
Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were examined as a function of depth in killer whale (Orcinus orca) blubber samples. Lipid-normalized concentrations of PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and PBDEs did not display significant variation with depth in three distinct blubber layers (outer, central, and inner). Significantly more variation in contaminant concentrations were observed with depth on a wet weight basis for the killer whale sample. The current study indicates that non-invasive microdart biopsy sampling methods commonly used for monitoring contaminants in marine mammals yield representative details on contaminant burdens for chlorinated and brominated aromatic compounds in marine mammal blubber, regardless of the quantity and type of blubber sampled, provided that lipid normalization is performed on resulting analytical determinations.
... Estas diferencias en la ecología trófica tienen importancia en el . Competencia entre orcas y pescadores de la piedra por el atún rojo en el Estecho de Gibraltar 7 modo de organización social y en el comportamiento de estos cetáceos (Bigg, 1985;Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996; Baird y Dill 1996; Baird y Whitehead, en prensa). ...
... Blood collection is limited to very unique situations in which individuals can be captured (i.e., shallow water embayments and near shore habitats); these capture operations are logistically challenging and very expensive for collections of relatively few samples. An alternative is skin sampling; skin biopsies are one of the most common biological samples collected from free-ranging cetaceans [12][13][14]. These samples have traditionally provided information about diet (lipid composition, stable isotopes), pollutant accumulation, and genetics [14]. ...
When paired with dart biopsying, quantifying cortisol in blubber tissue may provide an index of relative stress levels (i.e., activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis) in free-ranging cetacean populations while minimizing the effects of the act of sampling. To validate this approach, cortisol was extracted from blubber samples collected from beach-stranded and bycaught short-beaked common dolphins using a modified blubber steroid isolation technique and measured via commercially available enzyme immunoassays. The measurements exhibited appropriate quality characteristics when analyzed via a bootstraped stepwise parallelism analysis (observed/expected = 1.03, 95%CI: 99.6 - 1.08) and showed no evidence of matrix interference with increasing sample size across typical biopsy tissue masses (75-150mg; r2 = 0.012, p = 0.78, slope = 0.022ngcortisol deviation/ultissue extract added). The relationships between blubber cortisol and eight potential cofactors namely, 1) fatality type (e.g., stranded or bycaught), 2) specimen condition (state of decomposition), 3) total body length, 4) sex, 5) sexual maturity state, 6) pregnancy status, 7) lactation state, and 8) adrenal mass, were assessed using a Bayesian generalized linear model averaging technique. Fatality type was the only factor correlated with blubber cortisol, and the magnitude of the effect size was substantial: beach-stranded individuals had on average 6.1-fold higher cortisol levels than those of bycaught individuals. Because of the difference in conditions surrounding these two fatality types, we interpret this relationship as evidence that blubber cortisol is indicative of stress response. We found no evidence of seasonal variation or a relationship between cortisol and the remaining cofactors.
... Contrary to internal tissues, epidermis can be sampled using minimally-invasive techniques such as biopsy darting, which can provide a high number of samples from free-ranging, healthy individuals that are representative of the wild populations (Aguilar and Nadal 1984;Lambertsen et al., 1994;Barrett-Lennard et al., 1996,). Moreover, cutaneous organochlorines have been proven valid to predict concentrations of such contaminants in the blubber of striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) (Aguilar and Borrell, 1994) and, accordingly, epidermis biopsies have been proposed to monitor cetacean susceptibility to xenobiotic contaminants (Fossi et al., 2011). ...
Background
The blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus , is the largest animal known to have ever existed. Body size is tightly coupled to cell metabolism and environmental adaptations. A high-quality genome assembly of this magnificent animal will aid our understanding of body size regulation and related biological processes.
Results
We report a reference-quality, long read based assembly of the blue whale genome. We sequenced genomic DNA using PacBio long-read, Illumina short-read, and 10X Genomics synthetic long-read technologies. We also obtained long-range mapping information using Bionano optical mapping and Dovetail Hi-C. Additionally, we sequenced the transcriptome of blue whale fibroblasts using Illumina RNA-seq and PacBio Iso-seq technologies. We also measured genome size using a flow cytometry technique. We report on: (1) comparison of alternative long-read and short-read-based assemblies; (2) segmental duplications within the blue whale genome, which have resulted in dramatic amplifications of several genes; (3) sites in IGF1 gene correlated to body size in cetaceans; and (4) heterozygosity and historical demography of Pacific and Atlantic blue whale populations.
Conclusions
This is one of the first high-quality reference genomes of a cetacean and the first baleen whale sequenced using a long-read technology. A high quality, annotated blue whale genome will serve as an important resource for biology, evolution, and conservation research.
In the original article,Box 1 was not printed in its entirety, and two references were badly quoted in page 3 of the pdf and were missing in the reference list.
The short‐term response of humpback whales to boat approach and remote biopsy sampling was investigated in a breeding ground according to age‐class, sex, female reproductive status, social context, sampling system, habitat, and repeated sampling with more than 20 years of data. In a total of 2,248 observed behavioral responses to biopsy sampling, 58.7% showed no response, 40.7% were considered to be weak or moderate responses, and only 0.5% were considered to be strong. No significant difference was found between the response of calves (young‐of‐the‐year) and that of adults, whereas juveniles responded significantly more strenuously. The response of adult whales was influenced by sex, female reproductive status, and social context. Mothers showed the most frequent response to the boat approach, but the weakest response to the biopsy sampling itself, whereas nonlactating females had the strongest response to biopsy sampling. Males responded less when sampled within a competitive group. Repeated sampling of individual adults resulted in decreasing intensity of responses across years. This comprehensive assessment has implications for management authorities, notably in approving research permits for sampling different age classes on breeding grounds.
The ecological niche is dynamic, since the position and width of the niche can vary at different spatial and temporal scales. We examined the trophic ecology of southeast Pacific humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in the Magellan Strait feeding area in 2011, 2012 and 2017, analyzing changes in diet and the width of the isotopic niche in relation to ontogeny and seasonality. The isotopic composition of carbon (δ ¹³ C) and nitrogen (δ ¹⁵ N) in whale skin and in putative prey species was analyzed. Bayesian mixing models were used to determine the diet, and the isotopic niche was estimated using the standard ellipse area. Differences were found between the diets of juveniles and adults; Fuegian sprat Sprattus fuegensis was consumed mostly by adult individuals. We found no differences in the diet or in the isotopic niche of humpback whales throughout the feeding season in all years. This study suggests that the differences in diet between age classes are influenced by the ability to find and capture prey, whereas seasonality does not influence the niche width of humpback whales in the Magellan Strait. Our results suggested that fluctuations in the abundance of prey populations could influence in the trophic niche dynamics of humpback whales in the Magellan Strait. In particular, a reduction in the availability of Fuegian sprat would mainly affect adult individuals, leading to a dietary switch and/or to an expansion of their feeding area.
Knowledge of the distribution of cetacean species in an ecosystem is essential for species conservation efforts. As highly productive estuarine system, the St. Lawrence Estuary in Eastern Canada is a crucial summer feeding ground for large whales. To gain insight into potential ecological preferences of whales within this area and their foraging strategies, it is important to study their distribution and habitat use. Aim of this master thesis was to determine the spatial
distribution of cetaceans in the study area with respect to preferred depth zones. Habitat selection of six whale species (Mysticetes and Odontocetes) was investigated according to the occurrence of whales in maximum depth classes. For spatial analysis, GPS positions were analyzed via geographic information system software. The main focus of the study was on the highly abundant minke whale, with the aim to scientifically approach a conjecture made in earlier observations, according to which they characteristically occur close to shore. Therefor concrete habitat use was considered on an individual basis to examine variability in exploitation of the
environment. Individual GPS tracks were recorded and sightings were matched to a catalogue of previously identified individuals. In an attempt to preserve this species, minke whales were investigated according to absence or presence of behavioral reactions towards
attempted and successful biopsies. General results suggest a strong preference of five out of six whale species towards certain depth classes. Minke whales seem to show three categories of GPS tracks
- feeding, foraging and traveling – that are distinct to each other by several features. Large-scale site fidelity is demonstrated by the minke whale, which reoccurred to the same feeding ground. Four out of five minke whales responded towards biopsies, indicating moderate
reactions with some variation on an individual basis.
All in all, this thesis provides a broad overview on the distribution of cetaceans in the St. Lawrence Estuary and gives insight to the implied complex foraging- and migrating structures of the minke whale. It further points to potential sensitivity of individual minke whales towards changes in the environment, e.g. in the form of behavioral disturbance. It has been shown that techniques to study cetaceans on a basis of minimal impact can be profitable to both researcher and research object.
DNA data are becoming increasingly important in experimental biology. For example, it may be necessary to obtain DNA from an organism before using it in a bioassay or an experiment, to identify and distinguish between cryptic species, or when comparing different morphocryptic genotypes. Another example could be the assessment of relatedness between organisms prior to a behavioural study. In such cases, DNA must be obtained without affecting the fitness or behaviour of the subject being tested, as this could bias the results of the experiment. This points out the existence of a gap in the current molecular and experimental biology terminology, for which we propose the use of the term non-disruptive DNA sampling, specifically addressing behaviour and/or fitness, rather than simply physical integrity (invasiveness). We refer to these methods as “non-disruptive”, and discuss when they are appropriate to use.
DNA data are becoming increasingly important in experimental biology. For example, it may be necessary to obtain DNA from an organism before using it in a bioassay or an experiment, to identify and distinguish between cryptic species, or when comparing different morphocryptic genotypes. Another example could be the assessment of relatedness between organisms prior to a behavioural study. In such cases, DNA must be obtained without affecting the fitness or behaviour of the subject being tested, as this could bias the results of the experiment. This points out the existence of a gap in the current molecular and experimental biology terminology, for which we propose the use of the term non-disruptive DNA sampling, specifically addressing behaviour and/or fitness, rather than simply physical integrity (invasiveness). We refer to these methods as “non-disruptive”, and discuss when they are appropriate to use.
Baleen and sperm whales, belonging to the Order Cetartiodactyla, are the largest and heaviest existent mammals in the world, collectively known as large whales. Large whales have been subjected to a variety of conservation means, which could be better monitored and managed if physiological and pathophysiological information, such as pathogen infections, could already be gathered from free-swimming animals instead of carcasses. Parasitic diseases are increasingly recognized for their profound influences on individual, population, and even ecosystem health. Furthermore, a number of parasite species have gained importance as opportunistic neozoan infections in the marine environment. Nonetheless, traditional approaches to study parasitic diseases have been impractical for large whales, since there is no current routine method for the capture and handling of these large animals and there is presently no practical method to obtain blood samples remotely from free-ranging whales. Therefore, we here not only intend to review the endo- and ectoparasite fauna of large whales but also to provide new insights in current available methods for gathering parasitological data by using non- or minimally invasive sampling techniques. We focus on methods, which will allow detailed parasitological studies to gain a broader knowledge on parasitoses affecting wild, free-swimming large whale populations.
As apex predators, killer whales Orcinus orca are expected to strongly influence the structure of marine communities by impacting the abundance, distribution, behavior, and evolution of their prey. Empirical assessments of these impacts are difficult, however, because killer whales are sparsely distributed, highly mobile, and difficult to observe. We present a 4 yr time series of observations of foraging and feeding behavior of >150 transient killer whales that aggregate annually during the northbound migration of gray whales past Unimak Island, Alaska. Most predatory attacks were on gray whale Eschrichtius robustus calves or yearlings and were quickly abandoned if calves were aggressively defended by their mothers. Attacks were conducted by groups of 3 to 4 killer whales, which attempted to drown their prey. Gray whales generally tried to move into shallow water along the shoreline when attacked; if they succeeded in reaching depths of 3 m or less, attacks were abandoned. Kills occurred in waters from 15 to 75 m deep or were moved into such areas after death. After some hours of feeding, the carcasses were usually left, but were re-visited and fed on by killer whales over several days. Carcasses or pieces of prey that floated onshore were actively consumed by brown bears Ursus arctos, and carcasses on the bottom were fed on by sleeper sharks Somniosus pacificus, apparently increasing the local density of both species.
A community comprises individuals that share a common range and associate with one another; a pod is a group of individuals within a community that travels together the majority of the time; a subpod is a group of individuals that temporarily fragments from its pod to travel separately; an intra-pod group consists of a cohesive group of individuals within a subpod that always travels in close proximity. Communities contain 3-16 (mean 9.5) pods; pods contain 1-3 (mean 1.7) subpods, subpods contain 1-11 (mean 1.9) intra-pod groups and intra-pod groups contain 2-9 (mean 3.6) individuals. Genealogical trees indicate that intra-pod groups are matrilines. A matrilineal group typically comprises of 2-3 generations (range 1-4; mean 2.3) and a generalized matrilineal group consists of a grandmother, her adult son, her adult daughter and the offspring of her daughter. Matrilineal groups are the basic unit of social organization. -from Authors
Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. The JSTOR Archive is a trusted digital repository providing for long-term preservation and access to leading academic journals and scholarly literature from around the world. The Archive is supported by libraries, scholarly societies, publishers, and foundations. It is an initiative of JSTOR, a not-for-profit organization with a mission to help the scholarly community take advantage of advances in technology. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Logistic regression is appropriate in cases where the dependent variable is categorical, dichotomous, or polychotomous. It can be used with continuous and/or discrete independent variables. Logistic regression is motivated by the underlying binomial or multinomial distribution of dichotomous and polychotomous dependent variables and transforms the data to explicitly model these distributions. Locally weighted regression scatterplot smoothing or LOWESS regression is used to model the relationship between a dependent variable and independent variable when no single functional form will do. LOWESS regression is motivated by the assumption that neighboring values of the independent variable are the best indicators of the dependent variable in that range of independent values. -from Authors
A bstract
Samples of sperm whale skin, useful for modern molecular analyses of DNA, can be obtained from living animals either by collecting skin sloughed naturally by the whales, or by using biopsy darts fired from crossbows or compound bows. Sloughed skin was found frequently in warm waters, and particular samples could often be linked to photographs which enabled individuals to be identified. However, sloughed skin seemed less available at higher latitudes. Two types of darts were found to collect skin but collected samples were very small (<4 mm ² ) and insufficient for repeated DNA fingerprinting analyses. Sperm whales always reacted to darting by “startling” and showing changes of behavior over the next few minutes, but we found no indications of longer‐term effects. In warm water studies, collection of sloughed skin seems to be generally effective, but for samples of sperm whale tissue at high latitudes modifications could probably be made to either of the darts in order to obtain larger‐sized samples.
For researchers studying mysticere whales few methods for determining gender or for collecting biochemical and genetic information from unrestrained animals are available. The objective of this study was to develop a reliable method for collecting viable tissue samples for establishing continuous cell cultures from skin biopsies of free-ranging whales. A method to collect and process these samples is presented. Six of seven skin biopsies from gray whales were established in cell culture. Our results suggest that the viability of the samples is improved by (1) sterile processing in the field, (2) minimizing the time between collection and delivery to the cell culture facility, (3) reducing the concentration of antifungal agent, and (4) placing tissue explants under a coverslip. While the results reported in this paper are based on a small sample size, we believe that if the procedures are followed, they will increase the probability of successfully culturing cetacean tissue. Established cell lines can supply replenishable material from identified whales still living in the wild. These cultures can then be used for determination of sex from karyotypes, and for assessing genetic relationships of cetaceans from inherited protein, chromosomal and DNA polymorphisms. These much needed analytical tools can be used to determine familial and populational relationships, leading to a better understanding of mating systems, stock identification and effective population sizes of wild cetaceans.
Despite well-documented experimental evidence of echolocation in toothed whales, virtually nothing is known about the use and functional significance of cetacean sonar in the wild. Here, the patterns of echolocation sounds produced by killer whales,Orcinus orca, off British Columbia and Alaska are described. Two sympatric populations with divergent food habits differed markedly in sonar sound production. Individuals belonging to the fish-eating ‘resident’ population produced trains of characteristic sonar clicks, on average, 4% of the time, 27 times more often than marine mammal-eating ‘transient’ killer whales. The click trains of residents averaged 7s, more than twice as long as the trains of transients. Click repetition rates within resident's trains were constant or changed gradually; within transient's trains they often fluctuated abruptly. Transients produced isolated single or paired clicks at an average rate of 12/h, four times as often as residents. In general, the isolated clicks and infrequent, short and irregular trains of transients were less conspicuous against background noise than the sonar of residents. This difference in acoustic crypticity may reflect a flexible response to the probability of alerting prey, because marine mammals have more acute hearing than fish in the frequency range of sonar clicks. In both populations, echolocation use per individual decreased with increasing group size, suggesting the sharing of information between group members. No relationships were found between echolocation activity and water clarity for whales of either population. Transient whales often travelled or foraged without discernibly echolocating, suggesting that passive listening provides cues for prey detection and orientation.
Reactions of humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, to the taking of skin biopsies and to associated activities were studied on one of their principal West Indies breeding grounds on Silver Bank (Dominican Republic). Results were in some cases different from those reported from a similar study of this species in a high-latitude feeding area. Almost half (44.1%) of 565 biopsied whales showed no immediate reaction to a hit, while a further 22.5% showed only low-level reactions. A total of 375 (87.8%) of 427 misses involved no reaction. Only one strong reaction was recorded. Behavior changes were recorded following 31 (5.5%) of 569 hits, and 18 (4.5%) of 404 misses. Evasive behavior related to vessel approach was exhibited prior to 72 (12.0%) of 598 hits and 100 (24.1%) of 415 misses. Mothers showed significantly fewer reactions to hits than other whales, and a similar frequency and type of behavior changes, although they tended to be more evasive before a shot was made. Presumed males in competitive groups also showed significantly fewer reactions to shots, and very few behavior changes. Overall, this study supports the belief that the biopsy itself has little effect on a whale and that, if the associated vessel approach is conducted with care, samples can usually be taken with minimal disturbance to the target animal. However, approaches may affect the probability of obtaining fluke photographs for individual identification.
The response of migrating humpback whales to biopsy sampling was investigated off North Stradbroke Island, South East Queensland. Whales were allocated a behavioral category prior to biopsy sampling according to the general behavior of their pod. Behavioral reactions were recorded after each attempt. Sex was determined using a molecular genetic technique.
Detectable reactions occurred in 41.6% of successful biopsy attempts, a significantly lower response rate than that reported by two studies carried out on the feeding and breeding grounds of the North Atlantic. There was no difference in the response rate of whales on their northward or southward migration. Pod size was not an important factor in predicting the response of an individual. Females responded to biopsy sampling at a significantly higher rate than males.
Our results indicate that a substantial difference in response rate can occur between studies. Factors such as the type of boat used and the prior exposure of whales to human impact may be of importance. Our study suggests that female humpback whales may be particularly responsive to human disturbances. Overall, however, biopsy sampling has minimal impact on humpback whales.
A biopsy dart, that can be shot from a gun or crossbow, was developed to obtain skin of whales at sea. Determination of sex was found possible by staining and locating sex chromatin bodies in the nuclei of female skin cells. This procedure will be useful in many types of field studies on whales.
Hunting during the last 200 years reduced many populations of mysticete whales to near extinction. To evaluate potential genetic bottlenecks in these exploited populations, we examined mitochondrial DNA control region sequences from 90 individual humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) representing six subpopulations in three ocean basins. Comparisons of relative nucleotide and nucleotype diversity reveal an abundance of genetic variation in all but one of the oceanic subpopulations. Phylogenetic reconstruction of nucleotypes and analysis of maternal gene flow show that current genetic variation is not due to postexploitation migration between oceans but is a relic of past population variability. Calibration of the rate of control region evolution across three families of whales suggests that existing humpback whale lineages are of ancient origin. Preservation of preexploitation variation in humpback whales may be attributed to their long life-span and overlapping generations and to an effective, though perhaps not timely, international prohibition against hunting.
Long-finned pilot whales swim in large, extremely cohesive social groups known as pods. Molecular typing revealed that pod members form a single extended family. Mature males neither disperse from nor mate within their natal pods, a situation unusual for mammals. Such behavior could be explained in terms of inclusive fitness benefits gained by adult males helping the large number of female relatives with which they swim.
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences Killer whales A remote method for obtaining skin biopsy samples
- J Cohen
- Nj Hillsdale
- J K B Ford
- G M Ellis
- K C Balcomb
- Wa Karesh
- F Smith
- H Frazier-Taylor
COHEN, J. 1988. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Second edition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. FORD, J. K. B., G. M. ELLIS AND K. C. BALCOMB. 1994. Killer whales. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, B.C. and University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA. KARESH, W. B., F. SMITH AND H. FRAZIER-TAYLOR. 1987. A remote method for obtaining skin biopsy samples. Conservation Biology 1:261-262.
Social organization and genealogy of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the coastal waters of British Columbia and Washington State Reaction of North Atlantic Right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) to skin biopsy sampling for genetic and pollutant analysis
- M A Bigg
- P F Olesiuk
- G M Ellis
- J K B Ford
- K C Balcomb
- S D Kraus
- D E Gaskin
MARINE MAMMAL SCIENCE, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 1996 BIGG, M. A., P. F. OLESIUK, G. M. ELLIS, J. K. B. FORD AND K. C. BALCOMB III. 1990. Social organization and genealogy of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the coastal waters of British Columbia and Washington State. Reports of the International Whaling Commission (Special Issue 12):383-405. BROWN M. W., S. D. KRAUS AND D. E. GASKIN. 1991. Reaction of North Atlantic Right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) to skin biopsy sampling for genetic and pollutant analysis. Report of the International Whaling Commission (Special Issue 13): 81-89.
Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual Nontraditional regression analyses
- J Sambrook
- E F Fritsch
- T Maniatis
- J C Trexler
- J And
- Travis
SAMBROOK, J., E. F. FRITSCH AND T. MANIATIS. 1989. Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. Second edition. Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, New York, NY. TREXLER, J. C., AND J. TRAVIS. 1993. Nontraditional regression analyses. Ecology 74: 1629-1637.
Environmental contaminants in killer whales from Washington, British Columbia and Alaska. Abstracts of the Third International Orca Symposium Reactions of humpback whales to skin biopsy sampling on a West Indies breeding ground
- K M Langelier
- P J Stacey
- R W Baird
- B C Victoria
CAJAMBOKIDIS J., K. M. LANGELIER, P. J. STACEY AND R. W. BAIRD. 1990. Environmental contaminants in killer whales from Washington, British Columbia and Alaska. Abstracts of the Third International Orca Symposium, Victoria, B.C. March 9-12, 1990. CLAPHAM P. J., AND D. K. MATTILA. 1993. Reactions of humpback whales to skin biopsy sampling on a West Indies breeding ground. Marine Mammal Science 9:382-391.
Development of biopsy skin sampling system for fast swimming whales in pelagic waters
- F Kasamatsu
- S Iwata
- S Nishiwaki
KASAMATSU, F., S. IWATA AND S. NISHIWAKI. 1991. Development of biopsy skin sampling system for fast swimming whales in pelagic waters. Report of the International Whaling Commission 41:555-557.
Environmental contaminants in killer whales from Washington British Columbia and Alaska.Abstracts of the Third International Orca Symposium Victoria B.C
- K M Cajambokidisj
- P J Langelier
- W Staceyandr
- Baird
Environmental contaminants in killer whales from Washington, British Columbia and Alaska . Abstracts of the Third International Orca Symposium
- W Ba
Development of biopsy skin sampling system for fast swimming whales in pelagic waters
- Kasamatsu F.
Sampling of skin biopsies from free‐ranging large cetaceans in West Greenland: development of new biopsy tips and bolt designs
- Palsbøll P. J.