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How American Children Spend Their Time
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to examine how American children under age 13 spend their time, sources of variation in time use, and associations with achievement and behavior. Data come from the 1997 Child Development Supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The results suggest that parents' characteristics and decisions regarding marriage, family size, and employment affect the time children spend in educational, structured, and family activities, which may affect their school achievement. Learning activities such as reading for pleasure are associated with higher achievement, as is structured time spent playing sports and in social activities. Family time spent at meals and time spent sleeping are linked to fewer behavior problems, as measured by the child's score on the Behavior Problems Index. The results support common language and myth about the optimal use of time for child development.
... Moreover, there is a consistent body of research demonstrating that family socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with the prevalence of students' ISLEs (DeWitt & Archer, 2017;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Won & Han, 2010;Zhang & Tang, 2017). For example, students from higher SES families were able to access extracurricular activities more readily than their counterparts from lower SES families (Dawson, 2014a;Mcnamara, 2018). ...
... ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/ ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ Students' family SES may play a role in the opportunities available to them in the field of science learning, both formally and informally. For instance, Crosnoe and Trinitapoli (2008) and Hofferth and Sandberg (2001) found that varying family incomes were reflected in the various ways in which students spent their non-school time. Students who came from families with higher incomes were more likely to spend time with family members doing activities outside the home (such as visiting zoos and museums), whereas their peers who came from families with lower incomes spent more time doing activities inside the home, such as watching popular science TV programs (Crosnoe & Trinitapoli, 2008). ...
... The present study's use of another indicator of family SES, namely, household goods, again confirmed the direct effect of primary school students' family SES on their ISLEs. This suggests that household goods can serve as a sufficiently convenient indicator of family SES alongside or in place of family income (Crosnoe & Trinitapoli, 2008;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001), or the more comprehensive alternative of "science capital" (DeWitt & Archer, 2017) in future studies. ...
Students’ informal science learning experiences are believed to strongly influence their attitudes toward science and their abilities in the subject. Factors associated with students’ informal science learning experiences include family socioeconomic status and perceived family support. However, little is known about whether perceived family support for children’s formal and informal science learning differs significantly. The present study filled this gap by exploring how students’ perceived family support for formal/ informal science learning affected the link between their socioeconomic status and their experiences of informal science learning. Survey data were collected from 486 Chinese grade 4-6 primary school students. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that the students’ socioeconomic status and their informal science learning experiences were significantly and positively correlated. This association was chain-mediated through two categories of perceived family support. Specifically, students’ socioeconomic status affected their informal science learning experiences through the separate mediating role of family support for formal science learning and the sequential mediation of perceived family support for formal and informal science learning. These results uncover the role that family support plays in students’ science education; accordingly, parents are encouraged to help their children learn science both formally and informally.
... Many studies have shown a negative correlation between early childbearing and negative outcomes for children, documented and reflected in all six dimensions of child well-being. Specifically, (1) in terms of material well-being, early childbearing will reduce the mother's income because her time spent on learning and developing her human capital is shortened (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). As a result, women who give birth at a young age in low-income households are often not financially prepared to have children, leading to child deprivation and poverty (Mollborn & Dennis, 2012). ...
... (2) Not only that, in terms of health and safety, early pregnancy and childbirth come with social prejudices, resulting in pregnant adolescents not receiving adequate reproductive care, thereby increasing the risk of birth defects in children (Hayes, Nelson, & Jarrett, 1987). (3) Moreover, in terms of educational well-being, early childbearing forces mothers to drop out of school due to health stressors during pregnancy (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). Therefore, young mothers are not fully equipped with the knowledge and skills to raise their babies, and children of immature mothers are not supervised and taught effectively (Levine, Emery, & Pollack, 2007). ...
Children are important resources for nations' long-term and sustainable development; therefore, they have the right to have their well-being ensured from birth. Although multidimensional methods for researching child well-being in Vietnam have made some progress, most studies still focus on single aspects of child well-being. This paper analyzes the correlations between household welfare (measured by the asset index - an effective alternative tool to income and expenditure), early childbearing, and child well-being (in six constitutive dimensions) to provide a broad picture of the above relationships in the Vietnamese context. Using secondary data from the Vietnam Sustainable Development Goal Indicators for Children and Women (SDGCW) survey by the General Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam and the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in the period 2020–2021, and applying Tobit and OLS regression models, the research results show that a high level of household welfare not only directly increases child well-being but also has an indirect positive effect on this indicator by reducing the early childbearing rate. Based on the research findings, several suggestions are made to improve household welfare; therefore, this paper can support the government in managing early childbearing rates and improving child well-being throughout the country.
... Policy makers, psychologists, sociologists, and parents have long recognized that the development of a child into a productive, well-adjusted citizen requires considerable parental and community investments of time, money, and social capital (Clinton, 1996;Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, & Bornstein, 2000;Haveman, & Wolfe, 1994;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Parcel & Dufur, 2001). The present study focused on how parental involvement with adolescent children in terms of shared time, a form of social capital (Coleman, 1988), changes across the adolescent years. ...
... Time spent with families and the activities family members do together have been found to impart benefits or at least to prevent further risks on adolescent adjustment. The more time adolescents spend with their families, the higher their achievement test scores and the fewer their externalizing problems (Duncan, Duncan, & Strycker, 2000;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). Moreover, adolescents (11 to 17 years old) who spent more time with their family exhibited fewer increases in problem behavior over 4 years than their counterparts who spent less time with their families initially (Duncan et al., 2000). ...
This study examined the time Dutch mothers (N = 301) and fathers (N = 255) spend per day engaging in 4 activities (going somewhere, doing something, watching TV, and eating together) with their adolescent children both concurrently and 5 years later. Also assessed was whether parent-child shared time was related to parent or child gender and whether age-related differences could be explained by adolescent pubertal status, family conflict, adolescent and parent work or volunteer hours, parental work stress, and adolescent computer use. Finally, the study examined whether family conflict predicted changes in shared time and whether shared time predicted changes in conflict. The findings showed that age changes depended on the activity and that pubertal status mediated age differences in TV viewing among mixed-gender parent-child pairs. Shared time during pre-, early, and mid-adolescence was linked to decreases in family conflict 5 years later.
... Beyond the associations between depressive symptoms and academic outcomes, it is critical to consider the importance and context of school in adolescents' lives when trying to understand adolescent depression. Notably, adolescents spend most of their waking hours in school and under the supervision of teachers (Hofferth & Sandberg 2001, Larson et al. 2001. As one might expect, a number of teacher-related variables, including teacher support (Pössel et al. 2018) and teaching behavior (Pittard et al. 2015(Pittard et al. , 2017, are related to adolescent mental health. ...
... The importance of investigating the associations between teaching behavior and students' affect is clear given the significant amount of time students spend with (Hofferth & Sandberg 2001, Larson et al. 2001) and the well-established associations between teacher-related variables and students' depressive symptoms (Burton & Pössel 2022) and affect (Barnard et al. 2017, Pittard et al. 2015. However, previous studies examining these associations have almost exclusively used cross-sectional designs. ...
The associations between teaching behaviors and students’ affect are examined in cross-sectional studies in younger samples, but the temporal direction of these associations in high school students is unknown. In this longitudinal study, adolescents (N = 188; 88.8% White; 69.7% female) completed instruments to measure teaching behaviors and adolescents’ negative (e.g., cheerful) and positive affect (e.g., ashamed) twice, four months apart. Adolescents’ negative affect predicted future negative teaching behavior and negative teaching behavior marginally predicted adolescents' future negative affect. Positive affect predicted future socio-emotional teaching behavior and vice versa. The findings provide insight into which teaching behaviors impact students’ affect and the impact that students’ mental health has on teaching behavior, an area of study that has received limited attention.
... Black children are more likely than White and Latinx children (in a study in which Asian children were not included in the analysis) to have lived with extended family members (Cross, 2018). Black children spend more time attending school and summer camps than children of the three other racial/ethnic groups (Hofferth and Sandberg, 2001;Nomaguchi et al., 2022) and spend more time with non-residential parents or extended family members (Cross and Zhang, 2022;Larson et al., 2001). Black communities stress the importance of educational attainment (Raleigh and Kao, 2010) and hard work for children to be successful, as a common saying is that Black children have to work harder than their White counterparts to be recognized for similar achievements (Doucet et al., 2018). ...
Despite substantial evidence that racial/ethnic minority communities exhibit distinct mothering practices, research on racial/ethnic differences in how mothers spend time with their children is scant. Using the 2003-2019 American Time Use Survey (N = 44,372), this study documents variations in the amounts of childcare and copresent time spent in various activities with residential children aged 0-17 across White, Black, Latina, and Asian mothers. The results show that racial/ethnic differences in maternal time spent with children are partly due to socioeconomic differences but still exist when these factors are held constant, indicating patterns that reflect each minority community's mothering norms. Compared to mothers in other groups, Black mothers spend more copresent time with children in religious activities, although less in terms of the total amount of time. Latina mothers spend more copresent time with elementary-school-age children while engaging in daily routines. Asian mothers spend more time teaching and eating with elementary-school-age or younger children.
... Some similar results have Reference category ¼ Albanian c Reference category ¼ low deprivation also been found with American children. Using dairies, Hofferth and Sandberg (2001) investigated how children spend their time and 'watching TV' and 'studying' were activities where children spend more time than in most of other activities. ...
This chapter explores how children in Albania, of different socio-demographic background, spend their time, their level of satisfaction with the way they spend their time and the effect this has on their subjective well-being. The data used in this chapter are representative of children 10-12-years old attending schools in Albania. They have been collected for the third wave of Children's Worlds: International Survey on Children's Well-Being (ISCWeB). The results show that children engage in different daily activities. The frequency of engagement in activities is determined by age, gender, ethnicity and material deprivation. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that frequency of engagement of children in activities and their level of satisfaction regarding how time was spent, impacted their subjective well-being and explained 25% of the variance after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. The results gain importance to comprehend the ways Albanian children spend their time and expand contex-tual knowledge regarding children's lives. Results are also of importance to expand the knowledge researchers have on children after-school time in different contexts, especially under researched contexts.
... This is all the more relevant because children themselves encounter collective punishment in school settings (Harber, 2021;Selman & Dray, 2006), where they spend a great deal of time learning and interacting with peers (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). Schools are also where children are heavily socialized with regard to rules and their enforcement, and where they likely have sufficient opportunity to consider the appropriateness and fairness of punishment, particularly by authority figures such as teachers. ...
This study examined children's responses to targeted and collective punishment. Thirty‐six 4–5‐year‐olds and 36 6–7‐year‐olds (36 females; 54 White; data collected 2018–2019 in the United States) experienced three classroom punishment situations: Targeted (only transgressing student punished), Collective (one student transgressed, all students punished), and Baseline (all students transgressed, all punished). The older children evaluated collective punishment as less fair than targeted, whereas younger children evaluated both similarly. Across ages, children distributed fewer resources to teachers who administered collective than targeted punishment, and rated transgressors more negatively and distributed fewer resources to transgressors in Collective and Targeted than Baseline. These findings demonstrate children's increasing understanding of punishment and point to the potential impact of different forms of punishment on children's social lives.
... School-based wellbeing programmes are especially attractive as they deliver mental health information in a familiar and supported environment. Adolescents spend a substantial amount of time within the school environment (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001), and cultivating social and emotional wellbeing is increasingly recognised as a fundamental priority in school curricula (e.g. Allen et al., 2018;Seligman et al., 2009;Slemp et al., 2017;Taylor et al., 2017). ...
... In China, adolescent students spend nearly 70 % of their time in school [16]. During this period, the focus of adolescents shifts from the family to the school [17], which is an important setting for adolescent socialization and has an extraordinary impact on both the short-and long-term development of adolescents [18]. On the one hand, this influence is exercised by significant others in the school environment, namely, peers and teachers, who play important roles in adolescents' behavioral development and emotions [19]. ...
Unmonitored internet use and depression are difficulties that adolescents experience. Efforts to promote healthy adolescent development tend to focus on reducing these two risk outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how three important school-related factors (teachers, peers, and academics) affect adolescents' levels of unmonitored internet use and depression. For this study, a cross-sectional data analysis was conducted. The sample included 9297 students who participated in two waves of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using LISREL 8.80 to analyze the data. Monte Carlo resampling was then performed using R to confirm the significance of the mediating effects. Teacher criticism and negative peers can increase unmonitored internet use and depression in adolescents, while academic stress can exacerbate depression. In contrast, teacher praise and positive peers can reduce those risk outcomes. Academic self-efficacy serves as a key mediator of the impacts of teachers, peers, and academics on adolescents' levels of unmonitored internet use and depression. We advocate that schools should establish a positive school climate, provide teacher feedback training and design physical activity programs to improve academic self-efficacy, thereby reducing the risk of unmonitored internet use and depression among adolescents, effectively preventing possible subsequent internet addiction and promoting the mental health of adolescents.
... More recently, American sociologist Annette Lareau conducted extensive fieldwork studying the daily lives of families from different socioeconomic classes, uncovering salient differences between classes that "appear to lead to the transmission of differential advantages to children" (Lareau, 2003, p. 5). Research focus areas have extended to differences in children's extracurricular (Galaskiewicz, Hobor, Duckles & Mayorova, 2012) and summertime activities (Chin & Phillips, 2004), use of time outside of school including church attendance and volunteering, and related impacts on behavior and educational achievement (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). ...
The purpose of this narrative inquiry was to reveal how parents who are educators navigate their children through public education (from Kindergarten to the completion of high school) and to share their insights with the widest possible audience to ultimately enhance the learning and wellbeing of all children. The premise of this study was that teachers and principals use social capital acquired through their professional practice in their role as parents, and that sharing their experiences with parents who have no insider knowledge may benefit all children. Findings indicated that participants used social capital (knowledge, relationships, and resources) about public schooling to enhance their children’s academic success and wellbeing. Although participants offered advice for all parents and divulged their own personal practices as parents, several also acknowledged the fear some parents would feel to follow their advice entailing involvement with schools, teachers and administrators. As such, policy makers and educators are urged to improve communications that increase parents’ comfort, in order to remove fear as a barrier to involvement and advocacy.
... Previous studies indicate that participating in indoor and outdoor educational activities, such as doing homework, visiting museums, engaging in music or arts and utilizing libraries, is linked to children's academic achievement, cognitive abilities, and cultural knowledge (Hofferth and Sandberg, 2001). While factors like family resources, neighbourhood conditions, school and peer characteristics or genetics are critical, young people's development is strongly fostered from their engagement in educational-related activities (Del Bono et al., 2016), as well as from their parents' involvement in shared educational activities associated with their accumulation of cultural capital (Gracia, 2015;Lareau, 2011). ...
The way children and adolescents use their time in daily activities is critical for their present and future well-being. This study discusses current scholarship on children's and adolescents' time use by examining (1) how child and adolescent daily activity patterns matter for well-being outcomes; (2) how child and adolescent time use differs by demographic and socioeconomic factors; (3) what role national contexts play in shaping different time-use patterns among children and adolescents. The study discusses evidence across different high-income countries by analysing research addressing six types of activities (i.e., family activities; educational activities; screen-based activities; physical activities; sleep; and unpaid domestic work) and considering variations across five key demographic factors (i.e., parental work characteristics; socioeconomic background; family structure; gender; and ethnicity/race). The paper concludes with a discussion of the main findings from this literature and with recommendations of future research in the field of child and adolescent time use.
... Children's gender, age, and material well-being are well-documented factors that affect both children's time use patterns and SWB (Ahn & Yoo, 2022;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Rees, 2017). We include a set of control variables to reduce the risks of potential bias: the child's gender, age, material deprivation level, subjective material well-being, and parenting behaviors perceived by children. ...
This international study aims to explore time use patterns in which children experience higher subjective well-being within varying national contexts in Asia. This study identifies different types of children’s time use patterns in six emerging Asian economies and examines the relationship between these patterns and their subjective well-being. Data from the third wave of the International Survey of Child Well-Being was used. The data includes information on children’s daily participation in 14 out-of-school activities. Children’s time use patterns for children living in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, and Nepal were identified using Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). We found that the number of latent classes in the best-fitting models ranges from four to six for these countries. The sets of latent classes of time use patterns were unique to each nation, but there was a common group of children in every country who were overall less engaged in out-of-school activities than their peers. Time use patterns centering on sedentary screen-based leisure activities were identified in three countries where most children own personal mobile devices. Furthermore, the multivariate regression results show that, in countries with high mobile device penetration rates, children with high involvement in overall activities show higher subjective well-being than those with inactive or sedentary lifestyles. In countries with lower mobile device penetration rates, children who regularly engaged in physical or social activities or a wide range of activities reported higher SWB than inactive peers. We discussed the implications of these findings for interventions and research on children’s out-of-school activities.
... This minute-by-minute account provides insight into how families typically allocate their time, and how informal educational activities are woven into daily life. Previous studies have employed time diaries to examine how American children spend their time using broad categories (e.g., play, reading, etc.; Fiorini & Keane, 2014;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001); however, no prior study has expanded this tool to measure and investigate children's engagement in spatial activities. ...
Children's spatial activities and parental spatial talk were measured to examine their associations with variability in preschoolers' spatial skills ( N = 113, M age = 4 years, 4 months; 51% female; 80% White, 11% Black, and 9% other). Parents who reported more diversity in daily spatial activities and used longer spatial talk utterances during a spatial activity had children with greater gains in spatial skills from ages 4 to 5 ( β = .17 and β = .40, respectively). Importantly, this study is the first to move beyond frequency counts of spatial input and investigate the links among the diversity of children's daily spatial activities, as well as the complexity of parents' spatial language across different contexts, and preschoolers' gains in spatial skills, an important predictor of later STEM success.
... During this developmental period, children spend less time in their homes and more time with peers at school and in extracurricular activities. (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;McHale et al., 2003). Learning to interact effectively with peers in these new settings is a core developmental task in this age period. ...
The present study uses social network analyses to examine the associations between children's prosocial behaviour and classroom affiliative relationships (i.e., hanging out relationships). Our sample includes data from 257 children and their teachers in 12 s through fourth‐grade classrooms living in high‐poverty, inner‐urban city neighbourhoods (98.4% African American). We estimated a series of exponential random graph models (ERGMs) for the 12 classrooms and then meta‐analysed the ERGM results using a multi‐level meta‐analysis technique to examine the effects of prosocial behaviour and homophily of prosocial behaviour on children's affiliative relationships across classrooms. Our results revealed a significant effect of prosocial behaviour, suggesting that children with higher levels of prosocial behaviour were more likely to have more affiliative relationships. We also saw a significant effect of homophily of prosocial behaviour, suggesting that the more similar the children were in terms of prosocial behaviour, the more likely they were to have an affiliative relationship. Our findings highlight the importance of prosocial behaviour in children's affiliative relationships and have implications for fostering children's affiliative relationships and improving their well‐being.
... According to Family Dinner Frequency, Parent-Organised Informal Learning Activities, and Student Academic… the results, it can be seen that the frequency of eating dinner with parents can significantly and negatively influence students' performance in mathematics and English, while there is no significant impact on the performance in Chinese tests. Indeed, the frequency of parents eating with children is positively associated with language and numeracy outcomes in the preschool stage (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). This could be a potential explanation for the lack of a significant negative impact on students' Chinese test scores in secondary education. ...
The factors that influence student academic performance have long been discussed by academics. However, to our knowledge, there are no data on the informal learning activities organised by parents. Therefore, there is a need to explore how parents influence student academic performance. To do so, we acquired a dataset from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) to test the proposed measurements (e.g. the frequency of visiting museums with parents) through regression models. Several findings are summarised in the results. For instance, we found that there is a positive and significant association between parent-organised informal learning activities and student academic performance. Such a linkage can be negatively moderated by students' self-reported course difficulty in some cases (e.g. when students are frequently eating dinner with their parents). In terms of contribution, this study may be one of the first to discuss how parent-organised informal learning activities influence student academic performance.
... Except for dusting and doing laundry, the current findings show that most children participate in some chores. It is possible that dusting and doing laundry are not common chores for children of this age group; however, other factors such as ethnicity and family structure can also have an impact on the type and amount of chores children do (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). ...
... Frequent family mealtimes have been linked to both fewer externalizing behaviors (i.e., substance use and violence) and fewer internalizing behaviors (i.e., self-esteem, self-efficacy, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation) in children (Harrison et al., 2015) as well as greater academic achievement (CASA, 2011). Additionally, frequent family mealtimes are associated with better overall health and a longer duration of sleep during the week (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). Diet can also be an important indicator of health outcomes influenced by the mealtime routine, and families who eat together more frequently consume more fruits and vegetables (Glanz et al., 2021). ...
Eating meals as a family is associated with multiple positive nutritional and emotional outcomes for parents and children. Although the benefits of mealtimes extend to all families, families of color and those in poverty face disproportional barriers to eating frequent meals together. No previous study has properly attended to the heterogeneity of racial and ethnic groups in the United States when assessing mealtime barriers. Focusing on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), our analyses tested whether an increased number of adversities, and particular types of adversities, were associated with a decrease in mealtime frequency for different racial/ethnic families in the United States. Utilizing a large, nationally representative sample of families (n = 59,963), results showed that higher cumulative ACE scores reduced the number of days a family eats meals together in a given week. For specific ACE items, seven out of nine individual ACE items were associated with decreased mealtimes (excluding parental death and racial discrimination). Stratification resulted in varied associations between accumulated and individual ACE items and mealtime frequency depending on racial/ethnic group. Asian families in particular had greater odds of infrequent meals than other families, while Native American, Alaskan Native, Pacific Islander, and other racial/ethnic families were unaffected by increased ACEs. Results indicate that a family's accumulation of multiple adversities may impede mealtimes by either forcing families to prioritize the management of other stressors or by depleting the physical and mental resources needed to establish a routine. Focusing on family cultural traditions as protective factors may be an area of future intervention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Based on the the occupational therapy practice framework (OTPF), leisure time is a non-engaging and self-stimulate activity that is performed at an optional time when it is not devoted to mandatory occupations like doing self-care tasks or jobs [9]. Approximately 30% of a day devotes to voluntary activities in normal children [10]. Accordingly, the main part of their daily lives in children is devoted to playing and leisure activities. ...
Objectives: Sensory processing patterns can be related to children's preferences for various activities. Still, our understanding of how different sensory processing patterns are related to children's participation in leisure activities is fairly limited. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the association between sensory processing patterns and children's participation in leisure activities.". A total of 5040 articles were found, of which 5027 were eliminated after the review, and finally, 13 articles were included in the study based on the inclusion criteria; 6 of them entered the meta-analysis process. The meta-analysis was performed using CMA software. Results: The meta-analysis of 6 studies illustrated a significant correlation between the energy level and desire to participate in leisure activities, the auditory-visual sensitivity and willingness to participate in leisure activities, the sensory processing patterns and the intensity of involvement in leisure activities, the general sensory processing and desire to participate in leisure activities, the sensory processing patterns and desire to participate in informal activities, the olfactory sensitivity and desire to participate in leisure activities, the auditory filtering and desire to participate in leisure activities, the sensory processing patterns and enjoyment of participation in leisure activities, and finally sensory processing patterns and desire to participate in recreational activities. Discussion: The evidence in articles on sensory processing patterns and participation in play and leisure activities is inadequate. The only conclusion drawn from all patterns of sensory processing is the significant relationship between these patterns and the preference to participate in recreational activities (which is just one of the several leisure activities).
... Given that children spend a large portion of their day under the supervision of classroom teachers (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001), it is unsurprising that teacher-student relationship quality has been increasingly investigated as a contributor to children's development over the past three decades (Verschueren & Koomen, 2012). Meta-analyses have provided evidence that teacher-student relationship quality is associated with academic achievement (Roorda et al., 2017), externalizing symptoms (Lei et al., 2016), and social competence (Magro et al., 2021). ...
The Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; Pianta, 2001) is a frequently employed measure of teacher-student relationship quality. The present study examined the extent to which the STRS is invariant over time and demographic characteristics. Using longitudinal data (K-G6) from 1,140 students, we used moderated nonlinear factor analysis to test for measurement invariance in item intercepts and factor loadings. Results revealed that three of seven items assessing conflict were noninvariant (i.e., biased), with items functioning differentially across age and sex. Similarly, three of eight items assessing closeness were noninvariant, with items functioning differentially across age, sex, race/ethnicity, and maternal education level. Findings highlight the importance of testing and correcting for measurement noninvariance in the STRS.
... These include educational resources (e.g., books, computers), experiences (e.g., learning opportunities), and interactions (e.g., conversations). For example, higher educated parents are more likely to read to their child at a young age, which encourages reading and translates to increased performance in school [54,55]. Also, family SES can affect the number of books that parents can provide in the home, which has been shown to impact reading abilities as well [56][57][58]. ...
Inequality research has found that a college education can ameliorate intergenerational disparities in economic outcomes. Much attention has focused on how family resources impact academic achievement, though research continues to identify how mechanisms related to social class and structural contexts drive college attendance patterns. Using the Education Longitudinal Study and multilevel modeling techniques, this study uniquely highlights how extracurricular activities relate to family socioeconomic status and school contexts to influence college attendance. Altogether, sport and non-sport extracurricular participation, college expectations, and academic achievement scores, situated within unique school contexts that are driven by residential social class segregation, contribute to the cumulative advantages of children from higher SES families. The results from this study show that these cumulative advantages are positively associated with college attendance and an increased likelihood of attending a more selective school.
... Evidence of a mulƟ-modal use of socially directed calls (124). Bonobos' calls show complex paƩerns of signaling to convey different social goals of sex (125), and their vocalizaƟons seem structurally more complex than those of chimpanzees (126) Polymodal (acousƟc, visual, tacƟle, chemical) and variable communicaƟon, with extensive informaƟon sharing (127)(128)(129)(130)(131)(132)(133)(134)(135)(136)(137)(138) Play Young children spend a large proporƟon of their Ɵme playing (9 to 58%), depending on culture, gender, and age (139,140). Advanced pretend play parallels language development (141,142); social and pretend play in hunter-gatherers are used to counteract dominance tendencies (143) During juvenile period, play-fighƟng becomes longer and more cooperaƟve (144). Males engage in more playful acƟvity with infants (145). ...
Humans are unique in their sophisticated culture and societal structures, their complex languages, and their extensive tool use. According to the human self-domestication hypothesis, this unique set of traits may be the result of an evolutionary process of self-induced domestication, in which humans evolved to be less aggressive and more cooperative. However, the only other species that has been argued to be self-domesticated besides humans so far is bonobos, resulting in a narrow scope for investigating this theory limited to the primate order. Here, we propose an animal model for studying self-domestication: the elephant. First, we support our hypothesis with an extensive cross-species comparison, which suggests that elephants indeed exhibit many of the features associated with self-domestication (e.g., reduced aggression, increased prosociality, extended juvenile period, increased playfulness, socially regulated cortisol levels, and complex vocal behavior). Next, we present genetic evidence to reinforce our proposal, showing that genes positively selected in elephants are enriched in pathways associated with domestication traits and include several candidate genes previously associated with domestication. We also discuss several explanations for what may have triggered a self-domestication process in the elephant lineage. Our findings support the idea that elephants, like humans and bonobos, may be self-domesticated. Since the most recent common ancestor of humans and elephants is likely the most recent common ancestor of all placental mammals, our findings have important implications for convergent evolution beyond the primate taxa, and constitute an important advance toward understanding how and why self-domestication shaped humans' unique cultural niche.
... Developing early math knowledge and skills involves complex processes that begin prior to school entry (Sarama & Clements, 2009). Children, birth to 8 years old, spend more time in informal learning environments (e.g., the home, after-school programs, libraries, everyday experiences such as grocery shopping) than formal learning environments, such as school classrooms (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001). For all schoolaged children, a larger portion of children's time is still spent in informal learning environments compared to the 33 hours per week spent in school (NCES, 2007(NCES, -2008. ...
The purposes of this study included conducting a meta-analysis and reviewing the study reporting quality of math interventions implemented in informal learning environments (e.g., the home) by children's caregivers. This meta-analysis included 25 preschool to third-grade math interventions with 83 effect sizes that yielded a statistically significant summary effect (g = 0.26, 95% CI [0.07, 0.45) on children's math achievement. Significant mod-erators of the treatment effect included the intensity of caregiver training and type of outcome measure. There were larger average effects for interventions with caregiver training that included follow-up support and for outcomes that were comprehensive early numeracy measures. Studies met 58.0% of reporting quality indicators, and analyses revealed that quality of reporting has improved in recent years. The results of this study offer several recommendations for researchers and practitioners, particularly given the 1156182R ERXXX10.3102/00346543231156182Nelson et al.Short Title research-article2023
... One of the most essential early parenting roles is feeding their infant to ensure they survive and grow (Slaughter & Bryant, 2004). In fact, much of parents' interactions with their infant in the first year are centered around feeding (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Negayama et al., 2012). Because feeding has important health implications for the infant, parents may feel anxiety and stress around their infant's feeding (Fletcher et al., 2017;Howe et al., 2019;Sleigh, 2005). ...
A primary role in infant parenting is feeding, and this role undergoes a significant transition when introducing complementary foods (CF), with important long-term health implications. Understanding the influences on parental decision-making around timing the introduction to CF can help health care providers provide parents with effective support for feeding; however, the factors that influence parental decision-making have not been recently reviewed in the United States. To determine influences and information sources, this integrative review examined the literature from 2012 to 2022. Results indicated that parents are confused and distrustful of inconsistent and changing guidelines around CF introduction. Instead, developmental readiness signs may be a more appropriate way for practitioners and researchers to support parents in appropriate CF introduction. Future work is needed to evaluate interpersonal and societal influences on parental decision-making, as well as to develop culturally sensitive practices to support healthful parental decisions.
... Die zunehmende Urbanisierung ist auch einer der Gründe, weshalb Menschen weltweit, und speziell auch Kinder, immer weniger direkten Kontakt mit der Natur haben und weniger Zeit in Naturräumen verbringen (Soga & Gaston, 2016a). Der Rhythmus des menschlichen Lebens ist immer stärker von dem der Natur entfernt (Gleick, 1999;Hawken, 1993) und es werden weniger unmittelbare Erfahrungen in der Natur gemacht, dafür aber mehr Zeit in Innenräumen und mit zeitlich und räumlich hochgradig vorstrukturierten Aktivitäten verbracht (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Malone, 2007). Zahlreiche Untersuchungen weisen darauf hin, dass Menschen aller Altersstufen wenig Zeit außerhalb von Innenräumen verbringen und diese Zeitspanne zudem rückläufig ist. ...
Promoting interest in insects – A design-based research study with adolescents
Rising public interest in biodiversity issues is crucial to address the challenges of the declining insect populations. Interest is an important learning prerequisite and a central motivational precondition for the willingness to protect biodiversity.
Following the "person-object theory of interest", the design-based research approach was used to investigate which factors play a role in promoting adolescents’ interest in insects and how learning environments conducive to interest should be designed.
As part of the preliminary research, the status quo of interest in insects was investigated in two questionnaire studies (N = 294 and N = 716) and through interviews with pupils (N = 5). Additionally, interest-promoting factors in insect exhibitions (N = 2) and in existing educational programmes (N = 5) were identified, and the perspectives of experts (N = 5) were collected.
Based on the results of the preliminary studies, design hypotheses for new educational programmes were derived. The design hypotheses were practically implemented and further developed in the main study within the framework of three holiday programmes (3 – 5 days) with adolescents (N = 27, 12 – 16 years). Over the course of the programmes, the adolescents visited different biotopes and studied the entomofauna with the help of a mobile field station. The analysis of participant observations and semi-standardised interviews with the participants shows that self-directed and positively perceived nature experiences with insects in the context of biological working methods were essential for the development of interest in insects. Many pupils developed new perspectives on insects and changed their attitudes towards these as well.
The study shows how educational processes can be successfully initiated by promoting interest and how nature experience can act as a catalyst. It provides a synoptical list of recommendations for educational programmes for adolescents that aim to foster interest in insects. Additionally, the study further develops the “person-object theory of interest” by offering an analytical separation of “characteristics of the person”, “characteristics of the learning environment”, and “characteristics of the object”, as well as by defining interest-promoting factors.
... For example, youth and adolescents involved in Big Brothers and Big Sisters, an international program for individuals aged 6-18, are matched with a same-sex adult volunteer role model to engage in one-on-one school and extracurricular activities for support and prosocial modeling. Other popular programs make use of the time that children and adolescents spend in the K-12 classroom to teach students socioemotional skills (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001;Taylor et al., 2017). A well-known example is the Roots of Empathy Program (i.e., ROE;Santos et al., 2011) that attempts to cultivate empathy and increase prosocial behavior by exposing students to parentinfant interactions and by asking students to identify the infant's emotions. ...
In partnership with a sport-based Experiential Philanthropy Intervention – The Play Better Program – we conducted a pre-registered, longitudinal experiment examining whether repeatedly reflecting on prosocial activity could boost adolescents’ objective generosity. Adolescents (N = 114; aged 9–16) practiced charitable giving throughout their 2-month sports season and were randomly assigned to repeatedly reflect on the importance of their prosocial activity (Reflection condition) or to write about their everyday activities (Control condition). Adolescents completed an objective measure of generosity at pre- and post-intervention and self-reported measures of prosocial character. Across conditions, adolescents donated objectively more at post- vs. pre-intervention. However, adolescents in the Reflection (vs. Control) condition were no more generous and did not report greater prosocial character at post-intervention. Overall, these findings highlight the malleability of human prosociality and the need for additional scholar-practitioner collaborations to uncover whether and how Experiential Philanthropy Interventions boost long-term generosity among the next generation of givers.
Bu araştırmada doğa yoksunluğu seviyesini belirlemek amacı ile ortaöğretim öğrencileri ile çalışılmıştır. Bu kapsamda geliştirilen Doğa Yoksunluğu Ölçeği 54 maddeden oluşmaktadır. Doğa Yoksunluğu Ölçeği 27’şer maddeye sahip iki alt ölçekten oluşmaktadır. Alt ölçeklerden biri Doğa Yoksunluğu Davranış Alt Ölçeği diğeri ise Doğa Yoksunluğu Düşünce Alt Ölçeği şeklinde isimlendirilmiştir. Üzerinde araştırma yürütülen ortaöğretim öğrencileri 2020–2021 eğitim öğretim yılında Nevşehir’de okuyan öğrencilerdir. Nevşehir’deki çeşitli liselerde okuyan 409 öğrenci çalışma kapsamına alınmıştır. Öğrencilerin devam ettikleri sınıf düzeyleri 9, 10, 11 ve 12. sınıflardır. Ölçeğin geçerliğinin sağlanması için kapsam, görünüş ve yapı geçerliği çalışmaları yapılmıştır. Güvenirliğin sağlanması için ise iç tutarlılık katsayısı araştırılmıştır. Açımlayıcı faktör analizi yapıldıktan sonra ölçek nihai halini almıştır. Hazırlanan Doğa Yoksunluğu Ölçeği’nin tamamının Cronbach’s Alfa iç tutarlılık katsayısı 0,94 olarak belirlenmiştir. Doğa Yoksunluğu Davranış Alt Ölçeği için Cronbach’s alfa iç tutarlılık katsayısı 0,86, Doğa Yoksunluğu Düşünce Alt Ölçeği için ise 0,95 çıkmıştır. Bu sonuçlar neticesinde diğer araştırmacıların da güvenle uygulayabileceği bir Doğa Yoksunluğu Ölçeği elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca ölçekle ilgili öneriler sunulmuştur.
Objective
This study aims to investigate the following questions: (1) how Chinese preschoolers’ usage of digital devices differ by their family socioeconomic status (SES), and (2) how socioeconomic differences in children's usage of digital devices can be accounted for by parents’ digital parenting attitudes and behaviors.
Background
Scholars in social stratification and inequality have warned about “Digital Inequality” and argued that the fact that people from different socioeconomic backgrounds differ in their access to digital equipment and their knowledge of how to use digital devices effectively would eventually contribute to social inequality. Unfortunately, most of the current studies on digital inequality focus on the population of adults or adolescents; whether and how digital inequality emerges in early life remains heavily understudied.
Methods
We use data from Early Childhood Study‐The Great Bay Area (ECS‐GB), a regional representative survey conducted in 2018 and designed to assess preschool children's social‐emotional and cognitive development in Guangdong, a coastal province in South China. Our analytical sample consists of 11,445 preschool children aged from 3 to 6 with urban hukou.
Results
Our results show that compared with children from lower‐SES families, preschoolers from higher‐SES families spend less time on digital devices daily, are less likely to use digital devices for prolonged time, and spend significantly less time on non‐education purposed and leisure activities. These socioeconomic differences in children's digital usage in terms of time and types of activities are attributable to the fact that parents of higher SES families impose more restrictions, provide more guidance to their children's digital activities, and are more conscious about their children's digital usage in daily life.
Conclusion
In contemporary China, digital inequality emerges in early life and such inequality is closely related to family's digital parenting practices.
Introduction
This study investigated gender differences in the reading behaviors of Chinese middle school students, and whether gender stereotypes relating to choices of reading matter are supported.
Methods
A mixed‐methods approach was adopted. Three thousand nine hundred and fifteen middle school (Grade 7) students completed a questionnaire designed to assess reading behaviors. Independent sample t ‐test and chi‐square analyses were employed to examine gender differences in reading behaviors. The qualitative survey was supplemented with an open response survey (94 boys, 50 girls), which provided further insights into individuals' specific experiences and perspectives regarding reading behaviors and gender stereotypes in reading choices.
Results
This study revealed a number of gender‐linked differences. Boys spent more time reading than girls but read the same number of books; boys were also more likely than girls to read digital texts, while girls were more likely to borrow their reading material. Choice of subject matter also differed: boys were more likely to read factual and action‐based books, while girls' choices focused more on motives and emotions. Another significant difference was that boys paid more attention to the overall experience of reading, while girls paid more attention to the details of reading. Responses to the open response survey indicated that gender stereotypes in reading choices were prevalent among respondents, but some students' reading choices did not align with the stereotype associated with their gender.
Conclusion
The mixed‐methods approach proved valuable in both identifying gender differences in reading behaviors, and in highlighting the prevalence of gender stereotypes in reading choices among middle school students.
Recent scholarship has documented the effects of unstable scheduling practices on worker health and well-being, but there has been less research examining the intergenerational consequences of work schedule instability. This study investigates the relationship between parental exposure to unstable and unpredictable work schedules and child sleep quality. We find evidence of significant and large associations between parental exposure to each of five different types of unstable and unpredictable work scheduling practices and child sleep quality, including sleep duration, variability and daytime sleepiness. We are also able to mediate 35–50% of this relationship with measures of work–life conflict, parental stress and well-being, material hardship, and child behaviour. These findings suggest that the effects of the temporal dimensions of job quality extend beyond workers to their children, with implications for the mechanisms by which social inequality is reproduced and for social policies intended to regulate precarious and unequal employment conditions.
Objective
This study elucidates relations among playtime, bedtime, and cortisol levels for children facing economic hardship.
Background
Poverty‐related stressors overburden physiological systems that respond to stress, with implications for child health and development. The family microsystem can offer protection, yet no prior published studies have explored whether time allocated to various home activities might relate to stress levels.
Method
The study included 130 children aged 3 to 5 years who attended a Head Start preschool, and their primary caregivers. Trained research assistants completed daily telephone interviews with the caregivers across 10 days near the start of the preschool year to assess activities at home and, at a midyear time point, collected child saliva samples upon preschool arrival on 2 weekdays to assess morning levels of the stress hormone cortisol.
Results
Zero‐order correlational and linear regression analyses indicated that a greater proportion of playtime and earlier bedtime relative to waketime (i.e., more sleep time) related to lower morning cortisol levels.
Conclusion
Greater playtime and sleep time may mitigate the tax of poverty on physiological stress response systems.
Implications
Implications concern family strengths that might be built upon to promote the well‐being of children facing economic hardship.
Links between the development of early literacy and math skills are well documented. This systematic review focuses on how literacy is incorporated into informal math intervention studies for children in preschool to third grade, which has implications for researchers and those training caregivers to support their children at home. We reviewed 51 experimental or quasi‐experimental studies published from 1981 to 2021 that investigated the effectiveness of math interventions in informal learning environments with a caregiver interventionist. Findings revealed that 100% of studies included literacy in some way. We also investigated what types of literacy activities were integrated, how literacy was a part of data sources collected, and in what ways literacy was mentioned explicitly by authors in research reports. The most common literacy activity was speaking and listening, and the most frequently included literacy data source was standardized literacy achievement measures. Finally, researchers in the included studies did not detail literacy throughout their research reports. While early math interventions often integrate literacy, the research base including math interventions would benefit from more explicit rationales for their use of literacy, and caregivers should be provided information to help understand how literacy should be a part of the way they work with their child on math at home.
Research has shown the importance of routines for optimal child development. A systematic review can offer a detailed overview of the evidence linking routines to child outcomes, particularly in high‐risk settings. This review aimed to elucidate the association between daily routines and child development and to pinpoint the protective role of routines in high‐risk environments. A search of PubMed and PsycINFO databases yielded literature from 1950 to June 2020. Out of 4297 initial hits, 170 studies met the selection criteria. Findings mainly indicate that routines are associated with positive developmental outcomes in children, covering cognitive, self‐regulation, social–emotional, academic skills, and overall mental and physical health. The results also underline the protective power of routines in challenging environments. The study suggests possible mechanisms through which routines influence child outcomes and recommends avenues for future research, supporting evidence‐based strategies to encourage parental use of routines.
In response to highly publicized instances of overt racial injustice, there has been a recent resurgence of interest and commitment to identifying processes through which anti-racist behaviors develop among White individuals. One particularly important context in which anti-racist behaviors can develop is within families and as a result of childrearing. Theories of anti-racism typically neglect the role of families and family science research typically neglects a focus on anti-racist parenting outcomes. To further research and applied work on fostering anti-racism within White families, this paper introduces a new inte-grative model called routes to effective anti-racist parent-ing (REAP). The model draws on theories from various fields, including family science and social psychology, and uses a metaphor of nurturing a plant to explain the nuanced, multi-faceted approaches to anti-racist parent-ing. The model incorporates factors related to the "pot" (i.e., fundamental values and structure necessary to contain more specific anti-racist skills and behaviors), "soil" (i.e., characteristics that define anti-racist commitment), "seeds" (i.e., direct transmission of anti-racism skills), and "environment" (i.e., influential external factors). Finally, we describe the intended benefits that can be reaped from this intentional approach to anti-racist parenting. The REAP model contributes to the family science literature by providing an empirically grounded theoretical model describing the roles that parents can play in children's anti-racist development.
This article investigates the level and dynamics of heterogeneity in parental childcare time using data from the Multinational Time Use Study across 20 countries over five decades. Applying the Gini coefficient as the main summary measure of the dispersion in the distribution at the country level, we show that heterogeneity in paternal time has been higher than that in maternal time throughout the last half-century. The gap has narrowed over the last decade, mainly due to a reduction in paternal time heterogeneity. This pattern is observed not only across countries over time but also within those countries for which we have repeated observations. We also show relevant socio-economic variations. Heterogeneity among low-educated mothers started to be systematically above that of high-educated mothers in the 1970s. In the group of fathers, heterogeneity has always been higher for the low-educated and it has been on the rise in the last decade. Results of a counterfactual analysis suggest that the main driver of the trends in paternal timne heterogeneity is the reduction in the share of fathers who do not provide any childcare, especially among the low-educated.
This study investigates the effects of welfare reform—a major policy shift in the United States that increased low-income mothers' employment and reliance on earnings instead of cash assistance—on the quality of the home environments mothers provide for their preschool-age children. Using empirical methods designed to identify plausibly causal effects, we estimate the effects of welfare reform on validated survey and observational measures of maternal behaviors that support children's cognitive skills and emotional adjustment and the material goods that parents purchase to stimulate their children's skill development. The results suggest that welfare reform did not affect the amount of time and material resources mothers devoted to cognitively stimulating activities with their young children. However, it significantly decreased emotional support provision scores, by approximately 0.3–0.4 standard deviations. The effects appear to be stronger for mothers with lower human capital. The findings provide evidence that welfare reform came at a cost to children in the form of lower quality parenting. They also underscore the importance of considering quality, and not just quantity, in assessing the effects of maternal work-incentive policies on parenting and children's home environments.
This entry discusses leisure reading behavior in childhood. It shows that leisure reading has consistently been linked not only to reading outcomes but also to other educational, social, and emotional outcomes. It also shows that, while generally children aged 8–13 engage in positive leisure reading behavior, it decreases as children get older. Moreover, changes in leisure reading behavior are particularly prominent at the time of transition from primary to secondary school. However, not all these changes are negative, which may suggest simply shifting preferences in children's leisure reading behavior as they get older.
Early childhood education is perhaps the most critical school experience for children throughout their educational career. In this environment, children become accustomed to the policies and procedures of school, and also learn skills and techniques that have the potential to benefit them for the rest of their lives. Educational systems are becoming more routinized and less concerned with child development and more concerned with data-driven assessment and curriculum which has begun to seep its way into earlier and earlier grades with the intention to prepare children to be college and career ready. However, lost in this transition is the importance of creating authentic learning experiences, especially in the early childhood environment, which can set the tone for a child's education for their entire life. This chapter explores how authentic spaces can be created in early childhood classrooms, and offers examples of successful early childhood classroom environments, barriers, and recommendations for educators to better improve the educational environment for children.
THE IMPACT OF INULIN ON THE FOOD PROPERTIES
Abstract: Inulin is a non-digestible carbohydrate widely applied in the food industry as a highly soluble powder with a neutral taste. Inulin-type fructans are naturally found in many vegetables, fruits, and cereals. For industrial use, they are mostly extracted from chicory roots.
Inulin used in food production has an impact on the properties of the final product. This is based on different characteristics: humectant, gel-forming, emulsifier, and thickener. Its freezing point depression characteristic can also affect how the final product is stored.
Inulin has a low caloric value and the sensory properties of food products with added inulin make inulin ideal as a sugar and fat replacer. This is very important for people on a weight loss diet.
Recently, inulin is on the market as a food supplement with beneficial effects on the host's metabolism. Inulin is also known as a prebiotic, which stimulates the growth of probiotic lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. In addition to this process is an increase in the absorption of calcium in the large intestine and a consequent reduction in the risk of osteoporosis. There is evidence of its anti-cancer properties.
This is a review paper on the impact of inulin on food properties, based on our results of the sensory and physicochemical properties of dairy fermented products with added inulin.
Keywords: food, inulin, prebiotic, physicochemical properties, sensory properties
MICROBIOLOGICAL HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH RAW VEGETABLES
Abstract: Fresh vegetables as a source of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber are an important part of a balanced diet. On the other hand, since they do not undergo heat treatment, ingestion of fresh vegetables in the form of salads can be the cause of poisoning caused by the microorganisms present.
Microorganisms can be found on and in fresh vegetables due to contamination during growth and harvesting, and are most often related to microorganisms originating from the soil, irrigation water, and natural fertilizers. Another way is contamination during handling, i.e. during contact with previously contaminated surfaces or hands.
Some of the food-borne pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7 or Listeria monocytogenes can lead to serious illness or death in vulnerable populations. An increased number of saprophytic microorganisms can during the storage period impair the stability of the product and lead to unacceptable color change, odor, and rotting of vegetables. Additionally, already contaminated vegetables can cause secondary contamination of surfaces, equipment, and hands of employees who handle them.
This paper provides an overview of microbiological risks associated with fresh vegetables and ways to reduce negative consequences.
Keywords: Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., raw vegetables
Background:
Hyperbilirubinemia is a clinical picture frequently occurring in the neonatal period and may negatively affect the development of infants.
Aims:
To evaluate term infants with hyperbilirubinemia in terms of both motor development and sensory processing skills and to compare them with their healthy peers without hyperbilirubinemia.
Study design:
A cross-sectional study.
Subjects:
Children born at term, aged 10-18 months, with and without a history of hyperbilirubinemia were included in the study.
Outcome measures:
After demographic information was recorded, motor development was evaluated with the Peabody Motor Development Scale-2 and sensory processing skills were evaluated with the Test of Sensory Function in Infant.
Results:
A total of 42 children (mean ± SD age of the children 13.07 ± 1.47 months, 22 with hyperbilirubinemia and 20 without hyperbilirubinemia) were included in the study. A statistically significant difference was found in the gross motor (p = 0.02), fine motor (p = 0.03), and total motor (p = 0.017) development scores of the Peabody Motor Development Scale-2 and in the adaptive motor functions (p = 0.004), visual tactile integration (p < 0.001), and total scores (p = 0.004) of The Test of Sensory Function in Infant in favor of the control group.
Conclusions:
The motor and sensory processing skills of children born at term with hyperbilirubinemia may be negatively affected. Infants with hyperbilirubinemia should be evaluated from the early period not only in terms of motor but also sensory processing skills and should be supported with appropriate intervention programs.
This study examined how dual-earner couples in Korea coordinate their work time to cope with childcare responsibilities and whether they employ tag-team parenting. Using the 2019 Korean Time Use Survey data, we assessed time spent in childcare and paid work among dual-earner couples with young children. OLS regression analysis was conducted separately for mothers’ and fathers’ childcare time, focusing on time spent on paid work and differences in work schedules. Mothers tend to leave for work later and head home earlier compared to fathers, presumably to take care of children. Couples worked longer separately than concurrently, and paid work time was strongly associated with one’s own and spousal time spent on childcare, supporting the desynchronization of work hours at the couple-level. Although the mother’s major responsibilities for childcare are still prevalent in Korea, couples tend to desynchronize working time with spouses so that one parent can be present with the children.
Rationale:
Elementary school-aged children with food allergies face barriers to navigating safe food practices in concert with socializing while eating. Little research examines children's role in managing their health (i.e., a food allergy).
Objectives:
This qualitative descriptive study explores the experiences of preadolescent children with food allergies relating to food allergy management and socialization in various foodscapes in the United States.
Method:
Data gathering strategies included interviews, diaries, and photo elicitation. The analysis involved coding, discussion, and thematic development.
Findings:
Participants shared food allergy management with caregivers depending on the environment. They learned to educate others, respond to emergencies, and prepare daily relating to food allergies. They faced conflict with managing food allergies with peers but overall perceived food allergy management as a low burden.
Conclusion:
When provided with positive social and environmental supports, school-aged children with food allergies can learn to safely manage social food environments without direct parental involvement.
As international wellness travel increases, many primary healthcare professionals are being asked to provide pretravel advice. A visit to a healthcare provider is especially recommended for travelers whose health history includes specific
risks or considering riskier trips. This literature review aimed to highlight the most important pre-travel topics when visiting
wellness destinations abroad. At the pretravel consultation, the clinician and traveler should review general and destination-specific health concerns (specific prophylaxis and prevention for specific risks, etc.), make judgments about the individual's
risks for illness, the traveler’s typology (age, medical history, etc.), and together, agree on how best to minimize these risks.
Topics to be explored are numerous and could be organized into a checklist, placing priority on the most serious and
frequently encountered issues. Travel health advice should be personalized, including basic health practices during travel,
highlighting the likely exposures, reminding the traveler of ubiquitous risks, such as sunburn, lack of mobility during travel,
jet leg, potential risks of high-altitude destinations, foodborne and waterborne infections, vector-borne disease, and sexually
transmitted infections. The provision of comprehensive pre-travel health advice is essential to reduce the incidence of travel-related morbidity. Preventive strategies and medical interventions need to be individualized. Primary care physicians are the
first contact point in a health care system and can deliver these basic services as they are familiar with their patients. For
this, they need to be trained and updated regularly on healthcare travelers’ risks.
At this time, consumers expect food products to have both organoleptic features (such as flavor) and health advantages.
The rapidly growing field of "functional foods," which are goods with health-improving qualities beyond the provision of vital
nutrients, is the focus of efforts for new product development. Functional foods can come in a variety of shapes and sizes; some may
be conventional items containing bio active ingredients, while others may be fortified to lower disease risk in a particular population.
Numerous elements can function as functional ingredients in food matrices or as pure supplements or cures, according to research
being conducted at academic, industrial, and governmental facilities (nutraceuticals). In fact, there are countless possibilities for
producing functional goods using ingredients from both traditional and unconventional plant and animal sources. Future
developments in our understanding of the structure-function relationships of food bioactives, novel formulation and delivery
techniques for bioactives to various parts of the digestive system, improved sensory quality and shelf life of the product, the creation
of an appropriate regulatory framework to facilitate labeling claims, and improved consumer understanding of health-related
benefits will all be crucial for the success of functional foods. This review paper seeks to address the major aspects encompassing the
functional foods arena by taking into account the definition, bioactive components, development, and market dynamics of functional
products, and also the trends, opportunities, and obstacles the food industry faces in translating proper nutritional research and
technological innovative ideas (e.g. store up, nanomaterials new tech, packing materials, etc.) into safe and health-beneficial
products.
The purpose of this study was to explore the prevalence, varieties, and motivations behind parent-selected incentivization for children’s physical activity (PA). Parents (n=90; 30.0±8.5 y) of children (8.7±2.1 y) completed a web-based survey that included items regarding use of PA rewards, children’s moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA, min·week-1), access to electronic devices, and demographic characteristics. Open-ended questions were used to determine the type of activity rewarded, type of reward given, and parents’ reasoning for not using PA rewards. Independent sample t-tests were used to determine differences between reward groups (reward, no reward) and parent-reported children’s MVPA. Open-ended responses underwent thematic analysis. Over half (55%) of the respondents provided PA rewards. There was no difference between reward groups for MVPA. Parents reported their children having access to various technology modes including TV, tablets, video game systems, computers, and cellphones. Most of the parents (78.2%) reported restricting their child’s technology time in some capacity. Rewarded PAs were thematized as “Children Responsibilities”, “Non-Sport Activity”, and “Sport”. Two themes regarding types of rewards included “Tangible” and “Non-Tangible”. Two underlying themes as to why parents did not give rewards were deemed “Built-in-Habit” and “Enjoyment”. Rewarding children’s PA is prevalent within this sample of parents. Substantial variety exists regarding the type of PA incentivized and the type of reward provided. Future studies should explore if reward structures are used by parents and how they are conceptualized around non-tangible, electronics-based rewards versus tangible rewards in order to incentivize children’s PA to promote lifelong behavior.
Describes a confluence model that explains the effects of birth order and family size on intelligence. Intellectual development within the family context is conceived of as depending on the cumulative effects of the intellectual environment, which consists primarily of the siblings' and parents' intelligence. Mutual influences, through time, on the intellectual development of the siblings are described by the growth parameter a. The confluence model predicts positive as well as negative effects of birth order, a necessarily negative effect of family size, and a handicap for the last born and the only child. The model explains several features of a large birth order study carried out on nearly 400,000 19 yr olds. Extensions of the confluence model to other social processes are discussed, along with the usefulness of the confluence model in explicating the emergence of individual differences in a social context. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the direct and indirect effects of TV time, homework, and parental involvement on high school seniors' achievement using 28,051 high school seniors selected from the dataset of the High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study conducted by the National Opinion Research Center (1980). Data indicate that homework had an important, positive effect on student achievement, and TV time had a smaller, negative effect. Parental involvement had no direct effect on seniors' achievement scores but did positively influence the amount of time that seniors spent on homework. Further analysis suggested the possibilities of low homework demands and of excessive weekday TV viewing. Given the time spent on TV and homework and their influence on achievement, it is suggested that these variables be considered in the push for educational improvement. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
By 1989 the Michigan Panel Study on Income Dynamics (PSID) had experienced approximately 50 percent sample loss from cumulative attrition from its initial 1968 membership. We study the effect of this attrition on the unconditional distributions of several socioeconomic variables and on the estimates of several sets of regression coefficients. We provide a statistical framework for conducting tests for attrition bias that draws a sharp distinction between selection on unobservables and on observables and that shows that weighted least squares can generate consistent parameter estimates when selection is based on observables, even when they are endogenous. Our empirical analysis shows that attrition is highly selective and is concentrated among lower socioeconomic status individuals. We also show that attrition is concentrated among those with more unstable earnings, marriage, and migration histories. Nevertheless, we find that these variables explain very little of the attrition in the sample, and that the selection that occurs is moderated by regression-to-the-mean effects from selection on transitory components that fade over time. Consequently, despite the large amount of attrition, we find no strong evidence that attrition has seriously distorted the representativeness of the PSID through 1989, and considerable evidence that its cross-sectional representativeness has remained roughly intact.
A new measure of 'voraciousness' in leisure activities is introduced as an indicator of the pace of leisure, facili-tating a theoretical linkage between the literature on time pressure, busyness and harriedness in late modernity, and the literature on cultural consumption. On the methodological side it is shown that time use diaries can pro-vide at least as good a measure of the pace of leisure as survey based measures. Respondents with a high score on the voraciousness measure ('harried' respondents) are not less likely to complete their diaries than less harried respondents. In accord with the findings from the literature on cultural omnivorousness, the most voracious groups are those with high levels of social status and human capital. However, these associations are not due to these groups having either higher income or greater quantities of available leisure time. The pace of leisure ac-tivities must therefore be due to other factors, for example, could a fast pace of out-of-home leisure participation be conceived of as a new marker of status distinction?
A number of studies published in the 1970s asserted that the amount of time women spend doing housework shows no historical decline. This article draws on evidence from time-budget surveys--three from the United States (1965, 1975, and 1985) and three from the United Kingdom (1961, 1974, and 1984)--to investigate the evolution of housework time for men and women over the last three decades. Clearly much other than housework has changed over this period. More women have paid jobs, more men are unemployed, and families have gotten smaller on average. Even having controlled for such sociodemographic changes, we conclude that in the two countries, women in the 1980s do substantially less housework than those in equivalent circumstances in the 1960s, and that men do a little more than they did (although still much less than women). These changes correspond closely to developments in four other countries (Canada, Holland, Denmark, and Norway) for which historical time-budget evidence is available.
Accurate information on behavior of young children at home is crucial to the study of child development. The present study compared parent diaries of 5-year-old children's time spent with television to concurrent automated time-lapse video observations. In addition, a number of control groups were employed to assess the effects of observational equipment in the homes. The sample consisted of 334 mostly white middle-class families, of whom 106 had observational equipment installed. Results indicated no systematic subject selection of families who were willing to have observational equipment as compared to the controls. In addition, there were no differences in reported viewing behavior between the observed families and controls. Of 3 types of parent estimates of 5-year-old TV viewing, concurrent diaries correlated best with video observation (r = .84) and produced a very small absolute mean time error. Direct parent estimates of typical time spent viewing produced smaller correlations and large overestimates as compared with diaries.
The authors review studies on time use of children and adolescents around the world and discuss developmental implications of population differences. Industrialization and schooling are linked to dramatic declines in time spent on household and wage labor. This labor is often unchallenging, sometimes hazardous; developmental benefits often do not increase above a limited number of hours; hence, reduction in these activities opens time for activities that may be more developmentally beneficial. Adolescents in East Asian postindustrial societies spend this freed-up time in schoolwork, a use associated with lower intrinsic motivation but high achievement and economic productivity. Adolescents in North America spend more time in leisure, associated with greater self-direction but of an uncertain relation to development. Age, gender, and socioeconomic differences in activities and with whom time is spent are also considered.
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Socio-demographic and religious factors were examined as predictors of the receipt of support from church members among a national sample of black Americans (n= 2,107). Among the religious variables, church attendance, church membership, subjective religiosity, and religious affiliation were all significantly related to the receipt of support. Demographic differences were apparent with men and younger respondents being more likely, while divorced respondents were less likely to receive support. Having a higher income and residency in rural areas were associated with never needing assistance from church members versus simply never receiving aid. The discussion focused on further areas of investigation for church-based support networks and their interface with family and friend networks.
Using time-diary data collected from a statewide probability sample of California children aged 3-11, we examine the amount of time children spend on four activities presumed to affect their cognitive and social development - reading or being read to, watching TV, studying, and doing household chores - and how that time varies by four family characteristics: parental education, maternal employment, number of parents in the household, and family size. As expected, children of highly educated parents study and read more and watch TV less. Contrary to expectations, children of mothers who are employed part-time watch significantly less TV than children of mothers at home full-time. Otherwise, there are few significant differences by mother's extent of paid employment, the presence of a father, and the number of siblings. Thus, the results reinforce the thesis that parental education is the predominant predictor of the human and social capital investments that children receive.
This study examines the effects of marital disruption on children's behavior, accounting for variations in postdisruption living arrangements and the effects of parent-child relationships and marital conflict. The study is based on a 1981 national sample of 1,400 children aged 12-16. Disruption was associated with a higher incidence of several behavior problems, negative effects being greatest with multiple marital transitions. The negative effects are lower if the child lives with the same-sex parent following divorce or maintains a good relationship with one or both parents. High, persistent conflict in intact families is also related to behavior problems.
Two decades of research into educational production functions have produced startlingly consistent results: Variations in school expenditures are not systematically related to variations in student performance. Enormous differences in teacher quality exist, but differences in teacher skill are not strongly related to educational backgrounds, amount of teaching experience, or teaching in small classes. Further, more skilled teachers simply are not regularly paid more than less skilled teachers. These findings suggest that school decision making must move away from traditional “input directed” policies to ones providing performance incentives. The concentration on expenditure differences in, for example, school finance court cases or legislative deliberations, appears misguided given the evidence.
Reviews the ways in which household work has been measured and compares results obtained using different approaches to data collection. Results show that direct questions on the amount of time spent doing housework tend to overestimate the time spent when compared with time diaries. It is concluded that methodologically oriented research designed to create reliable measures of involvement in household work for inclusion in surveys is needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using a sample of 1,050 Dutch elementary schoolchildren who were in Grades 2 and 4 at the outset of the research, this study investigated (a) the longitudinal effects of television viewing on the frequency with which children read books and comic books at home, and (b) the causal mechanisms that underlie television's effects on leisure-time reading. The children were surveyed three times, at 1-year intervals. Structural equations analysis suggested that television viewing reduced children's comic book reading only in the period from Year 2 to Year 3. Book reading, however, was found to be reduced by television viewing over both measurement periods. The data suggest that two causal mechanisms underlie television's reductive effect on children's book reading: (a) a television-induced deterioration of attitudes toward book reading, and (b) a television-induced deterioration of children's ability to concentrate on reading.
Cultural differences in the structure of adolescents' daily lives were examined by interviewing representative samples of 578 grade 11 students, aged 16–17 years, in Minneapolis, Taipei (Taiwan), and Sendai (Japan) about the amounts of time they spent in a wide variety of activities. Studying, interacting with peers, and watching television were the most frequent activities in all 3 locations, but the relative importance of each activity differed among the locations. Chinese students spent significantly more time than American students engaged in academic endeavors, such as attending school and after-school classes and studying. Japanese students did not spend significantly more time studying or attending after-school classes than American students, but they did spend more time attending school. American students, in turn, spent more time working and socializing with friends. Differences in adolescents' use of time were related to both cross-cultural and individual differences in mathematics achievement.
In this review, we consider the nature and possible developmental functions of physical activity play, defined as a playful context combined with a dimension of physical vigor. We distinguish 3 kinds of physical activity play, with consecutive age peaks: rhythmic stereotypies peaking in infancy, exercise play peaking during the preschool years, and rough-and-tumble play peaking in middle childhood. Gender differences (greater prevalence in males) characterize the latter 2 forms. Function is considered in terms of beneficial immediate and deferred consequences in physical, cognitive, and social domains. Whereas most theories assume that children's play has deferred benefits, we suggest that forms of physical activity play serve primarily immediate developmental functions. Rhythmic stereotypies in infancy are hypothesized to improve control of specific motor patterns. Exercise play is hypothesized to function primarily for strength and endurance training; less clear evidence exists for possible benefits for fat reduction and thermoregulation. In addition, there may be cognitive benefits of exercise play that we hypothesize to be largely incidental to its playful or physical nature. Rough-and-tumble play has a distinctive social component; we hypothesize that it serves primarily dominance functions; evidence for benefits to fighting skills or to emotional coding are more equivocal. Further research is indicated, given the potentially important implications for children's education, health, and development.
The study aimed to investigate the body concerns of adolescent girls, together with the underlying motivations for the wish to be thinner. Focus group methodology was employed in order to access participants' experience in their own language. Altogether 67 girls of Year 11 (aged approximately 16 years) took part in five groups. Audiotaped and transcribed discussions were systematically coded for themes and rated on frequency, extensiveness, intensity, specificity and level of agreement. As expected, sociocultural influences, in particular the media, were reported as exerting the strongest pressures to be thin. More importantly, however, the girls displayed an unexpected sophistication in their conceptualization of the role of both media effects and body image in the construction of their self-image. Contrary to assumptions made in quantitative research, despite clearly articulating a desire to be thinner, the girls also described how this did not necessarily mean they were dissatisfied with their bodies. The findings suggest that the girls' meta-awareness and sophisticated understanding of the media and other pressures, may serve to moderate against these forces which would otherwise seem overwhelming.
Type II DNA restriction and modification systems are ideally suited for analysis of mechanisms by which proteins specifically recognize unique DNA sequences. Each system is comprised of a unique DNA recognition site and two enzymes, which in those cases examined in detail, are comprised of distinct polypeptide chains. Thus, not only are the DNA substrates extremely well defined, but each system affords the opportunity to compare distinct proteins which interact with a common DNA sequence. This review will focus only on those Type II systems which have been examined in sufficient molecular detail to permit some insight into modes of specific DNA-protein interaction.
This article describes the consumers and providers of child care in the United States. It uses data from nationally representative surveys and research studies conducted from the late 1960s through 1995 to examine the child care arrangements parents select for their young children, comparing today's arrangements with those made by parents decades ago. It then discusses the availability of child care, examining both the number of child care spaces available and whether quality programs are available to suit the needs and resources of parents. The article concludes with speculation about how proposed new policies and continuing trends may lead to future changes in child care.
In this review, we consider the nature and possible developmental functions of physical activity play, defined as a playful context combined with a dimension of physical vigor. We distinguish 3 kinds of physical activity play, with consecutive age peaks: rhythmic stereotypies peaking in infancy, exercise play peaking during the preschool years, and rough-and-tumble play peaking in middle childhood. Gender differences (greater prevalence in males) characterize the latter 2 forms. Function is considered in terms of beneficial immediate and deferred consequences in physical, cognitive, and social domains. Whereas most theories assume that children's play has deferred benefits, we suggest that forms of physical activity play serve primarily immediate developmental functions. Rhythmic stereotypies in infancy are hypothesized to improve control of specific motor patterns. Exercise play is hypothesized to function primarily for strength and endurance training; less clear evidence exists for possible benefits for fat reduction and thermoregulation. In addition, there may be cognitive benefits of exercise play that we hypothesize to be largely incidental to its playful or physical nature. Rough-and-tumble play has a distinctive social component; we hypothesize that it serves primarily dominance functions; evidence for benefits to fighting skills or to emotional coding are more equivocal. Further research is indicated, given the potentially important implications for children's education, health, and development.
Minority families and social change
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