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Labour Force Participation of Women: Empirical Evidence on The Role of Policy and Other Determinants in OECD Countries
Abstract
This paper examines the determinants of female labour force participation in OECD countries. The econometric analysis uses a panel data set covering 17 OECD countries over the period 1985-1999, and distinguishes between part-time and full-time female participation rates. It shows a positive impact on female participation of a more neutral tax treatment of second earners (relative to single individuals), childcare subsidies, and paid maternity and parental leave. On the other hand, child benefits reduce female participation due to an income effect and their lump-sum character. Female education, the general labour market conditions, and cultural attitudes remain major determinants of female participation. Simulations illustrate the potentially significant impact that some of the examined policies could exert on female participation ...
... Firstly, with regards to the association between fertility and female labour force participation, a majority of research concluded that it is negative (Cheng, Hsu, & Chu, 1997;Moschion, 2013), albeit there are some studies pointed otherwise (Ahn & Mira, 2002). This may be due to other factors such as institutional factors (Hunter & Daly, 2018;Jaumotte, 2004;Lee & Lee, 2014), culture (Bradshaw, Finch, & Soo, 2005) etc. ...
... Researchers found that the fertility rate has a positive and significant correlation with the female labour force participation rate (Taşseven, Altaş, & Turgut, 2016) and Ahn and Mira (2002) research showed a reversal from a negative to a positive sign, particularly in the OECD countries in the past few decades. One of the reasons is due to institutional factors, where a more neutral tax treatment of the work incentives of second earners may encourage married women to return to the workplace (Jaumotte, 2004). In addition, more inactive women take part-time jobs as there are more incentives to share market work between couples and childcare subsidies are more effective than child benefits and tax allowances if conditional on female labour force participation (Jaumotte, 2004). ...
... One of the reasons is due to institutional factors, where a more neutral tax treatment of the work incentives of second earners may encourage married women to return to the workplace (Jaumotte, 2004). In addition, more inactive women take part-time jobs as there are more incentives to share market work between couples and childcare subsidies are more effective than child benefits and tax allowances if conditional on female labour force participation (Jaumotte, 2004). Besides, targeted assistance in the form of childcare subsidies and tax cuts to low-skilled women, who suffer the most from the distortion in their labour supply decision, may alleviate the situation. ...
... Deficient policies are amongst the most pervasive reasons for gender inequalities. Improving them leads to higher female labor participation [46]. In many countries, economic access for women is limited-regulations constraint their participation in specific sectors and their access to financial capital. ...
... In the long-run, this results in a decrease in population, which negatively impacts the economy [33]. Nonetheless, several pieces of literature claim that fertility does not automatically decrease when FLFP rises provided that there are adequate policies that support family-work balance [46]. ...
... This includes equal treatment, wages, and promotion opportunities, without any gender-related discrimination [27]. Policies that enable women to be part of the workforce are accepted by government and society to a greater extent than other policies that aim at increasing the workforce, such as raising the retirement age or immigration of workers [46]. ...
Emerging markets are amongst some of the fastest-growing economies on the globe. However, it is necessary to enhance human capital to enable the long-term development of a nation. The theory states that the increase in workforce participation favorably impacts GDP per capita. Additionally, developing markets can grow even further if they increase women’s rates in the labor market. The authors’ desire is to determine the main obstacles for women in the job market and identify the impact of female participation on national development. The authors applied the following methods of work: description and compilation of different literature and deduction method to show which relevant factors are recommended to make higher women’s economic activity to impacts the economy in a broader sense. The results show that Emerging markets must overcome gender inequalities, properly enforce female-related regulations, and invest in human development. The results also point out the relevance of a country’s level of development, culture, education, female-related laws, and their influence on women’s decision or ability to work. The discussion demonstrates that the rate of women in the workforce is increasing, but it is still severely lower than the men’s rate. The main issues are cultural stereotypes, limited access to the job market, and difficulties with combining work and childcare. When it comes to infrastructure and educational possibilities, remote areas are still underdeveloped. Furthermore, gender bias is still deeply rooted in rural society. The elimination of these stereotypes and the improvement (and enforcement) of women-related policies will contribute to higher female workforce participation in the future.
... Causality is about actuality rather than possibility. 31 Spirkin mentions that, in social sciences, it is difficult to reach universal information. ...
... Retrieved 28 th February 2021, from https://conjointly.com/kb/descriptive-statistics/ 31 Spirkin, A. (n.d.). The Principle of Causality. ...
... Jaumotte, F (2004). Labour Force Participation of Women: Empirical Evidence on the Role of Policy and Other Determinants in OECD Countries. ...
Social Policy and Employment Chapter of EU Acquis has recently been continuing to be an important subject. Social Policy and Employment is related closely with improving working conditions and socio-economic factors. Socio-economic factors and good working conditions in a country determines women participation in labour force and job quality. In this context, job quality and representation of women in labour force has been important subjects of social policy for a while. Within this scope this study explores how job quality effects participation of women in labour force by comparing Sweden and Turkey. Additionally, it investigates whether low job quality leads to underrepresentation of women in labour force. Document analysis and secondary sources are used in this qualitative research. The results show that the determinants of job quality in this study effects Swedish and Turkish women’s representation in labour force. Moreover, low job quality leads to underrepresentation of women in labour force.
... On the other hand, long maternity leave could lead to potential loss of skills or to employer discrimination, thus reducing female labor force participation. For example, Zveglich and van der Meulen Rodgers (2003), Jaumotte (2004), Blau and Kahn (2013), and Baum and Ruhm (2016) find evidence of positive link between female labor force participation and maternity leave. However, this link varies based on the duration of the leave. ...
... While the literature has focused extensively on multi-country analysis for developed OECD countries or for lower-income countries (see, for example, Ruhm, 1998, Jaumotte, 2004or Blau and Kahn, 2013 for studies focusing on OECD countries, Ahmed and Fielding, 2019 for the effects of maternity leave duration on 18 African and Asian countries, or Fallon et al., 2017 for evidence and literature review of studies focusing on developing countries), theory implies that the nonlinear link between economic development, policy, and labor force participation is expected to be particularly strong in the intermediate part of the income distribution or in countries that are moving from the intermediate into the high-income part of the distribution, which broadly corresponds to the definition of an emerging financial market. The conventional definition of an emerging financial market is a country that is well enough developed to attract capital and have significant financial markets and industry, but is either not fully industrially modernized or is industrially modernized but does not have financial markets or institutions that are fully modernized. ...
... Because we use annual instead of quarterly or monthly data, this mitigates some of the potential concerns about reverse causality between unemployment rates and our dependent variables. However, to further alleviate these concerns we apply a common strategy of instrumenting unemployment rates with their one-year lag, as in, for example, Jaumotte (2004). 16 The differences in maternity leave policies could be partially explained by the underlying differences in political structures across countries. ...
This study evaluates the relationships between maternity leave duration, female and male labor force participation, and macroeconomic productivity in emerging countries. We build a comprehensive maternity leave data set for a panel of emerging countries at annual frequency, augmenting publicly available data on maternity leave with narrative evidence that identifies the exact dates when legislative changes to maternity leave policies were enacted and enforced. Maternity leave is associated with positive but limited effects on female labor force participation, but it is associated with significant increases in male labor force participation. There is some evidence that increases in maternity leave duration are associated with decreases in productivity in the short run, primarily driven by the duration channel where long leave leads to temporary declines in productivity, but there are no significant adverse effects at longer horizons.
... It is on this note that this study seeks to examine the effect of governance on Women participation in the Nigerian government. The study was motivated by the fact that previous studies (Jaumotte, 2000;Damisa, samndi & Yohanna, 2007;Hora, 2014;Ekundayo, 2017;and Osimen, Anegbode, Basil & Oyewole, 2018) placed emphasis on the determinants of women participation, gender inequality, and governance. ...
... Since they are more sympathetic than their counterpart in managing and executing a policy that will improve the lives of people. Equally, Jaumotte (2000) examined the determinants of female labour force participation in OECD countries and discovered female education, the general labour market conditions, and cultural attitudes remain major determinants of female participation. Damisa, Samndi, and Yohanna (2007) investigated the determinants of women participation in agricultural production in Nigeria and established that the level of the disposable income, perception, tenure rights and the level of the contribution of the women to agriculture had a significant impact on women participation in agricultural production in Nigeria. ...
... The short-run estimates, submitted in (Jaumotte, 2000) on the female employment as a determinate of women labour force participation. ...
This study examines the effect of governance on women's participation using annual time-series data for 29 years spanning from 1990 - 2019. The ARDL Bounds test discloses the existence of a long-run co-integration relationship between accountability, control of corruption, and effectiveness of government and women participation in the labor force. The empirical results obtained revealed that both in the short-run and long-run accountability and the percentage of female employment have a positive and statistically significant effect on women's participation in Nigeria. Although, both in the short-run and long-run the effectiveness of government shows negative and statistically insignificant, the control of corruption exerted a negative and statistically significant impact both in the short-run and long-run. Therefore, the study recommends that the government at all levels should ensure that accountability prevailed in every sector, to allow fair play in representatives, employment, and diffusion of decisions to strengthen and energized women's participation.
... The participation rate of prime-aged women has increased in most of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries since the 1980s (Jaumotte, 2004). In Canada, the reported women's participation rate in 2001 was slightly under 80% (Jaumotte, 2004), and has grown since then, reaching 83.2% in 2016 (Statistics Canada, 2018). ...
... The participation rate of prime-aged women has increased in most of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries since the 1980s (Jaumotte, 2004). In Canada, the reported women's participation rate in 2001 was slightly under 80% (Jaumotte, 2004), and has grown since then, reaching 83.2% in 2016 (Statistics Canada, 2018). We now live in an age where many women put off marriage and childrearing in order to focus on their career and their education but delaying these events does not erase the negative outcomes on a woman's employment throughout her lifetime. ...
... Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries spend an average of about 0.7% of their GDP on daycare and preschool. The highest contributions were Nordic countries, where up to 2.7% of GDP was spent on childcare subsidies; these countries also report high participation rates of prime-aged women (Jaumotte, 2004). ...
Universal childcare has been linked to reduced poverty and greater economic output. The province of Quebec introduced universal childcare in the mid-nineties and thus far is the only province in Canada to do so. Since the introduction of affordable childcare, the participation rate of women in Quebec has increased dramatically when compared to the relative stasis of Ontario women’s workforce participation rates. Additionally, across both provinces, men’s workforce participation was unchanged by this policy. This led to the question: when comparing Ontario and Quebec, does access to affordable childcare increase the participation rate of women? Data derived from the 2016 Labour Market Survey and 2016 Survey of Household Spending was examined to find a trend in the cost of childcare and women’s participation rates in Ontario and Quebec. While the Labour Market Survey showed an increase in participation rate among women and mothers from 1996 to 2016, the link to the cost of childcare was unclear when using self-reported consumer data at a provincial level. When comparing average childcare rates for metropolitan areas in Quebec and Ontario, the trend became pronounced. Cities in Quebec experienced much higher female workforce participation than cities in Ontario, with the gender workforce participation disparity being largest where the average monthly cost of childcare was the highest.
Keywords: mothers, women, participation rate, universal childcare, workforce
... This adverse effect is even stronger when leave is unpaid (Ferragina, 2020). Similar conclusions have been reached in earlier studies by Boeckmann et al. (2015), Budig et al. (2016) and Jaumotte (2003), which indicate that longer leaves may reduce probability of women returning to employment. Moreover, Olivetti and Petrongolo (2017) found that parental leave has a more pronounced effect on narrowing wage gaps than on closing employment gaps. ...
... Regarding public early childcare services and enrolment, there seems to be a consensus on their positive impact on female participation and employment rates in advanced economies (Abendroth et al., 2014;Asai et al., 2023;Christiansen et al., 2016;Grigoli et al., 2018;Jaumotte, 2003;Olivetti and Petrongolo, 2017;Sikirić, 2021;Schwarz, 2012). Thévenon (2013), using data from OECD countries, shows that the provision of childcare services and enrolment rate increases both part-time and fulltime employment alike. ...
This study provides a critical assessment of various fiscal policy instruments - including direct public job creation, active labour market and care policies, social protection measures and tax reforms - and their effectiveness in supporting the most vulnerable groups in the labour market. Although much of the literature has focused on the quantitative effects of fiscal policy, this article concentrates on the qualitative aspects and examines the role of fiscal instruments in achieving a more inclusive and fair labour market. Our review shows that the empirical literature tends to overemphasise the capacity of individual policies to mitigate inequalities, neglecting the complex interdependencies among various mechanisms and policies in place. We argue, instead, that a systematic approach is necessary to ensure equitable access to good jobs and to address the disparities between different labour market groups.
We also identify significant research gaps, such as the need for longitudinal studies on the long-term policy impacts, an exploration of the regional disparities within the policy-inequality nexus and the sector-specific effects of fiscal measures, especially relevant in the context of the green and digital transition.
... Stosunkowo niewiele jest badań przekrojowych (cross-country studies) i uwzględniających świadczenia pieniężne jako determinantę podaży pracy kobiet . Przytoczyć tu można analizy Jaumotte [2003], Thevenona [2013], a także Gehringer i Klasena [2017] . ...
... Wykorzystany w analizie model jest podobny do używanych w badaniach empirycznych (zob . Jaumotte [2003], Thevenona [2013], Gehringer, Klasen [2017) . Jednak w odróżnieniu od wcześniejszych badań przyjęto, że zależność między nakładami na świadczenia pieniężne a podażą pracy jest nieliniowa . ...
... Based on Korea Welfare Panel data, Yeo and Kim (2014) find that care responsibilities for kids between 0 and 9, seniors and handicapped significantly reduced labour participation of women in South Korea in 2011. This is consistent with evidence from other OECD countries as shown by Jaumotte (2003) who estimate that public expenditures in childcare significantly increases participation rate of women especially for full-time jobs in 17 OECD countries. These studies indicate that further improvements in public care expenditures could increase both female labour force participation and employment. ...
... An increase in social expenditures providing public or private childcare or elderly care can furthermore increase female labour force participation and female employment in the rest of the economy, if matched with labour demand. Unpaid care needs is reported to be an important obstacle to women's labour force participation in South Korea (Hong, 2020) and increase in care provision is found to liberate women from unpaid care work and increase their employment, especially in full-time jobs (Peng, 2011;Jaumotte, 2003). ...
This paper examines the short-run and medium-run impact of spending in social infrastructure, defined as expenditure in education, childcare, health and social care, wages and gender pay gap on output and employment of men and women for the case of South Korea. Based on a gendered post-Kaleckian feminist macroeconomic theoretical model, we estimate the macroeconomic effects of social expenditure, wages and gender pay gap using a structural vector autoregression (SVAR) analysis for the period of 1970–2012. The results show that an increase in the public social infrastructure significantly increases the total non-agricultural output and employment in South Korea both in the short and medium run. Moreover, we find that higher social infrastructure expenditure increases female employment more than male employment in the short run and raises both male and female employment in the medium run due to increasing output. Finally, the results show that South Korean economy is gender equality-led in the medium run, although the effects are economically small in comparison to the strong effects of increases social infrastructure spending. The results indicate that sustainable equitable development and a substantial increase in employment requires a mix of both labour market and fiscal policies.
... In other words, the relationship between the length of the leave and women's employment outcomes seems to be inversely U-shaped , with the threshold for the change in the direction of the relationship after 30 weeks of leave. The explanation for such a relationship might reside in the fact that a prolonged leave could result in a deterioration of labor market skills, hindering future career development (Jaumotte, 2003). ...
... For what concerns the effects of such policies, the literature indicates that unconditional and overly generous benefits are linked with a reduction in women's employment (Jaumotte, 2003). However, it is important to highlight that the evidence on this relationship is strongly dependent on the family policy system in place in a country. ...
Among European Union countries, Italy distinguishes itself for its dramatically low female participation rate in the labor market and fertility rate. This analysis investigates the effect of the provision of childcare through pre-primary education on the labor supply of Italian mothers, through the development of an instrumental variable approach based on the quarter of birth of their children. In accordance with the literature on this matter, the results highlight a strong and significant impact of enrollment in preschool on the mothers' participation rate in the labor force and their employment rate. Moreover, said effects appear to be stronger for non-married mothers and for mothers living in southern regions. These results point towards a strengthening of childcare provision through an extension of mandatory education to pre-primary levels and to an increase in the coverage of nurseries. Finally, these findings are especially crucial in the current context as they highlight a priority for policymakers that are trying to understand what services' reopening should be prioritized following the lockdown for the COVID-19 pandemic. Female participation to the labor market, childcare, family policy.
... The results of the study revealed that female education level and the growth of the economy have a significant and positive effect on women's participation in the workforce. [9] asserts that one of the key factors influencing female involvement is education. The female respondent's education is one social component that is thought to influence whether she joins the labor field. ...
Agriculture plays an important role for the people residing in most of the
states in India for their livelihood. Despite high economic growth, decline
in fertility, and rise in schooling of girls, the Female Labor Force
Participation Rate (FLFPR) in India has declined in rural areas and
stagnated in urban areas since the late 1980s. Labor force includes those
people who are currently employed and those who are unemployed but
seeking work. In India, the female labor force is mostly employed in
agricultural sector. Although the participation of self-employed female
labor force is on the rise especially in the rural areas, studies also show
that Women’s engagement in unpaid work is high in rural areas and while
a majority of women are employed in regular wage work in urban areas,
there are substantial wage differentials between men and women, most of
the regular work of women is in the informal sector, and non- wage
benefits are poor. Agriculture sector is the major economic sector in
Assam employing close to 75% of total work force, directly or indirectly.
In this present study, an attempt has been made to observe theparticipation
of female labor force in the agricultural sector of Assam. It has been seen
that amongst all the age groups of labor force participation, a change has
been observed for women in the age group 25to 29. Multiple linear
regression analysis has been carried out for the collected data. Future data
of female labor participation also have been predicted with some selected
variables.
... Despite the damaging impacts of aiDs, there have been treatments and preventive measures that have minimized the risks associated with the disease and several studies have documented this success at a macro level. Other studies purely study determinants of female labor force participation (see ;Jaumotte, 2003;Kiani, 2021;Klasen et al., 2020;Verick, 2018;Winkler, 2022), these studies conclude that female labor participation is unique due to the role of women in society more especially in developing world, where women not only participate in the labor markets but also bear children and take care of the family. ...
This study was designed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 lockdown measures and their associated self-reported threats on female labor force participation (FLFP) in Uganda following the March 20th, 2020 shutdown of the economy by the government. The interest in women in this study stems from the fact that despite the economic activity shutdown, women’s work and roles extend even to their homes. The participation of women in the labor force is a significant factor in the development and growth of society. It is also worth acknowledging that in developing nations like Uganda, women join the workforce as a coping strategy for shocks (i.e. COVID-19 pandemic) and also because of poverty. Therefore, using the Uganda High-Frequency Phone Survey on the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (i.e. COVID-19) pandemic (UHFS) data set. That was collected by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) immediately after the government instituted strict lockdown measures, our results indicated a 17% reduction in FLFP especially in the early days of the economic shutdown. The findings also indicated larger effects on female labor market activities in case of extreme lockdown when both partners were locked down (i.e. both stayed home at the same time). However, the impact of lockdown was more pronounced than the self-reported COVID-19 threat among women with children as opposed to those without children. We also find larger predicted probabilities for female labor market participation for those employed than those unemployed as the pandemic evolved. Given the above results, our results are somewhat consistent with the famous household labor supply theories. As a policy direction, the government should institute a gender-sensitive pandemic response social support plan. This would enable the government to compensate women for the double burden (i. e. formal employment loss and increased unpaid household work) suffered during such pandemic outbreaks in future.
... inter-Ebmer, 2011). Gender inequality in the labour market will negatively affect countries economic performance (Klasen, 1999;Klasen & Lamanna, 2009). According to the "human capital" theory, women are most feasible to invest in human capital because they expect to reap the benefits of this investment in time and education (Charles & Bradley, 2009). Jaumotte, (2003 argues that gender inequality in the labor market in terms of wages and promotions will negatively affect labor market performance and reduce the available workforce of women. However, the positive effects of women's entry into the labor market are most evident in societies that take action to protect women's economic rights, such as eq ...
This study aimed to provide a development model in Saudi Arabia that contributes to getting out of the current oil crisis, the current study provides a model that depends on exploiting Saudi Arabia's capabilities through four basic pillars: The trend towards economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment are all these changes in light of public sector reform and governance. The proposed study model was theoretically tested through a comprehensive review of the relevant eco-nomic and social literature, and then the study applied this model in Saudi Arabia, using a time series that extends since (2001-2020) and constitutes a total of (20) years. Based on econometric methods in collecting and analyzing data and ensuring its validity, and building representative models of the relationship between the study model with its four pillars and economic growth: The study found a number of results indicating a positive impact of economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and public corporate governance on the economic growth of Saudi Arabia, with mixed results on the impact of women's empowerment on economic growth, and based on those results, a set of recommendations were built related to getting out of the oil crisis, encouraging economic diversification and entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment.
... Measuring affordability using the cost of childcare as a percentage of net family income (e.g., Keck et al., 2009;OECD, 2017b) is similarly problematic. Tax allowances presume parents have a taxable income (e.g., Immervoll & Barber, 2006;Jaumotte, 2003); such figures therefore do not consider parents not in employment. ...
Comparative family policy research has advanced significantly in recent years. The growing availability of more and better data have improved our understanding of cross-national similarities and differences in family policies, as well as how they shape the lives of different families. Despite these advancements, comparative family policy research continues to face difficulties. The multifaceted nature of family policies makes cross-country comparisons complex. Conceptualizing our theoretical understanding of which policy aspects matter and why as well as operationalizing them into measurable indicators, often remains problematic for comparative analyses. Using examples of British and Swedish policies on childcare, a policy area particularly prone to conceptual challenges, we discuss the difficulties involved in conceptualizing family policies in comparative research. We argue that taking a capabilities approach provides a useful way forward in the field and show how such a conceptual framework allows us to more meaningfully analyze both work-family policies and their outcomes.
... Misra and Moller 2005). This particularly applies to joint taxation and free co-insurance for the non-working or marginally employed spouse in the public health care system, which both impair women's work incentives (Jaumotte 2003;Bettio and Verashchagina 2013). Moreover, the two German parts are still shaped by different gender norms, with less traditional gender roles (Schmitt and Trappe 2014;Wenzel 2010;Cooke 2007) and lesser adherence to the (modernized) male breadwinner model (Pfau-Effinger 2012, Pfau-Effinger and Smidt 2011) in the eastern part. ...
Using unique (bi)monthly panel data (IAB-HOPP) covering the immediate postlockdown period from June to August 2020, as well as the subsequent period up until the second lockdown in January/February 2021, we investigate opposing claims of widening/closing the gender gap in parental childcare during the Covid-19 pandemic in Germany. We consider prepandemic division as a reference point and provide dynamics rather than snapshots. Our results suggest a slight initial shift toward a more egalitarian division that, however, faded out in subsequent months. Starting from a fairly “traditional” prepandemic childcare division, the lockdown stimulus was not nearly strong enough to level the playing field. Subgroup analysis differentiating between individual lockdown-specific work arrangements shows that the drivers of the observed shift were mothers with relatively intense labor market participation who cannot work from home. Fathers’ work arrangement instead did not play a significant role. We conclude that the shift emerged out of necessity rather than opportunity, which makes it likely to fade once the necessity vanishes. Further, a shift is observed only if fathers were to some extent involved in childcare prepandemic, which points to the crucial role of initial conditions.
... In this way, for an employee, an expansion in the actual rate of salary will contribute towards a propensity to work longer hours, and hence, brings about leisure time would turn out to be moderately more costly for them. This theory perceives that women do not just parley among leisure and working hours, but also among their time, work, and their creation of home goods and services in the household (Jaumotte, 2003). ...
As compared to the rest of the ASEAN countries, Malaysia's women labor force participation rate has remained low and it is below the global average. In addition, a deeper analysis revealed that the participation rate among educated women in the labor force participation had decreased. Recognizing the important role of women in the economy, this study examined the factors related with the involvement of educated women in the labor market. For those with children, child care arrangements associated with the employment status of educated mothers had been explored. Through the application of an explanatory sequential explanatory mixed-method approach, the objectives of this research were carried out based on a combined framework with the Theory of the Allocation of Time, as the dominant framework having partial common ground with the Theory of Investment in Human Capital. For the quantitative session, responses from 419 married women collected via an online survey was analyzed by using Binary Logistic Regression. Six of the twelve variables (residential location, women's age group, women's education, husband's education, husband's income, have children aged less than six years old) proved a significant result for the participation of married women in the labor market. For that reason, the importance of child care arrangement was further explored. In the second phase, the qualitative part, involved in-depth interviews with nine educated married women to prove three themes: the childcare cost, availability of childcare center, and safety of children. The conclusion that can be drawn from this study is, affordable and quality child care centers are effective ways to increase involvement of women with tertiary education in the labor market. Better quality nurseries should be established and mother-friendly working policies need to be implemented in Malaysia.
... r-Ebmer, 2011). Gender inequality in the labour market will negatively affect countries ' economic performance (Klasen, 1999;Klasen and Lamanna, 2009). According to the "human capital" theory, women are most feasible to invest in human capital because they expect to reap the benefits of this investment in time and education (Charles & Bradley, 2009). Jaumotte, (2003 argues that gender inequality in the labor market in terms of wages and promotions will negatively affect labor market performance and reduce the available workforce of women. However, the positive effects of women's entry into the labor market are most evident in societies that take action to protect women's economic rights, such as eq ...
The GCC countries, including Saudi Arabia, have faced significant challenges due to the significant drop in oil prices since 2014, and one important challenge is to limit the financing of their development model based on the exploitation of oil surpluses to achieve comprehensive social and economic development. Another challenge is how to get out of this impasse, and what are the solutions and policies that get the GCC countries out of the curse of natural resources to economic diversification in order to build a more sustainable economy that provides a stable life for the current generation without compromising the capabilities of future generations.
This is what this study tried to answer, as it aimed to provide a development model in Saudi Arabia that contributes to getting out of the current oil crisis, and far from researching the causes of the sharp decline in oil prices, which are mostly subject to economic and geopolitical factors that are difficult to control, the current study provides a model that depends on exploiting Saudi Arabia's capabilities through four basic pillars: The trend towards economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment are all these changes in light of public sector reform and governance. The proposed study model was theoretically tested through a comprehensive review of the relevant economic and social literature, and then the study applied this model in Saudi Arabia, using a time series that extends since (2001–2020) and constitutes a total of (20) years. Based on econometric methods in collecting and analyzing data and ensuring its validity, and building representative models of the relationship between the study model with its four pillars and economic growth: The study found a number of results indicating a positive impact of economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and public corporate governance on the economic growth of Saudi Arabia, with mixed results on the impact of women's empowerment on economic growth, and based on those results, a set of recommendations were built related to getting out of the oil crisis, encouraging economic diversification and entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment.
... The tax reform radically increased net wages for a large number of married women, who had previously been taxed together with the income of their husband. As a consequence, Sweden quickly reached a high level of female labour force participation (Jaumotte, 2003). The (West) German wife, on the other hand, still faces a different model with 'split' income taxation that hits marginal earnings from part-time work with a high tax rate (Gustafsson, 1992). ...
... Another possibility is that because mothers with higher degrees are more likely to be in full-time employment (Jaumotte, 2004), perhaps this results in more hectic day-time schedules that may preclude connecting with formal support providers. ...
Tailoring support for first and second-generation immigrant families with young children necessitates understanding the extent to which immigrant families initiate access to community resources and perceived support from formal and informal stakeholders in their ecology. As part of an exploratory analysis, we surveyed bilingual, immigrant parents (n = 54) in a mid-Atlantic urban community in the United States. We examined factors that may correlate with seeking child-related advice and/or emotional support. Sixty-one percent of the sample approached at least one formal or informal contact for emotional support or advice in the past year, and willingness to do so was correlated with having a child with a suspected or diagnosed delay or disability. Stronger parent–stakeholder rapport was more likely to be reported with informal supports among younger parents (aged 20–30). Respondents with greater perceived parenting stress and child behavior concerns were more likely to seek out stakeholders and less personalized sources. We discuss noteworthy implications for research and practice.
... The gap amounts to 33.2 percentage points for women and 15.8 percentage points for men in the United States; in Germany, the difference is 29.4 percentage points for women and 16.4 percentage points for men. The labor supply of women is influenced by several factors associated with gender roles and aspirations (Del Boca, 2002;Fernández et al., 2005;Folbre, 1994;Jaumotte, 2003). These factors interact with education and educational choices, resulting in a stronger positive correlation between educational attainment and labor force participation for women than for men. ...
We project the labor force in the United States to 2060 and contrast the outcomes with comparative projections for Germany. In both countries, the population will age, but the demographic dynamics are fundamentally different. According to our dynamic microsimulations, the labor force in the U.S. will increase by 17 percent between 2020 and 2060 (about 29 million workers) despite population aging. In contrast, the labor force in Germany will decline by 11 percent (about 4.5 million workers). Our baseline projections indicate that an expansion of education will increase the labor force by about 3 million persons in the United States and about half a million persons in Germany by 2060. In several what-if scenarios, we examine the effects of further expanding education and of removing health barriers on labor force participation. Higher educational attainment among those with currently low education has the largest impact on labor force participation, relative to the additional years of schooling. However, health improvements and the labor market integration of people with health limitations suggest a larger increase in labor force participation rates. Using Sweden as a benchmark, we show that reducing the health participation gap would increase the U.S. labor force by as much as 13 million people in 2060 (+6.8 percent compared to our baseline).
... The tax reform radically increased net wages for a large number of married women, who had previously been taxed together with the income of their husband. As a consequence, Sweden quickly reached a high level of female labour force participation (Jaumotte, 2003). The (West) German wife, on the other hand, still faces a different model with 'split' income taxation that hits marginal earnings from part-time work with a high tax rate (Gustafsson, 1992). ...
Introduction
COVID-19 could reverse the limited progress that has been made on gender equality and women's rights. Women's leadership and contributions must be at the heart of resilience and recovery efforts. Nearly 60 per cent of women around the world work in the informal economy, earning less, saving less, and at greater risk of falling into poverty. As markets fall and businesses close, millions of women's jobs have disappeared. At the same time as they are losing paid employment, women's unpaid care work has increased exponentially as a result of school closures and the increased needs of older people. These currents are combining as never before to defeat women's rights and deny women's opportunities. I urge governments to put women and girls at the centre of their efforts to recover from COVID-19. That starts with women as leaders, with equal representation and decision-making power. (Guterres, 2020)
Besides the enormous effect on both individual and public health, the COVID-19 pandemic itself and the measures employed to control it have also had huge socio-economic consequences with strongly gendered effects. Therefore, identifying gender aspects in the pandemic response is crucial, especially as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown the potential to reinforce traditional gendered patterns. To a higher degree than men, women are forced to combine paid work and unpaid family care at home. They are also suffering more from domestic violence and are forming the majority of the essential but low paid workforce, owing to the gender-segregated labour market.
This chapter explores differences in specific aspects of gender equality before and after the pandemic in two countries. Gender equality is defined in this chapter as the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and girls and boys. Equality does not entail that women and men will become the same but that women's and men's rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken into consideration, recognising the diversity of different groups of women and men. Equality between women and men is seen as both a human rights issue and as a precondition for, and indicator of, sustainable people-centred development (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2020).
We compare the management of the COVID-19 crisis in Germany and Sweden and the different gender-related policies to deal with the crisis.
... A fiscally sustainable solution to the pension adequacy problem will most likely involve ambitious labor market reforms to increase labor participation rates (Clements et al., 2014). For example, it has been argued that increasing labor force participation rates is the most effective policy intervention for alleviating demographic pressures in Central and Eastern European countries (Bloom et al., 2003;Jaumotte, 2004). In turn, this would allow Pillar II contribution rates to be increased without raising Pillar I pension deficits. ...
The main objective of pension and retirement policies is to provide adequate income in old ages. Countries consider many elements to choose their pension system according to five pillar pension schemes. This paper tries to look at these different retirement plans around the world and to give an assessment of their characteristics. Using a simple model, it attempts to display the relationship between the type of pension system and its success. The findings of some simple pension reforms can be lightening the way for policymakers.
... The household taxes go into the proportion of the female earnings and the changing of the household taxes is important for the participation of female labour. The findings of this study related to taxation are consistent with Smith et al. (2003) and Jaumotte (2003). ...
... Among the new social policies developed were ones for integrating female labor capacities into the post-industrial economies (Hemerijck 2013;Morgan 2013), such as increased spending on childcare facilities, parental leave, tax incentives for dual earners, gender quotas, and the ratification of laws on equal pay. These changes took place when classical male policy protection and long-term unemployment benefits were decreasing (Fleckenstein 2010;Jaumotte 2003;Gauthier 2002;OECD 2019a). Scholars have argued that the focus of governments and employers on making work and family life compatible for women evoked feelings of neglect among some men toward mainstream parties. ...
The gender gap in voting for far-right parties is significant in many European countries. While most studies focus on how men and women differ in their nationalist and populist attitudes, it is unknown how the socio-economic and political promotion of women is associated with the gender gap in far-right political orientation. The following paper compares the effect of four different spheres of gender equality on this gender gap. By estimating multilevel logit models for more than 25 European countries and testing the mechanism via a socially conservative attitude toward gendered division of work, I find that the visible field of representation in particular—measured by the share of women in parliament and women on boards—is associated with a gender gap in far-right orientation. This paper contributes to the literature in two important ways: first, it combines policy feedback with cultural backlash theory, enlarging the scope of both theories; second, it demonstrates the importance of gender equality policies for the study of the far-right gender gap.
... A strong dual-earner ideal prevails in Finnish households, demonstrated in the small gender gap in labour-force participation and high full-time employment among women, for example (Jaumotte, 2003). Nevertheless, there is a high level of gender segregation both in labour markets and in educational fields (Bettio and Verashchagina, 2009;Charles and Bradley, 2009;Stoet and Geary, 2018). ...
Among the many social characteristics that run in the family, education is one of the most strongly persistent. The long-term changes in educational reproduction within families and across generations and the gender-specific drivers of these changes remain partially unclear. Using population data for all Finnish siblings and their parents, we assessed the level of and trends in the intergenerational persistence of education among cohorts born between 1950 and 1989. The variance in education shared among siblings was 37% and remained stable over time. Parental education steadily increased its explanatory power in the shared variance, from 30% among cohorts born in the 1950s to 40% among cohorts born in the 1970s and 1980s. The direct contribution of maternal education net of paternal education for sibling similarity more than doubled across cohorts (from 5% in 1950 to 13% in 1989). The direct contribution of paternal education (10–12%) remained stable. Same-gender siblings resembled each other in education more closely than their opposite-gender counterparts. The growing importance of maternal education over time, which surpasses the predictive power of paternal education, demonstrates an important qualitative change in the determinants of educational stratification. The growing importance of mothers’ education can plausibly result from the strengthening meritocratic achievement of women in education and the associated increase of women in defining the social position of the family. Incorporating the education of both parents in future analyses of intergenerational reproduction of education will probably be increasingly salient.
... Finally, the fiscal regime matters. In many OECD countries, couples' incomes are pooled for tax purposes, which implies that the tax rate on second earners remains significantly higher than on single individuals, which has a negative impact on labour force participation of the lower earner (Jaumotte, 2004). Besides labour market differences, intergenerational transfers play an important role in wealth accumulation. ...
We examine the gender wealth gap with a focus on pension wealth and statutory pension rights. By taking into account employment characteristics of women and men, we are able to identify the extent to which the redistributive effect of pension rights reduces the gender wealth gap. The data for our analysis come from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), one of the few surveys that collects information on wealth and pension entitlements at the individual level. Pension wealth data are available in the SOEP for 2012 only. While the relative raw gender wealth gap is about 35% (or 31,000 euros) when analysing the standard measure of net worth, it shrinks to 28% when pension wealth is added. This reduction is due to redistributive elements such as caregiver credits provided through the statutory pension scheme. Results of a recentred influence functions (RIF) decomposition show that pension wealth reduces the gap substantially in the lower half of the distribution. At the 90th percentile, the gender wealth gap in net worth and in augmented wealth remains more stable at roughly 27–30%.
... Los derechos de los trabajadores deben garantizar que tanto hombres como mujeres tengan igualdad de oportunidades, estén protegidos contra la discriminación, y tengan acceso a la política de licencias de maternidad y paternidad. En esa línea, se ha evidenciado que países con licencia de maternidad más prolongada tienden a mostrar mayor participación laboral (Ruhm 1998;Jaumotte 2004). Por otra parte, incluir más mujeres en los sindicatos permite que los convenios colectivos sobre igualdad de género se logren más rápidamente (OIT 2017). ...
El propósito de este estudio es analizar la situación sobre el acceso de las mujeres al empleo verde en los sectores priorizados en los planes de cambio climático y recuperación verde de la región latinoamericana, identificar las iniciativas innovadoras y lecciones aprendidas para incentivar el acceso al empleo verde de las mujeres, así como un análisis sectorial para Argentina, Costa Rica y Uruguay.
Este trabajo de investigación presenta un análisis del acceso de las mujeres al empleo verde en los sectores relevantes para la transición justa en la región. Se efectúa una revisión y análisis de la literatura definiendo el marco conceptual que se ha desarrollado en relación al empleo verde y al género. Asimismo, se analizan los planes de acción de género que proporcionen respuestas desde la política climática a las cuestiones de género, identificando cuáles de ellos podrían tener un vínculo con la transición justa, así como la adopción de decisiones sobre la aplicación de las políticas climáticas que abordan las brechas de género existentes. Finalmente, se realiza una revisión y sistematización del estado del arte sobre la información relevante acerca de las prioridades de género, empleo verde y la transición justa en la agenda climática de la región Latinoamericana.
Mediante el análisis de las Contribuciones Determinadas a Nivel Nacional (NDC) presentadas el 2020 y 2021 por los países de América Latina, se puede aproximar cuales son las características del empleo de la mujer trabajadora en los sectores económicos verdes que son relevantes para la intersección de las políticas ambientales en la región y determinar las posibles brechas de género que pudieran tener lugar en los empleos verdes, en especial cuales son los obstáculos y desafíos que enfrentan las mujeres y cuál es la calidad del empleo generado en estos mercados.
... Contrarily, Salami and Oladosu (2016) found a positive relationship between employment status and preference for more children among Nigerian women. Generally, however, it has been argued that there is a trade-off between the time for attending to pregnancy and childbearing issues and for economic activities engagement (Evan & Vozárová, 2018;Jaumotte, 2004;Pignatti, 2020). ...
The efforts at reducing Nigerian rapid population growth are anchored in strategies to achieve fertility decline. These approaches have yielded negligible impact as fertility preference remains high among most Nigerian women of reproductive age who are still giving birth to more than an average of four children previously recommended by a national policy. Studies have focused on fertility preference among various groups of childbearing women, but knowledge of the issue among high-parity women needs to be further explored. Employing chi-square and binary logistic regression for analyses, the data on women who had at least four living children were extracted from the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (2018 NDHS) to examine the associated factors of fertility intentions. The results indicate significant relationships of fertility intentions with women's current age, region of residence, level of education, and husband's desire for more children. Other predictors of fertility intentions are ideal number of children, children ever born, and number of living children. The study concludes that having four children is not compatible with the desired level of fertility for women due to the influence of the identified predictors. The study recommends proper advocacy on socially and economically desirable fertility levels for women.
... The list of the foregoing policies is quite long and covers a wide range of different, but interrelated fields/areas: from the harmonization of the family and professional life of employees to social care and taxation. Over the last two decades in particular, a period which for most of the OECD member-states coincides with the beginning of an effort to redefine their institutional framework against gender-based discrimination in the labour market, there has been significant progress (see e.g., Jaumotte 2003). ...
The under-utilization of the labour potential of women and the young constitutes a major disadvantage for Greece. The integration of young people and women in the world of work contributes to their own well-being, promotes social and intergenerational cohesion, and adds valuable resources to the economy, increasing its productive capacity and growth potential.
Given the economic and social impact of the 2010s crisis, and more recently, of the pandemic, strong economic recovery along a sustainable path is a challenge of the utmost importance and urgency for Greece. To this end, mobilizing human capital needs to be a top policy priority.
In this context, this study focuses on the difficulties that young people face both in accessing the labour market and in making their first professional steps once employed. The research places emphasis on the gender dimension by exploring in more detail the difficulties faced by young women. The study also draws on the expertise of Fafo in the institutions and dynamics of the labour market in the Nordic countries, to gain from knowledge transfer and policy learning.
... This difference is in the United States (23.3 percentage points) and in Germany (23.9 percentage points) close to the OECD's average. The labor supply of women, in particular, is influenced by a host of other factors, associated with gender roles and aspirations as well as with specific institutions, such as the availability of care services (Folbre, 1994;Del Boca 2002;Jaumotte, 2003;Fernández et al., 2005). Several of these factors interact with education and educational choices, resulting in a stronger positive correlation between educational attainment and labor force participation for women than for men. ...
... In spite of the rise in their participation rate, from 52% in 1998 to 59% in 2016, there are still less women in the labor market than men, with a gap in the activity rate of 11 percentage points in 2016. As emphasized by Jaumotte (2004), education, the functioning of labor markets, and cultural attitudes (access to childcare, parental leave, integration) remain important determinants of female participation. Analyzing 18 OECD countries over the period 1980, Thévenon (2013 finds that childcare services, maternity leave, and tax policies remain the most important drivers of increased female participation in the labor market. ...
... Children enrolled in high-quality childcare have fewer behavioral problems and perform better on achievement tests (Heckman and Krueger 2005;Ramey et al., 2000). Childcare is also critical to maternal employment, with mothers more likely to work in countries with more generous childcare resources (Flynn 2017;Jaumotte, 2003). Given the widespread social benefits to high-quality childcare, many countries invest heavily in childcare as a core public good (OECD, 2019a(OECD, , 2019b. ...
Access to affordable childcare is crucial to mothers’ employment. Yet, childcare costs and access to Head Start, childcare subsidies, and state-funded preschool vary dramatically across U.S. states. Using data from the 2016 American Community Survey five-year estimates, we apply hierarchical logistic regression models to show mothers are more likely to work in states with inexpensive childcare, higher Head Start enrollment and childcare subsidy participation, and increased availability of state-funded preschool. Childcare subsidy access is associated with higher maternal employment amongst those with lower levels of educational attainment, whereas state-funded preschool is associated with higher employment primarily among the college educated. Additionally, our analysis revealed that Head Start has a stronger association with maternal employment in states where childcare costs are high, reducing the negative relationship of employment with expensive childcare. As national discussions continue to center on the importance of childcare, our research adds evidence that public programs support maternal employment through reducing out-of-pocket childcare costs.
... The tax reform radically increased net wages for a large number of married women, who had previously been taxed together with the income of their husband. As a consequence, Sweden quickly reached a high level of female labour force participation (Jaumotte, 2003). The (West) German wife, on the other hand, still faces a different model with 'split' income taxation that hits marginal earnings from part-time work with a high tax rate (Gustafsson, 1992). ...
... The importance of jurisdictional context when investigating issues of gender, flexibility and labor market options is well known (Ahl & Nelson, 2014;Aidis & Wetzels, 2007;Besamusca, 2020;Crompton & Lyonette, 2006;Jaumotte, 2003;Plantenga & Remery, 2009). Variations in the level of support provided by national governments to dual-earning families, the availability and cost of childcare and particular cultural and gender-role attitudes impact how work and family life are managed and the range of options available for working parents (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006;Rubery & Grimshaw, 2003). ...
With greater flexibility and control over the timing and conditions of work, solo self-employment (without employees) is seen as offering a potential solution to work-family conflict. This study examines whether this flexibility manifests itself in gendered trends among the self-employed as self-employed women undertake a larger share of unpaid domestic and caring work compared to their male and wage-and-salaried counterparts. The findings are based on data from the Irish national Labour Force Survey. We find that self-employed women are more likely to work reduced hours, to work from home and for reasons associated with caring or family responsibilities than both self-employed men and women in wage-and-salaried work. Flexibility factors are stronger determinants of self-employed status for women than men. While gender differences exist regardless of parental status, they are widest among self-employed parents of preschool children.
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... Where enough childcare services are supplied and, more in general, adequate welfare policies have been provided, good results have been reached in terms of female labour participation and increase in fertility rates (Jaumotte, 2004). ...
In recent years, female labour market participation has rapidly increased in most European countries, but the employment conditions of females have not matched those of males in many cases. In this work, using different approaches, we will try to quantify and decompose the gender pay gap aiming at identifying how much of this is due to discrimination and the segregation incidence. About these topics, a group of four European countries (Italy, Greece, Ireland and United Kingdom) is analysed starting from a comparison of their labour market system. The results highlight very different scenarios of discrimination.
... Sin embargo, existen visiones encontradas respecto de la magnitud de los efectos del acceso a cuidado infantil en el empleo o en la participación de las mujeres en el mercado del trabajo. Por ejemplo, los rangos de elasticidades de la participación femenina al precio de los servicios de cuidado infantil en Estados Unidos van desde 0,06 hasta -1,24, dependiendo del modelo subyacente y la medida de costo utilizada (Jaumotte, 2003). Blau (2000) y Anderson y Levine (2000) comentan que los valores más plausibles para estas elasticidades están en el rango más bajo, es decir, en el orden de -0,1 y -0,2, hasta un máximo de -0,4. ...
Emerging markets are amongst some of the fastest-growing economies on the globe. However, they must enhance human capital to enable a nation's long-term development. The theory states that the increase in workforce participation highly impacts GDP per capita. Additionally, developing markets can grow even further if they increase women's rate in the labor market. The paper aims to determine the main obstacles for women in the job market and identify the impact of female participation on national development by conducting a case study analysis for Guatemala. The authors decided to apply a data triangulation approach and chose a mixture of three sources of data: documents, archival records, and interviews. Guatemala holds an unfavorable rank in the Global Gender Gap Index. The findings demonstrate that the workforce rate is increasing but still severely lower than the men's rate. In Guatemala, the high number of women in tertiary education does not translate into higher female workforce participation. The main issues are cultural stereotypes, limited access to the job market, and difficulties with combining work and childcare.
This study aimed to provide a development model in Saudi Arabia that contributes to getting out of the current oil crisis, the current study provides a model that depends on exploiting Saudi Arabia's capabilities through four basic pillars: The trend towards economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment are all these changes in light of public sector reform and governance. The proposed study model was theoretically tested through a comprehensive review of the relevant economic and social literature, and then the study applied this model in Saudi Arabia, using a time series that extends since (2001-2020) and constitutes a total of (20) years. Based on econometric methods in collecting and analyzing data and ensuring its validity, and building representative models of the relationship between the study model with its four pillars and economic growth: The study found a number of results indicating a positive impact of economic diversification, entrepreneurship, and public corporate governance on the economic growth of Saudi Arabia, with mixed results on the impact of women's empowerment on economic growth, and based on those results, a set of recommendations were built related to getting out of the oil crisis, encouraging economic diversification and entrepreneurship, and women's economic empowerment.
PURPOSE: This theoretical study seeks to understand how the development of ‘Transnational Business Feminism’ in response to the 2008 financial crisis, was implemented in 2013 through Japan’s ‘Womenomics’ program. The paper further examines how efficient this said form of neoliberal feminist economic program was in in addressing vulnerabilities in the Japanese financial system during the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. Finally, it looks at how the pandemic has shifted conversations around the future of gender and finance in Japan through the Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) framework. DESIGN/METHOD: Drawing on a variety of sources, this paper uses a case study research methodology as well as statistical data from a variety of sources to draw theoretical conclusions on the specific case of Japan’s economy. RESULTS/FINDINGS: This paper reveals that the programs implemented by the Japanese government failed to address existing gender inequalities and systemic risk in the Japanese economy, and that women in Japan were hit much harder by the repercussions of the pandemic, in spite of Womenomics policies. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: This study offers insights into the effectiveness of neoliberal feminist agendas in addressing systemic financial and economic risk, in order to help optimize the potential of ESG. KEYWORDS: Womenomics, Japan, gender, finance. JEL: B54, J16, N25
Emerging markets are amongst some of the fastest-growing economies on the globe. However, they must enhance human capital to enable a nation's long-term development. The theory states that the increase in workforce participation highly impacts GDP per capita. Additionally, developing markets can grow even further if they increase women's rate in the labor market. The paper aims to determine the main obstacles for women in the job market and identify the impact of female participation on national development by conducting a case study analysis for Guatemala. The authors decided to apply a data triangulation approach and chose a mixture of three sources of data: documents, archival records, and interviews. Guatemala holds an unfavorable rank in the Global Gender Gap Index. The findings demonstrate that the workforce rate is increasing but still severely lower than the men's rate. In Guatemala, the high number of women in tertiary education does not translate into higher female workforce participation. The main issues are cultural stereotypes, limited access to the job market, and difficulties with combining work and childcare.
This paper focuses on the residential location choices made by rural-residing couples with diverse residential biographies at union formation. We explore how this decision-making process is navigated and negotiated as a newly formed household. The study is informed by prior research that has aided our understanding of the relational nature of moving and staying processes, and the integral role of life course transitions in shaping residential decisions. We use data from the wider STAYin(g)Rural project, including a large household survey and in-depth interviews with individuals living in rural Northern Ireland (specifically, the case study site of the Clogher Valley, County Tyrone) who have undergone union formation, and decided to either move to, or stay within, the area. We find that, despite considerable heterogeneity within and between couples in their residential biographies, several common, often inter-related, themes dominated their rural residential location choices. Underpinning much of the desire to live and stay in the rural was a strong sense of belonging and attachment to the area, with a complex interplay of economic, environmental, geographical, and social factors acting to enable staying. Clear generational differences in the decision-making process emphasise the importance of exploring distinctions between and across life course stages in studies that aim to understand the process of (rural) staying.
Die Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie ist eine der größten Herausforderungen und gleichzeitig Gelingensbedingung für Geschlechtergerechtigkeit auf dem Arbeitsmarkt und im familiären Bereich. Die vorliegende Dissertation verdeutlicht in drei empirischen Papieren die Relevanz von Sorgearbeit für die Arbeitsmarktpartizipation von Frauen und Männern, sowie die Rolle von Unternehmen für das Unterfangen, berufliche und familiäre Aufgaben zu vereinbaren. Im ersten Papier fragt diese Dissertation nach der Rolle von Haus- und Sorgearbeit sowie ihrer Verteilung im Paar für die Arbeitsmarktpartizipation von Frauen und Männern. Für die Analyse werden Daten des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) der Jahre 2001-2017 herangezogen. Um sich bestmöglich einer kausalen Identifikation anzunähern, werden First- Difference Instrumentalvariablen-Regressionen (FD-IV) geschätzt. Das zweite Papier betrachtet die Gründe von Vätern gegen eine (längere) Elternzeitnahme. Anhand eines Mixed-Methods Forschungsdesigns wird untersucht, welche betrieblichen Determinanten eine (längere) Elternzeitnutzung erklären. Darüber hinaus wird analysiert, ob und in welchem Unternehmenskontext Männer und Frauen Karriereeinbußen nach Elternzeitnutzung erfahren. Die Datenbasis sind qualitative und quantitative Daten einer Zusatzbefragung zum AID:A II Survey. Das dritte Papier untersucht die Frage nach dem Zusammenhang von Homeoffice-Nutzung und Work-Family Conflicts. Konkret wird analysiert, ob es Unterschiede nach Unternehmenskultur gibt. Auf Grundlage des LPP-ADIAB werden Multilevel-Regressionen mit fixen Effekten für Berufe separat für Männer und Frauen geschätzt. Zusammengefasst belegt die Dissertation geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede in der Herausforderung, Erwerbstätigkeit und private Verpflichtungen in Einklang zu bringen. Darüber hinaus wird die Notwendigkeit von politischen Reformen und der Handlungsbedarf, aber auch die Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten von Unternehmen verdeutlicht.
It is unclear whether maternal working time has an impact on offspring's weight‐related outcomes especially obesity; the objective of this study is to conduct the first meta‐analysis to focus on this topic. We searched PubMed, Ovid, and Web of Science databases through August 2021. A random‐effect model was used to assess the pooled odds ratios (ORs) and regression coefficients (β) with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Subgroup analyses were conducted to explore sources of heterogeneity. Publication bias was evaluated by the Egger's tests. Twenty‐two observational studies were included with a total of 191,420 participants. Compared with children whose mothers worked less than 35 h/week, we found that children whose mothers worked more than 35 to 40 h/week had a 2.24‐fold increased risk of childhood overweight/obesity (OR = 2.24, 95% CI: 1.61–3.11). An increment of 10 h/week in maternal working was associated with an approximately 1.0 percentage points in the probability of childhood overweight/obesity (β = 0.008, 95% CI: 0.004–0.012). The pooled OR also indicated a similar result (OR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04–1.15). In addition, an increment of 10 h/week in maternal working was associated with 0.029 units increase in offspring's BMI z score (β = 0.029, 95% CI: 0.016–0.042). Maternal long working hours is a potential risk factor for offspring's weight‐related outcomes. Measures should be taken to protect the work welfare of females, thus facilitating the positive interaction of individual–family–society.
Luxembourg receives ample investment from multinational corporations, in part due to some attractive features in its international tax rules. Around 95 percent of these foreign investments pass through Luxembourg via companies performing holding and/or intra-group financing activities. While their contribution to Luxembourg’s economy is modest relative to their large overall balance sheets, they still generate around 3 percent of GDP in tax revenue, create almost 4500 direct jobs, and spend almost 3 percent of GDP on salaries and purchases of business services. Ongoing changes in the international corporate tax framework pose risks to these economic contributions, which this paper attempts to quantify. It also discusses options for reforms in Luxembourg’s tax system that could help offset adverse revenue and economic effects.
z Kadınların işgücüne katılımları, ülkelerin refah düzeylerinin artırılması ve kalkınmalarının sürdürülebilmesi bakımından önem taşımaktadır. Bu bakımdan ülkeler, kadınların işgücüne katılımlarının artırılmasına yönelik birtakım politikalar uygulamaktadır. Kadınların işgücüne katılım oranlarını etkileyen çeşitli unsurlar bulunmaktadır. Yapılan çalışmalar, OECD üyesi ülkelerde vergi uygulamalarının, kadınların işgücüne katılım oranlarını etkileyen başlıca unsurlardan biri olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışmada; Türkiye'de kadınların işgücüne katılım oranlarının mevcut durumunun OECD üyesi ülkelerle karşılaştırılarak ortaya konulması ve kadınların işgücüne katılım oranlarının artırılmasına yönelik vergi önerileri geliştirilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Abstract Women's labour force participations have an important place in increasing the welfare of countries and sustaining their developments. Due to these reasons, countries have been carrying out some policies for increasing female labour force participation. There are various factors affecting the female labour force participation rates. The former studies reveal that tax practice is one of the main factors affecting the female labour force participation rates in OECD member countries. This study aims to reveal current situation of female labour force participation in Turkey by comparing with OECD member countries and to develop tax recommendations for increasing female labour force participation rates.
The importance of tackling income inequality has been stressed in the context of the European Pillar of Social Rights. In this context, the 2018 Annual Growth Survey underlined the relevance of labour taxes to pursue inclusive growth, as it has an important impact on economic growth but also on income inequality. Not all labour tax reforms, however, can simultaneously foster growth and reduce income inequality: some reforms imply a trade-off while others offer a win-win situation. This paper focusses on those labour tax
reforms which offer complementarities between growth and income inequality objectives. It expands on work carried out for the Eurogroup (tax wedge, financing labour tax cuts) and the Economic Policy Committee (secondary earners, design of labour taxation) in supporting the EU political imperative of addressing income inequalities while fostering growth.
This paper specifies and estimates a structural model in which the decision to purchase market child care-and the quality purchased-is made simultaneously with the employment decision of the mother. Separate analyses are performed for married mothers and single mothers. The structural estimates are used to simulate the effects and costs of changes in the federal child care tax credit. The simulations indicate that a refundable child care tax credit would distribute child care benefits more equally across the population by increasing the shares of subsidies received by low-income families, and would induce a considerable increase in expenditures on market child care. Labor supply also increases, but by considerably less than child care expenditures. A surprising result is that, despite large increases in child care expenditures, the overall quality of child care does not change very much. The primary beneficiaries of more generous subsidies are current users of high quality free care who are induced to purchase slightly higher-quality market care.
This paper investigates the role of skill depreciation in the relationship between work interruptions and subsequent wages. Using Swedish data from two waves (1994 and 1998) of the International Adult Literacy Survey, which included results of tests gauging respondents' ability to read and make practical use of printed information, the authors are able to analyze changes in individuals' skills as a function of time out of work. They find statistically strong evidence of a negative relationship between work interruptions and skills. The analysis suggests that depreciation of general skills was economically important. A full year of non-employment, for example, was associated with a 5-percentile move down the skill distribution.
The UK Equal Pay Act of 1970 resulted in a large rise in the relative earnings of women in the early 1970s. As this change (unlike most wage changes) was largely exogenous to employers, one can think of this episode as an experiment for testing different theories of the labour market. Hence, study of the effects of the Equal Pay Act should be given considerable weight and is likely to have wider implications about the operation of labour markets. Most models of the labour market used by economists assume that employment is demand-determined at least after a large positive shock to the wage. These models would predict that female relative employment should have fallen after the introduction of the Equal Pay Act. Yet, it is hard to find evidence of this. This paper argues that female relative employment did not fall because the female labour market is, in part, monopsonistic. Copyright 1996 by The London School of Economics and Political Science.