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Del librecambio matizado al proteccionismo selectivo: el comercio exterior de productos agrarios y alimentos en España entre 1849 y 1935
Abstract
RESUMEN
El objetivo del trabajo es el estudio del comercio exterior de productos agrarios y de algunos de sus transformados industriales en el período 1849–1935. Para ello se realiza en primer lugar un análisis de la evolutión y composición de las importaciones de productos agrarios, seguido de una reflexión sobre las razones que explican el viraje proteccionista de 1891 y sus efectos sobre dichas importaciones.
La segunda sección se ocupa de estudiar cuál fue la tendencia seguida por las exportaciones agrarias, para posteriormente tratar de explicar las causas que explican los cambios en su composición.
El trabajo se cierra con el intento de observar simultáneamente el comportamiento de exportaciones e importaciones agrarias, para analizar tanto sus mutuas influencias como sus efectos globales sobre el conjunto de la económia española.
... This is linked with the country's socio-political peculiarities, which in turn reveal that processes of socio-metabolic transition are not autonomous, and are not measured solely in terms of geographic or population variables. During the first third of the 20 th Century, the country embarked on a process of industrialisation and, although limited by protectionist policies and other factors, one of access to global markets (Gallego and Pinilla, 1996;Tena, 2005). However, the Civil War (1936-39) and its effects, combined with the politics of autarchy (extended until ca. ...
... Although this might seem unexpected, this fact tells us that, in traditional societies, with high transportation costs, products traded were those that offered the highest added value, and therefore, had the highest levels of transformation and manufacturing. Although this fact is partly explained by the effects of protectionist policies, which limited the importing of primary products (Gallego and Pinilla, 1996). This fact also helps to explain why the land embodied in the trade of forestry products has also grown as an accelerated rate. ...
... The wine trade is a paradigmatic case in point (Pinilla and Ayuda, 2002). This increased external dependence for primary products, which in turn fostered protectionist policies (Gallego and Pinilla, 1996). This example illustrates how the socio-political factors behind productive changes are more complex and require more in-depth analysis. ...
Population increase, the change in consumption patterns and a greater demand for biomaterials will continue to put pressure on the use of land over the coming decades, an increasingly scarce and degraded resource. Trade allows the environmental impact of consumption to be outsourced to third countries, although it also allows production to be located in more productive areas. The aim of this paper is to shed light on those processes by studying the land embodied in biomass trade and consumption in Spain with a long-term perspective. It seeks to analyse the main patterns of historic change, the drivers and impacts associated with the increase in demands for land associated with consumption and biomass trade. Spain has always been a net importer of land, especially since the 1960s, when trade experienced accelerated growth. In 2008, net imports stood at 6.5 Mha. Using decomposition analysis, we show that increases in yield could have absorbed the new demands derived from population increase; however, changes in consumption, particularly with regard to diet, have increased demand, requiring land usage to be displaced to third countries.
... Within this context, the export sector is particularly noteworthy for being the most dynamic within Spanish agriculture (Pinilla, 2001). The exports of food and agricultural products grew substantially during the first wave of globalisation and were particularly important for the international integration of the Spanish economy (Gallego & Pinilla, 1996;Prados de la Escosura, 1982). Therefore, the objective of this article is to study the evolution of Spanish agricultural exports, their weight on the agricultural production as a whole, the determinants of their expansion and, finally, the contribution that they made to economic development. ...
... One of their key contributions was their fundamental role to even out the balance of trade. The agricultural balance of trade had an almost permanent positive sign, except in certain adverse circumstances, and therefore facilitated the financing of the import of certain crucial goods during the Spanish industrialisation process (Gallego & Pinilla, 1996). This positive sign of the agricultural balance of trade was due mostly to fruit and vegetable production and the derived processed products. ...
The objective of this article is to study the evolution of Spanish agricultural exports, their share of agricultural production as a whole, the determinants of their expansion and, finally, the contribution that they have made to economic development. Our results show considerable dynamism in agricultural exports, which however faced certain obstacles that limited any further expansion. Their share on production varied greatly, but for some relevant products it was fundamental, substantially contributing to its growth. The increase in external demand but also the comparatively high profitability of export products and a high level of competitiveness in the international market generated highly dynamic behaviour in supply. The contribution of the export sector to Spanish economic growth was positive although moderate. It contributed to financing necessary imports during the industrialisation process, favoured a more efficient allocation of resources and produced intersectoral linkages. However, the geographical concentration of production for export limited its spatial impact on the Spanish economy.
... 16. For the increase in exports of agrarian products and foodstuffs, see Gallego and Pinilla (1996). ...
Spain never formally joined the classical gold standard, partly because its aspiration for
gold convertibility did not match the financing needs of the Treasury. This paper illustrates
how preferences for convertibility, that is, for fixed exchange rates, were shared by the parliamentary
representatives of its manufacturing provinces because of their dependency on imported
inputs (coal and cotton). However, to explain their preference for currency stability,
trade policy must be considered. Without the high tariffs that the cotton industry enjoyed thorough
the whole period and the steel industry from 1891 onwards, the renouncement of a procompetitive
depreciating peseta might not have been so clear-cut. Thus, beyond the Spanish
case, this paper supports the theoretical assumption that the input-output structure of a productive
sector influences its currency stance, while reinforcing the argument that trade policy
plays a key role in the understanding of currency politics.
Keywords: groups of interest, gold standard, Spain
JEL codes: N13, N23, N43, E42
... The volume of imports contracted by around 20% between 1929 and 1935. However the volume of exports was also seriously affected by the problems in the destination countries, falling by a slightly smaller amount (Gallego and Pinilla, 1996). As the prices of the exported agricultural products behaved better than the imported products, the coverage ratio of agricultural exports with respect to imports improved during the crisis years (Pinilla, 1995: 163). ...
... 22. Specific commercialization series used were transportation by rail (metric tons/km) for cereals (wheat and rice) and wine, and by sea (including coastal and export trade) for wine, olive oil, sugar cane and beet, fruits and nuts. Information (except for fruits and nuts that come from Gallego and Pinilla (1996) and Estadística(s) del Comercio Exterior) was derived from Carreras (1983, i, 386-502). Raw wool output was taken from Parejo (1989). ...
In historical national accounts, as for most developing countries, the most reliable and easiest to estimate GDP figures are those obtained through the production approach.¹ As for most developing countries, real product has been computed from physical indicators rather than as a residual obtained from independently deflated output and inputs.
Este artículo estudia los cauces por los que la crisis agraria de 1886-1890 llegó al Parlamento español y, una vez en él, centró el debate económico hasta lograr un aumento de los aranceles a la importación. El análisis de las votaciones nominales sobre propuestas de protección agraria que se sucedieron entre esos años permite identificar, narrativa y cuantitativamente, la alineación de los diputados con los intereses de su partido, pero también con intereses económicos, en este caso trigueros, de las provincias que representaban. La dinámica parla-mentaria que la crisis puso entonces de manifiesto apoya la visión historiográfica de quienes defienden la idea de la Restauración como un sistema donde la toma de decisiones resultó de la interacción entre poder económico y poder político.
Spanish land reform, involving the breakup of the large southern estates, was a central issue during the first decades of the twentieth century, and was justified on economic and political grounds. This article employs new provincial data on landless workers, land prices, and agrarian wages to consider whether government intervention was needed because of the failure of the free action of markets to redistribute land. Our evidence shows that the relative number of landless workers decreased significantly from 1860 to 1930, before the approval of the 1932 Land reform during the Second Republic (1931–6). This was due to two interrelated market forces: the falling ratio between land prices and rural wages, which made plots of land cheaper for landless workers to rent and buy; and structural change that drained the rural population from the countryside Given that shifts in factor prices were already helping workers gain access to land by the 1930s, the economic arguments for introducing reform at that time remain unclear.
Resumen: Este trabajo pone de manifiesto los efectos negativos del intervencionismo cambiario sobre los sectores exportadores abordando el estudio de la industria corchera española durante la autarquía franquista. Se analiza cómo el mantenimiento de un tipo de cambio oficial sobrevaluado generó problemas competitivos para esta industria, llevándole a perder el liderazgo en el mercado mundial. Asimismo, se estudia el programa selectivo de subsidios directos a la exportación que implementó la dictadura franquista para contrarrestar los negativos efectos de la intervención cambiaria sobre la exportación, el cual generó numerosas ineficiencias en este sector exportador tradicional.
Abstract This paper attempts to highlight the negative effects of the currency intervention on export sectors. To this aim, it is proposed as a case study the Spanish cork industry during the Franco autarchy. It is discussed how to maintain an overvalued official exchange generated competitive problems to the Spanish cork industry, leading to lose the leadership in the global market. Furthermore, it is studied a selective program of direct export subsidies that implemented the Franco dictatorship to counteract the negative effects of foreign exchange intervention on export, showing how it generated numerous inefficiencies in this sector.
El presente trabajo plantea la aplicación de un modelo de incidencia fiscal de la protección a la economía española entre 1870 y 1913, con el que se trata de medir las variaciones de precios relativos entre diversos sectores de una economía, provocadas por la protección. La hipótesis de partida es que un arancel perjudica a los sectores no protegidos y esto, en una perspectiva agre-gada, significa los productores de bienes no comercializables y los exporta-dores. La entidad del perjuicio para cada sector dependerá de la conjunción del propio arancel y las relaciones de sustitución entre todos los sectores. La estimación sucesiva de dos modelos por el método ADL confirma la hipóte-sis y establece que la principal incidencia negativa de ia protección la sufrie-ron los exportadores. Palabras clave: arancel, incidencia fiscal, exportaciones, economía española. n sus Cartas al ministro García Alix, Antonio Flores de Lemus explicaba con claridad y gracejo " cuando se pide protección igual para todos (.. .) se pide la luna, la protección de los unos ha de ser siempre, necesariamente, a costa de los otros''1. En efecto, los cambios de precios relativos inducidos por el arancel E-objetivo último de las tarifas-, sólo pueden resultar efectivos para sus teóricos beneficiarios si introducen diferencias entre unos sectores y otros. En la argumenta-ción desarrollada por Flores en ése y otros textos hay una perspectiva, implícita pero evidente, de equilibrio general, que no ha sido explorada por los estudiosos del co-mercio exterior y la política arancelaria española, a pesar de su notorio interés. El marco teórico en el que se puede plantear la cuestión viene dado por los mo-delos de incidencia fiscal, desarrollados a partir de comienzos de los ochenta en la li-teratura internacional y cuyas aplicaciones han tenido como objeto casi exclusivo pe-ríodos muy recientes de países poco desarrollados*. Con estos modelos se trata de medir las variaciones de precios relativos entre diversos sectores de una economía, provocadas por la protección. Los cambios Últimos no son un mero reflejo de las tari-fas, sino que vendrán mediatizados por las relaciones de sustitución presentes en cada (*) Agradecemos las sugerencias de dos evaiuadores anónimos, que han permitido mejorar la versión original de este trabajo. (1) A. Flores de Lemus (1906), pág. 419. (2) Con trabajos como los de Sjaastad (1980). Clements y Sjaastad (1984), o Greenaway y Milner (va-rios años) entre otros. 5
Este trabajo se centra principalmente en los siguientes asuntos: uso del suelo agrícola y sistemas de rotación de cultivos; características tecnológicas de los procesos productivos agrícolas; tipos de explotaciones ganaderas y composición y evolución de las producciones ganaderas; evolución y composición de las producciones agrarias y de sus rendimientos. Todo ello para el periodo 1850-1935 y para las provincias de Álava, Navarra y La Rioja.
El objetivo de esta investigación es elaborar una serie anual de exportaciones e importaciones a precios corrientes que permita conocer de modo más preciso la evolución del comercio exterior español entre 1914 y 1935. En los últimos tiempos, muchos estudiosos de la historia económica han centrado sus investigaciones en diferentes aspectos de la economía española de este período, intentando aclarar las causas del crecimiento de la misma. Sin embargo, el estudio monográfico de la evolución y estructura del comercio exterior y su incidencia en la economía española del primer tercio del siglo xx no ha sido aún realizado y constituye un tema relegado en la historiografia moderna. La principal causa de esta ausencia es la profunda desconfianza que despiertan las cifras oficiales del comercio exterior de este período entre los historiadores económicos. © 1985, Instituto Figuerola de Historia y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. All rights reserved.
El libro reconstruye y analiza las tendencias, ciclo y estacionalidad de los precios del trigo y la cebada en el contexto de la formación del mercado nacional e internacional de estos cereales. Se aborda también la política aduanera aplicada a los cereales, centrándonos particularmente en destacar como la política triguera tendió a combinar en cierto grado el problema del abastecimiento y el de la rentabilidad de las explotaciones.