Physiological responses of marine Dendryphiella species from different geographical locations

Abstract

The saprobic, cosmopolitan, marine fungi Dendryphiella arenaria and Dendryphiella salina, isolated from various plant and algal substrates from different geographical locations and climatic zones, were studied for their adaptations to the abiotic and biotic parameters commonly found in their natural marine habitats. All the tested strains of D. arenaria and D. salina grew optimally on culture media with added marine salts, at pH values between 6.5 and 8.0 and at an incubation temperature of 25C. The D. arenaria strains had faster mean colony extension rates under all conditions of culture. All strains exhibited an increased salt optimum with increasing incubation temperature. The TLC profiles of strains of the two species were similar. The culture extracts were antimicrobial, though production of the biologically active metabolites was strain-specific. There were no significant correlations between source of origin and responses to the investigated parameters. These results demonstrate phenotypic plasticity and the ability of each isolate to adapt to diverse biotopes.

Full text

Mycol Progress (2006) 5: 108–119
DOI 10.1007/s11557-006-0504-y
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Thomas Edison dela Cruz .Stefan Wagner .
Barbara Schulz
Physiological responses of marine
Dendryphiella
species
from different geographical locations
Received: 17 January 2006 / Revised: 7 March 2006 / Accepted: 15 March 2006 / Published online: 25 May 2006
#German Mycological Society and Springer 2006
Abstract The saprobic, cosmopolitan, marine fungi
Dendryphiella arenaria and Dendryphiella salina, isolated
from various plant and algal substrates from different
geographical locations and climatic zones, were studied
for their adaptations to the abiotic and biotic parameters
commonly found in their natural marine habitats. All the
tested strains of D. arenaria and D. salina grew optimally
on culture media with added marine salts, at pH values
between 6.5 and 8.0 and at an incubation temperature of
25°C. The D. arenaria strains had faster mean colony
extension rates under all conditions of culture. All strains
exhibited an increased salt optimum with increasing
incubation temperature. The TLC profiles of strains of
the two species were similar. The culture extracts were
antimicrobial, though production of the biologically active
metabolites was strain-specific. There were no significant
correlations between source of origin and responses to the
investigated parameters. These results demonstrate phe-
notypic plasticity and the ability of each isolate to adapt to
diverse biotopes.
Introduction
The hyphomycetes Dendryphiella arenaria Nicot
(=Scolecobasidium arenarium Ellis) and Dendryphiella
salina (Sutherland) Pugh et Nicot (= S. salinum Ellis) are
saprobic, cosmopolitan, marine fungi that are isolated from
soil samples in salt marshes (Pugh 1962 as Cercospora
salina; Pugh and Beeftink 1980), as well as from living or
decaying seaweeds (Miller and Whitney 1981; Genilloud
et al. 1994), sea grasses (Newell and Fell 1980; Newell
1981), driftwoods and submerged woods (Jones 1962;
Jones and Oliver 1964 as C. salina; Byrne and Jones 1974;
Kirk and Brandt 1980; Strongman et al. 1985). They have
been collected along coastal tropical, subtropical, and
temperate waters. Such widespread occurrence and ease of
isolation make these species ideal model organisms for
studying marine fungal physioecology.
Earlier studies focused on the effects of abiotic factors
such as salinity, temperature, pH, and light or darkness on
mycelial growth and spore germination. D. salina and many
other marine fungi generally do not require seawater, and
their growth was found to be somewhat better at lower
salinities (Jones and Jennings 1964). Lorenz and Molitoris
(1992) reported that isolates of D. salina exhibited the
“Phoma-pattern of growth,”meaning that at higher
temperatures, the salinity optimum increases (Richie
1957). Both growth and spore germination were found to
be optimal at 20–30°C, pH values between 5 and 7, both
with and without light (Curran 1980; Duffy et al. 1991;
Panebianco 1994). The ubiquity of these fungi in different
marine waters led to several in vitro studies emphasizing
their potential to utilize or degrade organic compounds
common to the range of substrata from which they have been
isolated. D. salina and D. arenaria have been found to
synthesize numerous degradative enzymes, e.g., cellulase by
both D. salina (Gessner 1980; Rohrmann and Molitoris
1992)andD. arenaria (MacDonald and Speedie 1982), and
amylase, lipase, β-glucosidase and xylanase, but not the
lignin-degradative tyrosinase and laccase by D. salina
(Gessner 1980). Kirk and Gordon (1988)foundD. salina
also to be capable of degrading hydrocarbons, e.g.,
hexadecane, 1-hexadecene, pristane, tetradecane. Degrada-
tion of algal components was also explored, suggesting that
these fungi are involved in the actual breakdown of, and not
just as mere epiphytes on, seaweeds. D. salina can syn-
thesize both extracellular laminarinase (Grant and Rhodes
1992) and poly-β-D-1,4-mannuronide lyase (Shimokawa et
al. 1997), an extracellular enzyme hydrolytic of alginate in
brown algae.
T. E. dela Cruz (*).B. Schulz
Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig,
Spielmannstraße 7,
38106 Braunschweig, Germany
e-mail: t.dela-cruz@tu-bs.de
S. Wagner
Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry,
Messeweg 11–12,
38104 Braunschweig, Germany

Organisms may produce secondary metabolites in
response to their environments, e.g., to protect themselves
from competitors. Thus, metabolite production may vary
with habitat. Marine Dendryphiella species have been
found to produce dendryphiellin A–G, dendryphiellic acid
A–B, glyceryl dendryphiellate A, dendryphiellin A1, and
dendryphiellin E1 and E2 from cultures of D. salina
(Guerriero et al. 1988 –1990). Biological activities of the
metabolites were not reported. However, in a dual-culture
experiment, D.salina showed no antagonism against
Gliocladium roseum; hence, it was described as a poor
competitive saprophyte (Pugh 1974). Otsuka et al. (1992)
also reported the absence of antimicrobial activities
against several test microorganisms of culture extract of
D. arenaria, identified in their paper as S. arenarium.To
our knowledge, no further studies have been conducted
with respect to the biological activities of the secondary
metabolites of the Dendryphiella species.
Much of our knowledge, though, on these ecologically
important marine hyphomycetes came from studies of
either a single species or few strains. We have investigated
to what extent a larger number of isolates of D. salina and
D. arenaria, isolated from different substrates from both
temperate and subtropical locations, have adapted to the
respective abiotic and biotic environments of the various
substrates, geographical locations, and climatic zones from
which they originated.
Our hypothesis: Due to the geographical separation of
the locations from which these strains of Dendryphiella
had been isolated, the isolates have adapted to the biotic
and abiotic conditions of their respective environments.
Materials and methods
Fungal strains
Thirty-two monospore strains of Dendryphiella [D. arenaria
(15), D. salina (17)] from different geographical locations
were used in this study: Baltic Sea (Bs) and North Sea (Ns),
Germany; Gozo, Malta and Crete, Greece in the Mediterra-
nean Sea (Ms); Lulworth Coast, United Kingdom (Uk) and
Atlantic Coast, France (Fr); Sea of Japan (Jp); and Gulf of
Mexico (Gm), Florida, USA (Table 1). All were axenic
cultures, having been isolated from living or decaying
macroalgae and plant materials after surface sterilization
with 70% ethanol for 1–2 s and three rinses with sterile
distilled water, or washing with sterile distilled water. All
were identified based on spore morphology according to
Kohlmeyer and Volkmann-Kohlmeyer (1991) and Ellis
(1976), as well as sequence analysis of the internal tran-
scribed spacer regions of the rDNA cluster (ITS 1 and 2) and
of the long intron of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha
gene (dela Cruz et al., manuscript in preparation).
Growth responses to abiotic factors
Growth responses of 16 Dendryphiella strains (Table 1)to
abiotic physicochemical factors were determined based on
measurements on days 3 and 5 of mean colony diameter in
triplicate plate culture on Czapek Dox agar Medium
(CDM) with sucrose and sodium nitrate, respectively, as
sole carbon and nitrogen sources. Inoculation was
performed by placing a silica gel bead (≈2–5mmin
diameter, Merck), previously soaked in a distilled water
suspension of 10-day-old spores (10
6
spores ml
−1
), in
sterile 0.01% Tween 80 at the center of a petri dish (9 cm in
diameter) with culture medium. Incubation conditions
differed for the different parameters being tested. Colony
diameter of the resulting growth was measured with a
vernier caliper (three readings per plate), and mean colony
extension rate (mcer) was computed as follows:
mcer ¼mean colony diameter ðday 5Þmean colony diameter ðday 3Þ
number of daysof incubation ð2 daysÞ
Quantitative data were analyzed statistically (ANOVA)
with SigmaStat 3.1 (Systat Software, USA).
Salinity To determine the optimal salt concentration for
growth, CDM (pH 6.5) was supplemented with 0, 1.5, 3.3,
or 4.5% (w v
−1
) marine salts (Meersalz, Wiegandt GmbH,
Krefeld, Germany), and culture plates were incubated at
25°C in the dark. These concentrations included those of
the natural habitats (Table 1), which vary from ∼1.0%
(Baltic Sea, Rügen) to >3.7% (central Mediterranean Sea).
We used artificial seawater or marine salts, as Rohrmann et
al. (1992) had reported no differences in growth and
enzyme activities of several marine fungi including D.
salina comparing culture on natural and artificial seawater.
Temperature To determine the temperature for optimum
growth, CDM (pH 6.5) was supplemented with 3.3%
(w v
−1
) marine salts, the most common salt concentration
in seawater, and the cultures were incubated in the dark at
5, 15, 18, 22, 25, 30, 34, or 37°C. These temperatures
include those of their natural habitats (Table 1), which can
range from 2 to 5°C (Baltic Sea in the winter) to 29°C
(Gulf of Mexico in the summer).
pH value To check for the pH requirement, aliquot
volumes of CDM with 3.3% (w v
−1
) marine salts were
adjusted to pH 5.0, 6.5, 7.0, or 8.0, with 1 M HCl or 1 M
NaOH. All cultures were incubated at 25°C in the dark.
Varied combinations of salinity and temperature To
determine the combined influence of salinity and temper-
ature, the Dendryphiella strains were grown on CDM
(pH 6.5) supplemented with 0, 1.5, 3.3, or 4.5% (w v
−1
)
marine salts and incubated at 18, 25, 30, or 34°C in the
dark.
109

Growth and physiological responses to biotic factors
The growth responses to biotic factors by marine
Dendryphiella strains (Table 1) were studied by determin-
ing their ability to utilize algal components and their
physiological responses by their ability to produce
biologically active secondary metabolites.
Utilization of algal components Distilled water suspensions
of spores from 10-day-old cultures of 16 Dendryphiella
strains were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 3 min, washed three
times with and resuspended in sterile distilled water, and
their concentrations for use in inoculation adjusted to 1.0–
3.0×10
6
spores ml
−1
. Aliquots of inoculum (20 μl) were
added to sterile 96-well microtiter plates, each containing
200 μl CDM (without sucrose), with 3.3% NaCl (pH 8.0),
and in three wells each, 3.0% (w v
−1
) of the following carbon
sources: D-glucose, D-galactose, D-fructose, D-sucrose, D-
mannose, soluble starch, D-glucoronic acid, L-fucose, alginic
acid sodium salt (1 and 3%), fucoidan, laminarin and
aqueous extracts from the algae Chondrus crispus and
Laminaria digitata (30 g algal thalli per liter, boiled for 2 h
and filtered). The control wells contained CDM with 3.3%
NaCl, without added carbon source. Microtiter plates were
Table 1 Region and source of marine Dendryphiella species
Average salinity
a
(g l
−1
)
Annual temperature
range (°C)
b
Location and substrates Strain number
c
Identified as
Temperate regions
Baltic Sea
<10
d
2–17 Rügen Island, Germany
Ceramium sp. TUBs 7888 (NBRC 100653) D. arenaria
Fucus sp. (dried) TUBs 7889 (NBRC 100654) D. arenaria
Friedrichsort, Germany
Polysiphonia urceolata Grev. TUBs 7891 (UAMH 10474) D. arenaria
TUBs 7892 (UAMH 10475) D. salina
Copenhagen, Denmark
Sand TUBs 8520 D. arenaria
North Sea
32–33
e
6–18 Helgoland, Germany
Laminaria digitata (Huds.) Lamour. (drift samples) TUBs 7893 (NBRC 100655) D. salina
TUBs 7897 (UAMH 10476) D. salina
Laminaria digitata (rotten samples) TUBs 7898 (UAMH 10477) D. salina
Laminaria digitata (drift samples) TUBs 7903 D. salina
Laminaria digitata (rotten samples) TUBs 7908 D. salina
Cuxhaven, Germany
Glaux maritima L. TUBs 7909 (NBRC 101143) D. salina
Mediterranean Sea
>37
b
14–26 Crete, Greece
Unidentified algal substrate TUBs 7912 (NBRC 101140) D. salina
TUBs 7914 D. salina
Gozo, Malta
Unidentified algal substrate TUBs 7915 D. salina
TUBs 7916 D. arenaria
TUBs 7917 D. salina
TUBs 7918 (NBRC 100657) D. salina
English Channel
35–36
b
11–16 Lulworth Coast, United Kingdom
Fucus sp. TUBs 8221 D. salina
Fucus vesiculosus L. TUBs 8229 D. salina
Atlantic Coast
35–36
b
11–16 France
Enteromorpha intestinalis (L.) Nees. TUBs 8147 D. salina
Sand under Amophila arenaria Link. NBRC 8359 D. arenaria
Unidentified substrate UAMH 1357 D. arenaria
Sea of Japan
34
b
6–22 Teshio, Hokkaido driftwood NBRC 32140 D. arenaria
Teradomari, Niigata seafoam NBRC 32139 D. salina
110

incubated at 25°C for 5 days and observed under the
microscope (40×) for mycelial growth indicative of substrate
utilization.
Production, extraction, detection, and assay of second-
ary metabolites The 16 strains of Dendryphiella were
initially grown on slants of potato carrot agar (Höller et al.
2000), with 3.3% (w v
−1
) marine salts for 10 days at 25°C.
Spore suspensions used as inocula from these cultures
were prepared in volumes of 50 ml 0.01% Tween (80)
water. Approximately 5 ml inoculum for each strain was
pour-plated with the following five agar culture media
with 3.3% (w v
−1
) marine salts at pH 6.5: (a) CDM with
3% (w v
−1
) carbon source (glucose, CG; sucrose, CS; or
mannitol, CM) + 0.3% (w v
−1
) NaNO
3
as nitrogen source;
(b) CDM with 3% (w v
−1
) sucrose as carbon source +
0.3% (w v
−1
) nitrogen sources (NH
4
NO
3
, CN; peptone,
CP; or yeast extract, CY); (c) malt extract–peptone–yeast
extract agar (MPY; Schulz et al. 1995); (d) malt extract
agar (per liter with 20 g malt extract, 0.1 g yeast extract,
13 g agar); (e) potato dextrose agar. Other Dendryphiella
strains were grown only on salted MPY; strains are listed
in Table 4. All cultures were incubated for 4 weeks at
25°C. Additional petri dishes with CDM with sucrose +
sodium nitrate were also incubated at 18, 25, and 30°C to
determine the influence of temperature on the production
of secondary metabolites. After incubation, the cultures
were lyophilized, ground, extracted with buffered ethyl
acetate, and evaporated in vacuo. Dried crude extracts
were then dissolved in 1:1 methanol–acetone (1.5 ml per
three plates) and stored at 15°C until use for assay.
In assaying the crude extracts for bioactivity, the
microorganisms were cultured as follows: Chlorella fusca
on CP medium (Schulz et al. 1995), at pH 6.2 for 4 days
under white light at 22°C; Microbotryum violaceum,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,andCladosporium cucumerinum
on MPY agar (pH 6.5) for 4 days (7 days for C.
cucumerinum) at room temperature (≈22°C); Bacillus
megaterium and Escherichia coli on nutrient agar (NA =
NB in Schulz et al. 1995, but with agar and at pH 7.5) for 24 h
at 37°C; and the marine bacterium Vibrio alginolyticus on
NA (pH 7.0) with 3% (w v
−1
) NaCl for 24 h at room
temperature. Inocula were suspended in sterile distilled water
(with 3% NaCl for V. alginolyticus) and their titers
standardized photometrically at 620 nm—0.7 and 0.1 for
the test alga and fungi, respectively, and 0.05 and 0.10 for the
gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, respectively.
Each inoculum of test microorganism was sprayed onto
antibiotic paper disks impregnated with 50 μlofcrude
extract on agar medium. Culture media and conditions of
culture were optimal for the respective test organisms.
Thereafter, the zone of inhibition was measured with a
vernier caliper (three readings per disk). Inhibition zones of
the control (solvents and extracted uninoculated culture
media) were deducted from the readings for the treatments.
To determine the secondary metabolites, an aliquot
(20 μl) of the crude extracts from selected strains grown
on salted MPY (listed in Table 4) were spotted on Thin
Layer Chromatography (TLC) silica gel 60 F
254
alumin-
ium plates (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), run in 4%
MeOH in dichloromethane solvent system and visualized
with 5% H
2
SO
4
in EtOH (general spray reagent); sprayed
TLC plates were heated for 10 min at 110°C. The
bioactive metabolites of these strains were also detected by
TLC bioautographic overlay assay of strains grown on
MPY with marine salts that exhibited moderate to strong
activity against the test fungus M. violaceum. Cell
suspension of the pregrown fungus was photometrically
Average salinity
a
(g l
−1
)
Annual temperature
range (°C)
b
Location and substrates Strain number
c
Identified as
Subtropical region
Gulf of Mexico
36
b
22–29 Fort de Soto Park, Florida
Gracillaria tikvalriae McLachlan TUBs 7479 D. arenaria
Ceramium sp. TUBs 7508 (NBRC 101142) D. salina
Unidentified algal substrate TUBs 7515 D. arenaria
John’s Pass, Florida
Digenea simplex (Wulfen) Agardh. TUBs 7527 (NBRC 101141) D. arenaria
Gracillaria sp. TUBs 7541 D. arenaria
Hypnea musciformis Lamouroux TUBs 7538 D. arenaria
Sargassum sp. TUBs 8195 D. arenaria
Zostera marina L. (rotten samples) TUBs 8218 D. arenaria
a
Salinity values were converted from practical salt units (psu) to grams per liter
b
http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/WOA01F/tsearch.html
c
Several isolates were deposited at or obtained from the University of Alberta Microfungus Collection and Herbarium (UAMH) in Canada
and NITE Biological Resource Center (NBRC) in Japan. TUBs represent the accession code for the strains deposited in the research group’s
culture collection at the Technical University Braunschweig, Germany. Strains in bold were those 16 D. arenaria and D. salina used in the
study of the growth responses to abiotic and biotic factors
d
http://www.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/bsds/559.html
e
http://www.bsh.de/de/Meeresdaten/Beobachtungen/MURSYS-Umweltreportsystem/Mursys_031/seiten/nosa6_01.jsp
Table 1 (continued)
111

(260 nm) adjusted to 0.1, mixed with precooled MPY agar
to a concentration of 10 ml per 100 ml medium, and
poured onto TLC plates containing 20 μl crude extracts,
which had been previously run two-dimensionally with 4
and 8% MeOH in dichloromethane. The TLC overlays
were then incubated for 4 days at 22°C, the clear zones
determined and compared with TLC plates sprayed with
reagent.
Results
Salinity, temperature, pH
Salinity All 16 Dendryphiella strains grew better with than
without marine salts (15–45 g l
−1
) as determined by their
mean colony diameters and extension rates (Fig. 1a). Most
isolates grew optimally with 33 g l
−1
marine salts
(p<0.001), though some of them grew equally well with
15–45 g l
−1
marine salts (Fig. 1a). However, there were
also significant differences among the isolates (one-way
ANOVA, Student–Newman–Keuls Method, p<0.001).
Response to salinity was species-related, with D. arenaria
isolates growing significantly faster than D. salina—
generally with mcer >1.2 cm day
−1
(p<0.001)—regardless
of their geographical origin. Of these D. arenaria isolates,
the three Baltic Sea (Bs) strains grew fastest at all marine
salt concentrations (Fig. 1a). All strains sporulated at all
salinities on CDM (data not shown).
Temperature The 16 Dendryphiella strains grew on CDM
(pH 6.5, 3.3% marine salt) at temperatures between 5 and
34°C, but not at 37°C. The best growth occurred between
22 and 30°C, with an optimum at 25°C for most strains
irrespective of geographical location and climatic zone
(Fig. 1b, p<0.001). While at 15°C growth rates among the
strains of D. arenaria and D. salina did slightly vary, at
higher temperatures those of the former grew significantly
faster than the latter (p<0.001). This was most pronounced
at 34°C, where most D. arenaria strains reached mcer ≥
1.0 cm day
−1
, regardless of their geographical origin.
Growth at 37°C was completely inhibited and at 5°C
became visible only after 5 days of incubation (data not
shown), resuming when the cultures were incubated at 25°C.
Those strains that had initially attained minimal growth at
5°C even reached the high growth rate typical of cultures
started at 25°C (data not shown). Spore formation also
occurred in these cultures, as it did at all other temperatures.
pH The isolates grew at all pH values tested. Growth was
good over a broad range from pH 6.5 to 8.0 (Fig. 1c).
There were no correlations between geographical origin
and mcer at any of the pH values. There were, however,
statistically significant differences between some strains of
the individual species (p<0.001). As had been the case
with variances of salinity and temperature, the mean mcer
of the D. arenaria strains was greater than that of the D.
salina strains (p<0.001). The three D. arenaria isolates
from the Baltic Sea had the greatest mean growth rates. All
strains sporulated at all tested pH values.
Salinity–temperature combination All 16 Dendryphiella
strains exhibited similar growth patterns in response to the
combined influence of salinity and temperature, as
illustrated in Fig. 2for one strain of D. arenaria and
three strains of D. salina. As is the case for most marine
fungi, the salinity optimum shifted to higher salt
concentrations at higher temperatures of culture. This
“Phoma-pattern of growth”(Richie 1957) was very
pronounced in cultures incubated at 34°C. Such a response
was observed regardless of the source of the strains. On
the other hand, at a lower temperature (18°C), variations in
growth were minimal, independent of the marine salt
concentration. Growth of all strains was poor in the
absence of marine salts. Statistical analysis of the mean
values of the mcer with two-way ANOVA (Holm–Sidak
method) revealed significant interaction (p<0.001) be-
tween the factors salinity and temperature.
Substrate utilization
The strains of both Dendryphiella species generally did not
differ greatly in their utilization of algal components and
various sugars as carbon sources for growth in CDM with
3.3% NaCl at pH 8. Mycelial growth was good with most
tested C-sources, with the exception of fucose and fucoidan
(Table 2), both cell wall components of some Phaeophyceae.
It was also poor on the extract of C. crispus (Rhodophyceae).
Antimicrobial activities
Extracts from cultures grown at 25°C To test for
antimicrobial metabolites, crude ethyl acetate culture
extracts of the 16 strains were assayed for inhibition of
microbial test organisms. With the exception of E.coli,
some isolate(s) of each species inhibited each of the test
organisms (Tables 3and 4). Inhibition was weak against
C. fusca,S. cerevisiae, and V. alginolyticus, and weak to
moderate against B. megaterium.M. violaceum was
inhibited by all the crude extracts, though the intensity
of inhibition varied greatly (Table 4); C. cucumerinum was
not inhibited. There were no correlations with species,
geographical origin, or climate zone, though there was
great variation between the individual strains.
Extracts from cultures grown at 18–30°C To test for the
possible influence of incubation temperature on the
production of bioactive metabolites, the Dendryphiella
strains were assayed for antimicrobial activity at different
temperatures. Although the intensities of the inhibitions
varied, incubation temperature had no significant general-
ized effect on the biological activity of the culture extracts
(data not shown). There were only effects on the activities
of individual strains.
112

a
Bs 7888
Bs 7889
Bs 7891
Ms 7916
Gm 7479
Gm 7541
Bs 7892
Ms 7912
Ms 7914
Ms 7918
Ns 7893
Ns 7897
Ns 7898
Ns 7903
Ns 7909
Gm 7508
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
0 g L marine salt
-1
15 g L
-1
marine salt
33 g L
-1
marine salt
45 g L
-1
marine salt
b
Bs 7888
Bs 7889
Bs 7891
Ms 7916
Gm 7479
Gm 7541
Bs 7892
Ms 7912
Ms 7914
Ms 7918
Ns 7893
Ns 7897
Ns 7898
Ns 7903
Ns 7909
Gm 7508
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
15
o
C
18
o
C
22
o
C
25
o
C
30
o
C
34
o
C
Fig. 1 Growth of marine Dendryphiella species at different marine
salt concentrations (a), incubation temperatures (b), and pH values
(c), Mean values within and between species are statistically
significant (p<0.001, n=9). Geographical origins of the strains are
represented as Bs (Baltic Sea), Ms (Mediterranean Sea), Ns (North
Sea), and Gm (Gulf of Mexico)
113

Thin layer chromatography and bioautography To detect
the bioactive secondary metabolites, selected Dendry-
phiella strains were assayed using TLC agar overlay with
the fungus M. violaceum. Clear zones were only observed
on bioautograms of culture extracts of the more active
strains (Table 4), e.g., Bs 7892 and Ms 7917, and were
Table 2 Utilization of algal components and various sugars by Dendryphiella species
a
Substrates D. arenaria D. salina
Bs
b
Ms Gm Bs Ms Ns Gm
7888 7889 7891 7916 7541 7479 7892 7912 7914 7918 7893 7897 7898 7903 7909 7508
CDM w/o C sources 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Glucose, galactose, fructose, mannose,
xylose
2222222222222222
Sucrose 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
Glucoronic acid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fucose 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fucoidan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alginic acid (1%, 3%) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Laminarin 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Soluble starch 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Algal extract (Laminaria digitata) 2222222222222222
Algal extract (Chondrus crispus) 1111111111111111
a
Growth on microtiter wells. 0no mycelial growth; 1mycelial growth observed, wells partly covered; 2mycelial growth observed, wells
completely covered
b
Origin of strains. Bs Baltic Sea, Ms Mediterranean Sea, Ns North Sea, Gm Gulf of Mexico
c
Bs 7888
Bs 7889
Bs 7891
Ms 7916
Gm 7479
Gm 7541
Bs 7892
Ms 7912
Ms 7914
Ms 7918
Ns 7893
Ns 7897
Ns 7898
Ns 7903
Ns 7909
Gm 7508
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
pH 5. 0
pH 6. 5
pH 7. 0
pH 8. 0
D. arenaria D. salina
Fig. 1 (continued)
114

located near the point of origin, but not on those that had
been weakly inhibitory, e.g., Bs 7891 and Ms 7912. Two-
dimensional TLC revealed that the culture extracts of Ms
7917 contained at least two bioactive metabolites (data not
shown). The metabolites, however, remained unidentified.
To determine the TLC profiles, ethyl acetate crude
extracts were subjected to thin layer chromatography, and
the secondary metabolites were visualized with H
2
SO
4
in
EtOH. TLC profiles of D. arenaria and D. salina showed
similar patterns, regardless of origin of strains (Fig. 3).
Discussion
Our investigations revealed numerous adaptations to the
abiotic and biotic parameters of the marine environment.
However, contrary to our hypothesis, we detected no
adaptations that correlated with geographical origin. The
salinity and temperature ranges of the seas from which the
isolates originated varied considerably (Table 1), but all of
the isolates were equally adapted to grow under the
conditions tested. Additionally, there were neither signif-
icant differences in their ability to degrade various
C-sources nor correlations of biological activity or metab-
D. arenaria TUBs 7888 (Baltic Sea)
incubation temperature (oC)
18 30
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
D. salina TUBs 7918 (Mediterranean Sea)
incubation temperature (oC)
18 25 30 34
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
D. salina TUBs 7893 (North Sea)
incubation tem
p
erature
(
oC
)
18 30
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
D. salina TUBs 7508 (Gulf of Mexico)
incubation tem
p
erature
(
oC
)
18 25 30 34
mean colony extension rate (cm day-1) ± SEM
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 g L-1 marine salt
15 g L-1 marine salt
33 g L-1 marine salt
45 g L-1 marine salt
25 34
34
25
Fig. 2 Combined influence of salinity and temperature on growth of Dendryphiella species. Mean values between conditions of culture per
strain are statistically significant (p<0.001, n=9)
115

olite profiles of the culture extracts with geographical
locations; the latter were strain-specific.
Responses to abiotic factors
Salinity has always been recognized as a key determinant
factor for the growth of marine fungi. However, it is not an
absolute requirement as many marine fungi, including
several strains of D. salina, were found to grow in culture
both without added salts and even well with minimal
amounts of added salts (Jones and Jennings 1964; Jones
and Byrne 1976). Similarly, in our study, absence of
artificial marine salts in culture media did not prevent
growth of any of the isolates of D. arenaria and D. salina,
though there were significant differences in colony exten-
sion rates between those cultured with and without marine
salts (Fig. 1a). The isolates were not only able to adapt to
low marine salt concentrations, but also to high concentra-
tions, e.g., the good growth of the Baltic Sea isolates at the
highest marine salt concentration tested (45 g l
−1
), which is
somewhat surprising as the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea
are less saline (approximately 10 g l
−1
; Table 1).
Temperature also plays an important role in the growth
of marine fungi. Our strains of D. arenaria and D. salina
from various geographical locations exhibited in culture a
broad incubation profile for growth (Fig. 1b)—from cool
(5–22°C) to warm (25–34°C)—although the growth
optima were at 25°C even for isolates from the Baltic
and North Seas where the annual temperature range is not
higher than 20°C (Table 1). Spore formation occurred
between 15 and 34°C. Nevertheless, our results with many
isolates from different climates concur with those of Duffy
et al. (1991), Panebianco (1994), and Jones and Byrne
Fig. 3 Thin layer chromato-
graphic profiles of the crude
extracts of marine
Dendryphiella species. TLC
plates (a,b) were visualized by
spraying with 5% H
2
SO
4
in
EtOH, and then heated for
10 min at 110°C. Lightness,
contrast, and intensity of TLC
plates were modified with Corel
Photo-Paint Version 8
116

(1976), who studied fewer isolates from only one climatic
zone. Hughes (1974) and Kohlmeyer (1983) asserted that
temperature may be the limiting factor that determines
fungal geographical distribution. Perhaps it is the plasticity
to grow and survive at a broad range of temperatures, as
demonstrated by the 16 strains we tested, that enables the
marine Dendryphiella species to grow in coastal areas of
the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.
The “Phoma-pattern of growth”describes an adaptation
to growth in the coastal habitat for a number of fungi in
marine environments and appears not to be correlated with
any taxonomical group or geographical distribution. All of
our 16 strains of Dendryphiella, again irrespective of
origin, exhibited this pattern of growth (Fig. 2), as had been
found by Lorenz and Molitoris (1992) for the three
temperate strains of D. salina, suggesting that this is a
general characteristic of the marine Dendryphiella species.
Lorenz and Molitoris (1992) argued that along intertidal
zones, water recedes at low tide and the little pools of water
that remain are heated up, resulting in increased salinity
due to evaporation. Therefore, marine fungi that can
tolerate higher salinities at higher temperatures have a
survival advantage, another example of the phenotypic
plasticity that these marine species of Dendryphiella
exhibit.
Our study showed only slight differences in the growth
of the D. salina and D. arenaria strains at the pH range
(5.0–8.0) tested irrespective of their origin (Fig. 1c), as also
previously reported by Curran (1980) and Edwards et al.
(1998). The capability to grow at higher pH values, which
is not common among fungi, suggests though an adaptation
to the alkalinity of the marine habitat (Edwards et al. 1998).
Responses to biotic factors
In order for marine fungi to survive, they must possess the
enzymes to degrade the organic compounds present in their
native habitat. The strains of Dendryphiella salina and D.
arenaria we studied were able to utilize various sugars and
complex organic compounds, but also an extract of L.
digitata and laminarin, the stored polysaccharide also
common in Laminaria (Table 2). Degradation of laminarin
(Schatz 1980,1984; Grant and Rhodes 1992) and alginate
(Wainwright 1980; Wainwright and Sherbrock-Cox 1981;
Schaumann and Weide 1990,1995) were also previously
reported, however, in contrast to our study only for several
isolates each. Our isolates, however, were not able to
degrade fucoidan. Perhaps Fucus spp. are not normal
substrates for D. arenaria and D. salina. This is suggested
by the fact that we isolated a number of Dendryphiella
strains from L. digitata, but fewer from Fucus spp.
(unpublished data), and also that molecular studies failed
to identify Dendryphiella spp. associated with the latter
(Zuccaro et al. 2003). That Dendryphiella species are
encountered on moribund or decayed algal debris may be
merely coincidental to the ease of finding these materials
washed up ashore during low tide. It is probable that their
spectrum of substrate preference is wider than is presently
known. Their large arsenal of degradative enzymes
suggests that they also have a parasitic potential. There is
but a thin blurred line between facultative parasitism,
saprophytism, and “endophytism,”as is known for many
pathogenic fungi on terrestrial plants (Schulz and Boyle
2005).
Dendryphiella spp., as saprobic fungi, have numerous
other microorganisms as competitors for the degradation of
organic matter. Production of bioactive metabolites would
enhance their chances to colonize and degrade substrates.
In contrast to previous results (Pugh 1974; Otsuka et al.
1992), all 22 of our tested strains of D. arenaria and D.
salina produced antifungal metabolites, many synthesized
antibacterial and antialgal metabolites. Such substances
could give them an advantage over microbial competitors
(Tables 3and 4). The antialgal substances might also be
advantageous in dealing with the algal defense response,
since analogous to plants, macroalgae use chemical
defense against invading microorganisms (Kubanek et al.
Table 3 Antialgal and antibacterial activity of crude ethyl acetate culture extracts of Dendryphiella species grown at 25°C
Species Strain Diameter of zone of inhibition (in mm)
a
C. fusca B. megaterium E. coli V. alginolyticus
D. arenaria Bs (3)
b
0–12 0–18 0 0–22
Gm (2) 0–16 8–26 0 0–10
Ms (1) 0–12 11–24 0 0–20
D. salina Bs (1) 0–14 9–13 0–20–14
Ms (3) 0–14 7–24 0 0–18
Ns (5) 0–17 6–28 0 0–20
Gm (1) 0–12 7–25 0 0
Extracts tested were obtained from cultures grown on the following culture agar media: CDM with different C (CG, CS, CM) and N (CN,
CP, CY) sources and complex media (MEA, MPY, PDA)
Bs–Baltic Sea Ns–North Sea Gm–Gulf of Mexico Ms–Mediterranean Sea
a
Diameter of zone of inhibition (n=3); 0, no inhibitory activities; <20 mm, weakly inhibitory activities; 20–30 mm moderately inhibitory
activities; >30 mm, strongly inhibitory activities
b
Geographical origin of strains; number in parenthesis indicates number of strains
117

2003). Inhibition of E. coli was only weak to nil, perhaps
because this bacterium is allochthonous in the marine
environment.
Bioactivity against the test microorganisms appeared to
be strain-specific, e.g., only seven strains of D. salina (Bs
7892, Ms 7915, Ms 7917, Ns 7908, Ns 7909, Uk 8221, Uk
8229) exhibited moderate (20–30 mm) to strong (>30 mm)
inhibition of the test fungus M. violaceum. Inhibition was
also sometimes dependent on the culture medium and
incubation temperature, as is frequently the case for the
fungal synthesis of secondary metabolites (Frank 1998).
Again, we found no correlations with geographical origin.
As shown on the TLCs following visualization with
H
2
SO
4
in EtOH, the culture extracts of the various strains
have similar TLC profiles (Fig. 3). The intensity of the
bands seems not correlated with antifungal activity
(Table 4). Similarly, the antifungal, hydrophobic metabo-
lite ergosterol, which was found in the culture extracts of D.
arenaria (Dai and Krohn, unpublished data; Lösgen and
Zeeck, unpublished data) cannot be primarily responsible
for the strong inhibitions. This is because the antifungal
metabolites are relatively polar, remaining at the origin
with 4% methanol in dichloromethane as solvent. To our
knowledge, to date, the only metabolites that have been
detected in culture extracts of D. salina were dendryphiel-
lin A–D and A1, the first fungal trinor-eremophilanes, three
eremophilanes (Dendryphiellin E, F, and G), the C9-
carboxylic acids, dendryphiellic acids A and B, a novel
glyceryl ester (glyceryl dendryphiellate A), and the
eremophilanes (Dendryphiellin E1 and E2) (Guerriero et
al. 1988 –1990). The authors reported no antifungal
properties of these metabolites. Because we are not in
possession of reference substances, we could not check to
see if any of the metabolites visualized on the TLCs run
during the course of these investigations are those found by
Guerriero et al. (1988 –1990).
Conclusions
The strains of D. arenaria and D. salina tested exhibited
similar growth responses to the abiotic and biotic
parameters tested, irrespective of their geographical origin,
all growing optimally in the presence of marine salts, in
near-neutral to slightly alkaline pH, and at warmer
incubation temperatures. There were no major differences
in the synthesis of degradative enzymes and secondary
metabolites or biological activity of the culture extracts,
though interstrain variation in their antagonistic activities
was present. This phenotypic plasticity of the two species
enables them to degrade diverse substrates, to grow in
temperate, subtropical, and tropical marine climates, but
also to survive in fresh waters.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Dr. Siegfried Draeger
(Technical University Braunschweig, Germany) for aid in the
identification of the fungal strains and Prof. Dr. Irineo Dogma, Jr.
(University of Santo Tomas, the Philippines) and PD Dr. Christine
Boyle for the critical reading and evaluation of the paper. T. E. dela
Cruz would like to thank the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch
Dienst (DAAD) for the graduate scholarship grant, and BS thanks
BASF AG and the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
for financial support.
References
Byrne PJ, Jones EBG (1974) Lignicolous marine fungi. Veroff Inst
Meeresforsch Bremerhaven 5(Suppl):301–320
Curran PMT (1980) The effect of temperature, pH, light and dark on
the growth of fungi from Irish coastal waters. Mycologia
72:350–358
Duffy AP, Curran PMT, Muircheartaigh IGO (1991) Effect of
temperature and nutrients on spore germination in marine and
non-marine fungi. Crypt Bot 2(3):125–129
Edwards J, Chamberlain D, Brosnan G, West D, Stanley MS,
Clipson NJW, Hooley P (1998) A comparative physiological
and morphological study of Dendryphiella salina and
D. arenaria in relation to adaptation to life in the sea. Mycol
Res 102 (10):1198–1202
Ellis MB (1976) More dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Common-
wealth Mycological Institute, Kew, UK
Table 4 Antifungal activity of crude ethyl acetate culture extracts of
marine Dendryphiella species grown on MPY with 3.3% marine
salts at 25°C
Den Nr.
a
Diameter of zone of inhibition in mm
b
S. cerevisiae M. violaceum C. cucumerinum
D.arenaria
Bs 7889 0.1–0.4 0.5–1.0 0
Bs 7891 1.4–1.8 2.2–3.7 0
Bs 8520 3.5–7.1 3.4–4.8 0
Gm 7538 4.3–5.7 3.8–6.2 0
Gm 7527 3.8–5.6 2.9–5.8 0
Gm 7515 4.0–4.8 3.6–6.6 0
Gm 8195 5.2–6.0 3.4–4.1 0
Gm 8218 5.2–6.0 1.1–2.5 0
Jp 32140 1.7–4.3 2.6–2.9 0
Fr 1357 2.4–4.8 2.0–2.3 0
Fr 8359 1.1–2.2 3.2–4.0 0
D.salina
Bs 7892 5.4–6.8 20.2–21.0 0
Ms 7912 1.7–2.9 0.5–1.5 0
Ms 7915 2.2–2.6 20.2–21.7 0
Ms 7917 1.4–2.9 35.6–37.8 0
Ns 7897 2.4–5.0 0.6–1.0 0
Ns 7908 0.8–1.5 27.1–28.5 0
Ns 7909 5.0–5.2 30.4–33.4 0
Jp 32139 2.2–3.0 0.8–1.7 0
Fr 8147 0.9–2.0 2.2–4.7 0
Uk 8221 1.2–2.4 19.0–20.3 0
Uk 8229 2.1–3.0 20.4–22.7 0
a
Geographical origin of strains. Bs Baltic Sea, Ns North Sea, Gm
Gulf of Mexico, Ms Mediterranean Sea, Jp Japan, Fr France, Uk
United Kingdom
b
Antimicrobial activities as measured by zone of inhibition (n=3)
0 mm, no inhibitory activities; <20 mm, weakly inhibitory
activities; 20–30 mm, moderately inhibitory activities; >30 mm
strongly inhibitory activities; Values exhibited by the control were
deducted from the measured zone of inhibition
118

Frank JM (1998) Special metabolites in relation to conditions of
growth. In: Frisvad JC, Bridge PD, Arora DK (eds) Chemical
fungal taxonomy. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 321–344
Genilloud O, Pelaez F, Gonzalez I, Diez MT (1994) Diversity of
actinomycetes and fungi on seaweeds from the Iberian Coast.
Microbiologia Sem 10:413–422
Gessner RV (1980) Degrading enzyme production by salt-marsh
fungi. Bot Mar 23:133–139
Grant WD, Rhodes LL (1992) Cell-bound and extracellular
laminarinase activity in Dendryphiella salina and five other
marine fungi. Bot Mar 35:503–511
Guerriero A, D’Ambrosia M, Cuomo V, Vanzanella F, Pietra F
(1988) Dendryphiellin A, the first fungal trinor-eremophilane.
Isolation from the marine deuteromycete Dendryphiella salina
(Sutherland) Pugh et Nicot. Helv Chim Acta 71:57–61
Guerriero A, D’Ambrosia M, Cuomo V, Vanzanella F, Pietra F (1989)
Novel trinor-eremophilanes (dendryphiellin B, C, and D),
eremophilanes (dendryphiellin E, F, and G), and branched C9-
carboxylic acids (dendryphiellic Acid A and B) from the marine
deuteromycete Dendryphiella salina (Sutherland) Pugh et Nicot.
Helv Chim Acta 72:438–446
Guerriero A, Cuomo V, Vanzanella F, Pietra F (1990) A novel
glyceryl ester (glyceryl dendryphiellate A), a trinor-eremophi-
lane (dendryphiellin A1), and eremophilanes (dendryphiellin E1
and E2) from the marine deuteromycete Dendryphiella salina
(Sutherland) Pugh et Nicot. Helv Chim Acta 73:2090–2096
Höller U, Wright AD, Matthée GF, König GM, Draeger S, Aust HJ,
Schulz B (2000) Fungi from marine sponges: diversity,
biological activity and secondary metabolites. Mycol Res
104:1354–1365
Hughes GC (1974) Geographical distribution of the higher marine
fungi. Veroff Inst Meeresforsch Bremerhav Sonderbd 5:419–441
Jones EBG (1962) Marine fungi. Trans Br Mycol Soc 45(1):93–114
Jones EBG, Byrne PJ (1976) Physiology of the higher marine fungi.
In: Jones EBG (ed) Recent advances in aquatic mycology. Elek
Science, London, pp 135–175
Jones EBG, Jennings DH (1964) The effect of salinity on the growth
of marine fungi in comparison with non-marine species. Trans
Br Mycol Soc 47(4):619–625
Jones EBG, Oliver AC (1964) Occurrence of aquatic Hyphomycetes
on wood submerged in fresh and brackish water. Trans Br
Mycol Soc 47(1):45–48
Kirk PW, Brandt JM (1980) Seasonal distribution of lignicolous marine
fungi in the Lower Chesapeake Bay. Bot Mar 13:657–668
Kirk PW, Gordon AS (1988) Hydrocarbon degradation by filamen-
tous marine higher fungi. Mycologia 80(6):776–782
Kohlmeyer J (1983) Geography of marine fungi. Aust J Bot Suppl
Ser 10:67–76
Kohlmeyer J, Volkmann-Kohlmeyer B (1991) Illustrated key to the
filamentous higher marine fungi. Bot Mar 34:1–61
Kubanek J, Jensen PR, Keifer PA, Sullards MC, Collins DO, Fenical
W (2003) Seaweed resistance to microbial attack: a targeted
chemical defense against marine fungi. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A 100(12):6916–6921
Lorenz R, Molitoris HP (1992) Combined influence of salinity and
temperature (Phoma-pattern) on growth of marine fungi. Can J
Bot 70:2111–2115
MacDonald MJ, Speedie MK (1982) Cell-associated and extracel-
lular enzyme activity in the marine fungus Dendryphiella
arenaria. Can J Bot 60:838–844
Miller JD, Whitney NJ (1981) Fungi from the Bay of Fundy II.
Observations on fungi from living and cast seaweeds. Bot Mar
24:405–411
Newell SY (1981) Fungi and bacteria in or on leaves of eelgrass
(Zostera marina L.) from Chesapeake Bay. Appl Environ
Microbiol 41(5):1219–1224
Newell SY, Fell JW (1980) Mycoflora of turtlegrass (Thalassia
testudinum König) as recorded after seawater incubation. Bot
Mar 23:265–275
Otsuka T, Shibata T, Tsurumi Y, Takase S, Okuhara M, Terano H,
Kohsaka M, Imanaka H (1992) A new angiogenesis inhibitor,
FR-111142. J Antibiot 45(3):348–354
Panebianco C (1994) Temperature requirements of selected marine
fungi. Bot Mar 37:157–161
Pugh GJF (1962) Studies on fungi in coastal soils II. Fungal ecology
in a developing salt marsh. Trans Br Mycol Soc 45(4):560–566
Pugh GJF (1974) Fungi in intertidal regions. Veroff Inst Meer-
esforsch Bremerhaven 5(Suppl):403–418
Pugh GJF, Beeftink WG (1980) Fungi in coastal and inland salt
marshes. Bot Mar 13:651–656
Richie D (1957) Salinity optima for marine fungi affected by
temperature. Am J Bot 44:870–874
Rohrmann S, Molitoris HP (1992) Screening for wood-degrading
enzymes in marine fungi. Can J Bot 70:2116–2123
Rohrmann S, Lorenz R, Molitoris HP (1992) Use of natural and
artificial seawater for investigation of growth, fruit body
production and enzyme activities in marine fungi. Can J Bot
70:2106–2110
Schatz S (1980) Degradation of Laminaria saccharina by higher
fungi: a preliminary report. Bot Mar 23:617–622
Schatz S (1984) Degradation of Laminaria saccharina by saprobic
fungi. Mycologia 76(3):426–432
Schaumann K, Weide G (1990) Enzymatic degradation of alginate
by marine fungi. Hydrobiologia 204/205:589–596
Schaumann K, Weide G (1995) Efficiency of uronic acid uptake in
marine alginate-degrading fungi. Helgol Meeresunters
49:159–167
Schulz B, Boyle C (2005) The endophytic continuum. Mycol Res
109:661–686
Schulz B, Sucker J, Aust HJ, Krohn K, Ludewig K, Jones PG,
Döring D (1995) Biologically active secondary metabolites of
endophytic Pezicula species. Mycol Res 99(8):1007–1015
Shimokawa T, Yoshida S, Takeuchi T, Murata K, Kobayashi H,
Kusakabe I (1997) Purification and characterization of extra-
cellular poly(β-D-1,4-mannuronide) lyase from Dendryphiella
salina IFO 32139. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 61(4):636–640
Strongman D, Miller JD, Whitney NJ (1985) Lignicolous marine
fungi from Prince Edward island with a description of
Didymosphaeria lignomaris sp. nov. Proc N S Inst Sci
35:99–105
Wainwright M (1980) Alginate degradation by the marine fungus
Dendryphiella salina. Mar Bio Lett 1:351–354
Wainwright M, Sherbrock-Cox V (1981) Factors influencing
alginate degradation by the marine fungi: Dendryphiella salina
and Dendryphiella arenaria. Bot Mar 24:489–491
Zuccaro A, Schulz B, Mitchell JI (2003) Molecular detection of
ascomycetes associated with Fucus serratus. Mycol Res 107
(12):1451–1466
119