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Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation: An Approach/Avoidance Reformulation
Abstract
The main purpose of this article is to advance an alternative perspective on the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and in particular to examine critically the assertion that these processes are antagonistic such that the will to learn for its own sake is inhibited by the presence of extrinsic, tangible rewards and incentives such as school grades. The presumption of an antagonistic relationship largely depends on the theoretical perspective adopted. An alternative interpretation based on need achievement theory leads to distinctly different conclusions. Exploring this new perspective allows one to identify both the conditions under which intrinsic motives may coexist with extrinsic motives as well as to consider some of the means by which intrinsic motives and caring about learning can be stimulated in their own right in school settings.
... Now, we delve more deeply into the profile aspect of this process to introduce conceptual support for making predictions about different profiles that may exist among students from low-SES backgrounds. For this, we refer to Covington's (Covington & Müeller, 2001;Covington & Omelich, 1985, 1992 work, which considers individuals' approaches to opportunity and adversity. The motive to approach opportunity, success orientation, involves proactive and adaptive efforts to learn and achieve (Covington & Müeller, 2001). ...
... For this, we refer to Covington's (Covington & Müeller, 2001;Covington & Omelich, 1985, 1992 work, which considers individuals' approaches to opportunity and adversity. The motive to approach opportunity, success orientation, involves proactive and adaptive efforts to learn and achieve (Covington & Müeller, 2001). In contrast, the motive to avoid adversity, failure fearing, arises from concerns about poor performance and involves self-protective efforts to avoid failure and maintain self-worth (Covington & Müeller, 2001). ...
... The motive to approach opportunity, success orientation, involves proactive and adaptive efforts to learn and achieve (Covington & Müeller, 2001). In contrast, the motive to avoid adversity, failure fearing, arises from concerns about poor performance and involves self-protective efforts to avoid failure and maintain self-worth (Covington & Müeller, 2001). In our study, success orientation may be considered via high perceived competence, school belonging, perseverance, and low conduct problems. ...
Personal academic agency—the thoughts, actions, and emotions that impact individual functioning at school—is central for academic success. On average, students from low socio-economic status (low-SES) backgrounds report lower levels of personal academic agency than their more advantaged peers, but there are also many who achieve academic success. Identifying different personal academic agency profiles among students from low-SES backgrounds may assist in targeting efforts to boost these factors within that population—and to identify students who are faring well, as well as those who might require additional support. This study examined five factors of personal academic agency (perceived competence, school belonging, perseverance, academic buoyancy, and conduct problems) among 20,125 secondary school students from low-SES backgrounds at 421 Australian schools. We identified profiles of students that vary in patterns of personal academic agency, and examined teaching support predictors and achievement differences associated with profile membership. Latent profile analysis revealed five student profiles: Vulnerable (9% of sample), Resigned (27%), Precarious (28%), Average (32%), and Flourishing (14%) profiles. Students’ perceptions of teaching support predicted membership in more adaptive profiles (i.e., Average and Flourishing profiles)—with the most consistent teaching support predictors being emotional support, classroom management, and instructional relevance. In addition, the Flourishing profile displayed the highest achievement.
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... Removing, revising, and reconstructing the meaning of grades affords students to focus more on learning and less on how someone else will judge their work (Covington & Müeller, 2001). Even ungraded assignments offer students freedom from the ambiguity associated with the precision of grades, including the + andscale . ...
Thriving online: A guide for busy educators focuses on helping educators (secondary school and higher education level) succeed and thrive in blended and online learning settings. Grounded in evidence-based practices and principles, we share diverse and extensive insights on starting out, differentiated learning, learning activities, feedback and assessment, and useful tools. Each chapter includes a subject overview, guidelines, activities or tools, and general resources.
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... Removing, revising, and reconstructing the meaning of grades affords students to focus more on learning and less on how someone else will judge their work (Covington & Müeller, 2001). Even ungraded assignments offer students freedom from the ambiguity associated with the precision of grades, including the + andscale . ...
Thriving online: A guide for busy educators focuses on helping educators (secondary school and higher education level) succeed and thrive in blended and online learning settings. Grounded in evidence-based practices and principles, we share diverse and extensive insights on starting out, differentiated learning, learning activities, feedback and assessment, and useful tools. Each chapter includes a subject overview, guidelines, activities or tools, and general resources.
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... For many students, grades are a form of extrinsic motivation as getting a good grade on a test, exam, or course can encourage them to study and perform well to have better chances at a prize, recognition, or honour (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The ungrading framework may provide freedom for the learning environment to facilitate intrinsic motivation or a student's personal desire to learn (Covington & Müeller, 2001), no matter the outcome in terms of a grade or measurement. ...
... Removing, revising, and reconstructing the meaning of grades affords students to focus more on learning and less on how someone else will judge their work (Covington & Müeller, 2001). Even ungraded assignments offer students freedom from the ambiguity associated with the precision of grades, including the + andscale . ...
Thriving online: A guide for busy educators focuses on helping educators (secondary school and higher education level) succeed and thrive in blended and online learning settings. Grounded in evidence-based practices and principles, we share diverse and extensive insights on starting out, differentiated learning, learning activities, feedback and assessment, and useful tools. Each chapter includes a subject overview, guidelines, activities or tools, and general resources.
... Whereas, the advantages and necessity of tangible rewards are obvious. Many psychologists and educators oppose the criticizers' beliefs; and argue that, instead, there is a positive and additive relationship between intrinsic motivation and tangible rewards [20][21][22]. Also, researchers found the pleasure received from tangible rewards can enhance children ' s self-esteem, confidence, and self-efficacy [9,23]. ...
... On the contrary, they believe intrinsic motivation is reinforced by tangible rewards. Eisenberger, Pierce, and Cameron have found tangible rewards based on performance increase individuals' self-determination and intrinsic motivation [20]. Likewise, based on Social-Cognitive Theory, Hidi have suggested tangible rewards can lead a student generate interest in specific activity then eventually contribute to more general involvement in a subject area, and to overall intrinsic motivation [37]. ...
... Indeed, it indicates tangible rewards from achieving challenging performance lead to higher personal evaluations and increased competence. Similarly, Covington and Müeller have found tangible rewards frequently bolster personal engagement in learning [20]. In this regard, scholarship is an appropriate example, leading students to work hard and improve their academic level. ...
... So it is understandable why students often confuse ability with worth. Because of that tendency many students come to believe that they are only as worthy as their accomplishment is, and that failure makes them unworthy of the approval of others (Covington, 1984;Covington & Mueller, 2001). From this point of view, the self-worth theory defines the goals adopted by students, whether performance-avoidant or performance-oriented, as the life-spanning endeavor to develop and maintain a sense of self-worth in a society that values competency and doing well (Covington, 1992). ...
... The distinction of between 'approaching success' and 'avoiding failure' is central in understanding students' motivation in self-worth theory. Covington and Mueller (2001) explain the types students have as follows: ...
... -164 -Students in the other three categories are called performance-oriented and they define success (and their resulting self-worth) as outperforming others. Their main concern in learning is proving their ability and not looking less competent than their peers (Covington & Mueller, 2001). So they are highly motivated to avoid failure or to avoid appearing to lack ability. ...
Extensive Reading in Kurdistan High Schools is seeking to prove if the current literary reader in the book is actually extensive.
... As a result, the relationship between instrumental motivation and science achievement may be weak because students may not be fully engaged or invested in their learning. Furthermore, instrumental motivation may not be sufficient to sustain long-term interest and engagement in science activities (Covington & Müeller, 2001). Individuals who are primarily motivated by external rewards may lose interest once they have achieved desired outcomes or if the rewards are not sufficient to sustain their interest. ...
... This result suggests that motivation to learn science due to extrinsic rewards or incentives, such as grades or job opportunities, may not be as influential as intrinsic motivation to learn science in achieving better outcomes in science activities or subjects. While instrumental motivation to learn science may drive some students to learn and work hard, it may not be sufficient to sustain their interest or engagement in science, especially when faced with challenges or setbacks (Covington & Müeller, 2001). Moreover, students who are motivated solely by external factors may be more likely to engage in surface-level learning strategies rather than actively seeking to understand and apply the concepts they are studying (Kwarikunda et al., 2021). ...
... The former and the latter orients individuals to approach positive and to avoid negative possibilities/events, respectively. As researchers note, approach and avoidance motivation operate simultaneously, and students struggle to avoid failure rather than work toward success in the achievement context [9]. This suggests that the psychological forces linked to approach motivation (driven by a gain in points) and avoidance motivation (oriented by loss in points) may be asymmetric. ...
... According to empirical testing of the self-discrepancy theory, a negative affect (i.e., disappointment, dissatisfaction, and sadness) only occurs when there is a discrepancy between an individual's actual self and ideal self [10,11]. It has been argued that students are more likely to fear being judged as incompetent if they do worse than others (e.g., 5 points lower than others or a normal standard) [9,13,14]. This suggests that students may be averse to intrapersonal loss when their current performance is lower than their expected or ideal performance, and they may hope to receive a grade that is higher than their peers in order to compensate for this kind of intrapersonal loss. ...
According to the achievement motivation theory, in achievement context, students may have to not only approach success/gain (e.g., strive to get a better grade) but also avoid failure/loss (e.g., avoid performing worse). However, these two types of achievement motivation have often been investigated separately. In contrast, loss aversion, a central argument in prospect theory, posits that avoiding losses has a greater impact on preferences than does approaching gains; suggesting that gain approach and loss avoidance should be treated as asymmetric forces that can be analyzed simultaneously to study approach to gain and avoidance to loss among students in terms of grades. The main purposes of this study were to propose an alternative measure to frame the dynamic evaluation process in the context of achievement that considers students’ sensitivity to performance change, and to further investigate students’ loss aversion in relation to grades through intrapersonal and interpersonal comparisons. A total of 41 and 72 college students participated in study 1 and study 2, respectively. One-way repeated measure ANOVA was conducted for the former sample while the single sample t-tests and independent sample ANOVA were used for the latter. Through the implementation of this alternative measure, the results revealed that (1) college students were more sensitive to performance changes than to their current or final performance, and (2) loss aversion was dependent on the referents. Students were averse to interpersonal loss, but not to intrapersonal loss. These findings indicate the usefulness of the proposed measure for investigating the asymmetric responses between two types of achievement motivation, and the proposed measure can be used to extend and revise the explanatory boundaries of prospect theory and self-discrepancy theory.
... Latinx immigrant students with bilingual dominance may feel more confident with their academic capabilities, and this can lead to their belief in performing well in English reading tasks. Having high self-esteem can provide Latinx immigrant students with the confidence to strive for success in improving their reading capabilities, and even if mistakes occur, students are intrinsically motivated to practice until they achieve their reading goals (Covington & Mueller, 2001). On the other hand, Latinx immigrant students with low self-worth suffer from poor self-esteem and may strive to avoid being perceived as incompetent in front of their peers and teachers (Covington, 1998). ...
... Self-worth theory of achievement (Covington, 1992(Covington, , 1998 explains that Latinx immigrant students with bilingual dominance may feel more confident with themselves and may have a healthy selfesteem, which can help them overcome language literacy obstacles in school. With high selfesteem, Latinx immigrant students may be intrinsically motivated to achieve their academic goals, and as a result may achieve higher reading scores than those with lower self-esteem (Covington & Mueller, 2001). ...
Second-generation Latinx immigrant students in middle school and high school may experience language and reading barriers in education resulting from their cultural upbringing. This study examined the language and reading scores of 2,107 bilingual dominant second-generation Latinx youth participants enrolled in 8th and 9th grade in the states of California and Florida. Results showed that bilingual dominance in English and Spanish is positively related to reading achievement scores, even when controlling for demographic variables. This study also found evidence that family cohesion and self-esteem mediated the relationship between bilingual dominance and reading achievement scores. This study provides insight into future research on the reading achievement of second-generation Latinx immigrant students. Implications for school administrators and educators regarding reading and language achievement for second-generation immigrant students will be shared with recommendations.
... correlation, regression), which may obscure important individual level differences in motivation for PA. In addition, motivational regulations may not be mutually exclusive [17]. Person-centered approaches, in contrast to variable centered approaches, may improve our understanding of motivation for PA because they allow us to identify subgroups of people based on their similarities on a set of variables (i.e., different motivation regulations) [18]. ...
... Throughout the 6-month supervised exercise program, participants in both randomized groups were asked to perform 3 exercise sessions/week at the CU-AHWC fitness center; participants were allowed to choose the type of exercise performed during each session (treadmill, elliptical, upright or recline bike, etc.). At weeks 16 and 21, participants were asked to add additional on-own exercise sessions, bringing the total number of exercise sessions to 4 (weeks [16][17][18][19][20] and 5 (weeks [21][22][23][24][25][26]. During on-own exercise sessions, participants were allowed to use cardiovascular exercise machines, participate in group exercise classes at the CU-AHWC fitness center, or exercise outside the CU-AHWC fitness center. ...
Background
High levels of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) are strongly associated with sustained weight loss, however the majority of adults are unsuccessful in maintaining high levels of MVPA long-term. Our goal was to identify profiles based on exercise motives, and examine the association between motivational profile and longitudinal changes in MVPA during a weight loss intervention.
Methods
Adults with overweight or obesity (n = 169, mean ± SE; age 39 ± 0.7 years, BMI 34.4 ± 0.3 kg/m², 83% female) underwent an 18-month behavioral weight loss program, including 6 months of supervised exercise, followed by 6 months of unsupervised exercise. Participants self-reported behavioral regulations for exercise at baseline (BREQ-2). Latent profile analysis identified subgroups from external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulations measured at baseline. Mean differences in device-measured total MVPA were compared across motivational profiles at baseline, after 6 months of supervised exercise and after a subsequent 6 months of unsupervised exercise.
Results
Three motivational profiles emerged: high autonomous (high identified and intrinsic, low external regulations; n = 52), high combined (high scores on all exercise regulations; n = 25), and moderate combined (moderate scores on all exercise regulations; n = 92). Motivational profile was not associated with baseline level of MVPA or the increase in MVPA over the 6-month supervised exercise intervention (high autonomous: 21 ± 6 min/d; high combined: 20 ± 9 min/d; moderate combined: 33 ± 5 min/d; overall P > 0.05). However, during the transition from supervised to unsupervised exercise, MVPA decreased, on average, within all three profiles, but the high autonomous profile demonstrated the least attenuation in MVPA (− 3 ± 6 min/d) compared to the moderate combined profile (− 20 ± 5 min/d; P = 0.043).
Conclusions
Results were in alignment with the Self-Determination Theory. Adults motivated by autonomous reasons (value benefits of exercise, intrinsic enjoyment) may be more likely to sustain increases in MVPA once support is removed, whereas participants with moderate-to-high scores on all types of exercise regulations may need additional long-term support in order to sustain initial increases in MVPA.
Clinical trial registration
NCT01985568. Registered 24 October 2013.
... Learners are most probably going to value the material they are learning and be motivated to study it if it is of personal interest to them. In a certain study by Covington and Mueller (2012), students enjoyed studying a topic that was of interest to them even when they failed. For intrinsic motivation to flourish, the teacher should make learning activities to be relevant to students' lives. ...
Purpose: A high achievement in Chemistry can be determined by many factors, some of which can be related to teachers, others to students and also school administration. One factor includes motivation which is that drive which makes an individual set a goal, initiate and maintain behaviors which lead to the attainment of the set goal. The purpose of our study is therefore to assess the effect of motivational strategies on the learner’s performance in secondary school Chemistry in Kenya Methodology: The paper used a desk study review methodology where relevant empirical literature was reviewed to identify main themes and to extract knowledge gaps. Findings: Based on the findings the study concluded that students' perception in chemistry determines its achievement in examinations and that most students do not have positive attitude in chemistry. The research concluded that, levels of motivation changed with significant decreases in self-efficacy and increases in personal relevance and assessment anxiety which consequently influenced the performance in science. The study also found out that, high Relative Autonomous motivation positively affected good strategy and study effort, which in turn positively affected academic performance in form of grade-point averages. Unique Contribution to Theory and Practice: The study recommends that the Government and school authorities should through the allocation of funds, materials and apparatus for sciences teaching make school laboratories more adequate for effective implementation for Chemistry curriculum so as to enhance students' performance. Students should be exposed to more laboratory applications and activities so that they can recognize laboratory materials and equipment
... Dickson et al. (2016) suggest that while depressed individuals do not differ in terms of avoidance goals, they are less likely to pursue approach goals, less likely to expect positive goal outcomes, and more likely to disengage when encountering difficulty. Further, intrinsically motivated goals tend to be approach oriented (Covington & Müeller, 2001). ...
Goal self-concordance is the extent to which an individual’s goals are aligned with their internal values and interests. Past research has suggested that both self-concordance and meaning in life are negatively associated with depressive and anxious symptomatology. Goal self-concordance and meaning in life, however, have not been assessed in conjunction. The paper utilized two separate samples (N = 168 and N = 269). Zero-order and partial correlations suggested that meaning in life judgement accounted for a unique portion of the variance in the association between goal self-concordance and both depressive symptomatology and anxious symptomatology. Further, separate cross-sectional mediation analyses suggested that meaning in life was uniquely and atemporally associated with both depressive and anxious symptomatology in both studies. Additionally, higher levels of goal self-concordance were associated with higher levels of all dimensions of meaning in life, and grit, and lower levels of depressive symptomatology in both studies.
... Another factor is extraversion, which is based on the inclination for sociability, an interest in being in large groups, activity, daring, sexual arousal, excitement, and optimism. Researchers have increasingly focused on studying personality and its dimensions as an influential factor in psychological well-being of individuals (Covington & Müeller, 2001). The influence of personality traits on behavior and cognition is sometimes direct and sometimes results in behavioral and cognitive outcomes through intermediary factors. ...
Objective: The present study was conducted to investigate the relationship between personality and psychological well-being with the mediation of positive affectivity in high school students. Methods and Materials: The research method was descriptive-correlational. Data collection tools included the short form of the NEO five-factor inventory, the Ryff psychological well-being scale (1989) and Watson and Tellegen's Affectivity Scale (1985). The statistical population of the current research was all the male and female students of the first secondary level of the 5th district of Tehran in the academic year 2021-22; according to the Morgan sampling table, 370 students were selected as a statistical sample by random sampling and the questionnaires were distributed among the people. Structural equation model (SEM) was used to analyze the data and it was analyzed by SPSS and AMOS software. Findings: The results showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between all dimensions of personality and mental well-being in secondary school students, but there is a negative and significant relationship between emotional distress and mental well-being. Also, positive affect significantly plays a mediating role in these relationships, so that it has a positive and significant relationship with all dimensions except neuroticism, and it has a significant negative relationship with neuroticism. Conclusion: Therefore, it is suggested to identify the level of positive emotion and personality of students by conducting standard tests in schools and to improve their psychological well-being.
... It is therefore important to examine whether critical perspectives are articulated at all, and exactly what students are encouraged to criticize. (Apple & Gadding, 2009) Covington and Mueller (2001) made the observation in her dissertation from Sweden; students in schools turn away from global environmental challenges because the problems are overwhelming. There is thus an urgent need to examine more closely, which makes social sciences and other subjects less motivating to students. ...
The students joining higher education undergo various confusions while selecting academic track for their further studies. Students who pass the tenth grade are supposed to join the subject of their interest in grade eleven or intermediate level which will be the fundamental course for their higher education ahead. Grade eleven is the main entry point for students to establish their future in the higher education. Higher education in Nepal starts from bachelor level but students are supposed to identify their major subject starting from grade eleven. It seems that SEE graduates tend to select the major subject while joining higher education depending on various aspects like intelligence of a person, the interest towards that subject, family, peer pressure, social inputs, guidance from teachers , etc. Family (57.47%) is the major agent to assist students to take decisions for choosing the academic track while joining grade eleven. 92.52% students were not forced but 7.4% students were forced by the parents to choose the major subjects for higher education. It is surprising that 59.19% students wish to go abroad for university level education. The children joining senior high school need to be provided career guidance and counseling before choosing and handling major academic track for their higher education.
... A success that maintains or elevates pressure, stress, and distress cannot be considered an adaptative outcome (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The complex antagonistic effects stemming from a desire to succeed and a fear to fail (e.g., Covington & Müeller, 2001) can only be captured if we measure and reconcile the positive and negative processes and outcomes associated with perfectionism. ...
... Finally, this study divided work motivation into intrinsic and extrinsic. However, these dimensions are not mutually exclusive, as individuals might be motivated intrinsically and extrinsically at the same time without any conflict [66]. Thus, future research should construct more fully specified work motives, such as public value, economic concern, and the working environment, and their dynamic interrelationships with organizational justice. ...
Although the relationships between fair treatment by the organization and work-related outcomes are contingent on motivational traits, little scholarly attention has been paid to how extrinsic and intrinsic work motivation shape the influence of organizational justice on employee voluntary absence in the field of public management. In this context, our study aims to explore the direct effect of organizational justice on voluntary absence based on social exchange theory, as well as the moderating roles of extrinsic and intrinsic work motivation in the relationship, building on the equity sensitivity theory. Using National Administrative Studies Project–III (NASP III) survey data from a sample of 709 public employees from two state governments (i.e., Georgia and Illinois) in the U.S. and negative binomial regression models, we found that organizational justice is positively associated with employee voluntary absence. Further analysis showed that while extrinsic work motivation mitigates the positive relationship between organizational justice and voluntary absence, intrinsic work motivation enhances the positive relationship between organizational justice and voluntary absence. Accordingly, our study offers meaningful implications that are essential for public management scholars and organizations to consider in order to develop effective managerial practices based on the fitness between organizational justice and employees’ motivational traits, thus reducing employee voluntary absence and improving organizational performance and sustainability.
... This approach examines the literary work as an autonomous work irrespective of social background, history, biography of the author, and all things that exist outside of literature (Boker, 2012). The basic assumption of this approach is that literary work is an autonomous work and it can be understood with an integral unity with its constituent elements which are interlinked with each other (Covington and Müeller, 2001). ...
p>The research aims to describe the personality and the personality development of Theodore Decker through psychosocial development perspectives in the main character of The Goldfinch novel. His personality becomes an example of how family and social environment contribute to the development of one’s personality. The research method used in understanding and in analysing the novel was descriptive qualitative. The research results are: According to Erik Erikson’s eight stages in psychosocial development theory, Theo has passed four major stages they are the stages of initiative vs guilt (14%), industry vs inferiority (14%), identity vs role confusion (46%), and intimacy vs isolation (29%). Theo struggles to pass the stage of identity vs role confusion. It has led him to the situation where he faces difficulties on understanding his identity and role within society. Theo is grown up as a person with less empathy for others, struggles with his drug addiction, and has trouble making commitments; Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development of the personality emphasizes the social influences in the development of the ego. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. Completing each step results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of the ego to resolve subsequent crises. Conversely, failure to complete a set will lead to ability reduction in completing further stages and an unhealthier personality and sense of self. Instead of focusing on sexual development, this theory is interesting in how children socialize and how social environment affects their senses.</p
... Excellence strivers should be mostly driven by the need to achieve success. In contrast, perfection strivers can be seen as overstrivers (Covington & Müeller, 2001) and are likely to be "often faced with a conflict between seemingly opposite motives" (Hewitt et al., 2017, p. 37). Therefore, perfection strivers should be driven by a mixed, antagonistic, or conflictual style of achievement motivation with elevated desire to achieve success and to avoid failure. ...
An unresolved and controversial issue in the perfectionism literature is whether perfectionism is beneficial, harmful, or unneeded. The Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism (MEP) was recently developed to address this question by distinguishing the pursuit of perfection from the pursuit of excellence (Gaudreau, 2019). In this article, we report the results of the first empirical test of the core assumptions of the MEP. Across 5 studies (total N = 2,157), we tested the conceptual, functional, and developmental distinctiveness of excellencism and perfectionism. In Study 1, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with two samples supported the hypothesized two-factor structure of the newly developed Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism (SCOPE). Study 2 provided evidence of convergent and discriminant validity from scores obtained from the SCOPE, and showed that, over and above excellencism, perfectionism was not associated with additional benefits (e.g., life satisfaction) or harms (e.g., depression). Studies 3-4 focused on the academic achievement of undergraduates and showed that, compared to excellence strivers, perfection strivers more often aimed for perfect A+ grades (Study 3), but in fact achieved worse grades (Study 4). Study 5 adopted a four-wave longitudinal design with undergraduates and showed that excellencism and perfectionism were associated with an upward and a downward spiral of academic development. Overall, the results support the core assumptions of the MEP and show that perfectionism is either unneeded or harmful.
... The above described differences cannot be ignored in pedagogical practice. They express the student´s relationship with the school and affect the effectiveness of his / her learning activity (Govington, & Müller, 2001). The future performance of students in their lives also depends on their results, which is doubly true for Roma students. ...
The research was focused on monitoring the differences between primary and lower secondary school pupils in the Czech Republic in terms of their needs “to be successful” or “to avoid failure”. Its aim was to analyse the motivation of pupils divided by teachers into two groups: students endangered and those not endangered by school failure. The research approach was based on the application of the standardized School Performance Motivation Questionnaire. Through its twelve indicators, the differences between the above-mentioned groups of students were analysed with a special respect to the students belonging to the Roma ethnic group. The research used indicators of descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, mode). The process of comparation of the acquired data confirmed differences in motivation of the group of students endangered by school failure as compared to that of unendangered by school failure. Pupils at risk of school failure showed a lower need to be successful than their classmates from the group at risk. Students at risk of school failure showed a lower need to be successful than their classmates from the other group. Also within these groups were found differences between the motivation of Roma pupils and their classmates. The Roma preferred the need to avoid failure much more strongly. The findings are important for educational practice because the ratio of the two needs identified affects pupils' learning strategies and affects not only the effectiveness of their learning, but also their relationship to cognition and school in general. Keywords: performance motivation, endangered students, unendangered students, Roma students, non-Roma students, descriptive analysis, school motivation indicators.
... That's why your students will perform best when you focus on motivating them intrinsically rather than extrinsically. In other words, encourage their already present desire to learn rather than tempting them to learn with external rewards (Covington & Müeller, 2001). ...
This research report presents an overview of current research on Cambodian students’ motivation towards English language learning: The Case of Hun Neng Buddhist Primary School, Kampong Cham Town. The data was collected by employing a quantitative method. The aims of the study were to examine the motivation levels of the participants and the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation levels. 93 Buddhist monk students participated in the study. The findings show that the Buddhist monk students were highly motivated toward learning English, and it was also reported that those Buddhist monk students were more extrinsically motivated than intrinsically. The study also recommends that motivation inside and outside the classroom should be incurred. It is also recommended that future research be conducted with a large sample size using other statistical analysis at other educational institutions. Qualitative and mixed-methods design are also recommended.
... According to this theory, additional and unjustified extrinsic rewards can reduce users' intrinsic motivation to complete the tasks they used to perform in the absence of additional rewards [94]. This implies that if rewards are suspended, users might suddenly stop doing their tasks, or they might do them reluctantly [20,94]. For this reason, we believe that identifying the destructive and positive aspects of gamification together is an important research direction in this field. ...
Community Question Answering Websites (CQAs) like Stack Overflow rely on continuous user contributions to keep their services active. Nevertheless, they often undergo a sharp decline in their user participation during the holiday season, undermining their performance. To address this issue, some CQAs have developed their own special promotional gamification schemes to incentivize users to maintain their contributions throughout the holiday season. These promotional gamification schemes are often time-limited, optional, and run alongside the default gamification schemes of their websites. However, the impact of such promotional gamification schemes on user behavior remains largely unexplored in the existing literature. This paper takes the first steps toward filling this knowledge gap by conducting a large-scale empirical study of a particular promotional gamification scheme called Winter Bash (WB) on the CQA of Stack Overflow. According to our findings, promotional gamification schemes may not be the panacea they are portrayed to be. For example, in the case of WB, we find that the scheme is not effective for improving the collective engagement of all users. Only some particular user types (i.e., experienced and reputable users) are often provoked under WB. Most novice users, who comprise the majority of Stack Overflow website's user base, seem to be indifferent to such a gamification scheme. Our research also shows the importance of studying the quantity and quality of user engagement in unison to better understand the effectiveness of a gamification scheme. Previous gamification studies in the literature have focused predominantly on studying the quantity of user engagement alone. Last but not least, we conclude our paper by presenting some practical considerations for improving the design of future promotional gamification schemes in CQAs and similar platforms.
... Since Amabile (1988) included intrinsic task motivation in her componential theory of creativity as one of four necessary components of creative performance, the link between creativity and intrinsic motivation has been extensively supported by numerous studies (Collins & Amabile, 1999;Luria & Kaufman, 2017;Runco, 2007;Tan et al., 2019). Nevertheless, Collins and Amabile (1999) suggested that some types of extrinsic motivation may be beneficial for creativity and that extrinsic motives may coexist with intrinsic ones (see also Covington & Müeller, 2001). supported this assumption when they found a weak positive correlation between intrinsic motivation and performance in three creativity tasks (product improvement task, unusual uses task, and similarities test) together with a weak relationship between creativity and identified regulation. ...
Metacognition and motivation are considered key facets of self‐regulation in various contexts. Recent studies identified a link between metacognition and creative performance, with metacognitively aware students performing more creatively and exhibiting higher levels of intrinsic and identified extrinsic motivation. The present study aims to examine the relationship between metacognition, orientation toward intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, and creative performance. One hundred nineteen university students completed the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom and performed four verbal creativity tasks (product improvement task, consequences task, and two unusual uses tasks). The partial correlation network showed that all the creativity tasks were uniquely related to at least one facet of metacognition, and that the most complex task (product improvement task) was linked to both metacognitive knowledge and regulation. Furthermore, the structural equation model indicated that orientation toward intrinsic motivation mediated the relationship between metacognition and creative performance, explaining 16% of the variance in creative performance.
... In the socio-cultural model, motivation is characterized by two orientations, intrinsic and extrinsic (Gardner et al., 1985). Intrinsic motivation is from one's innate desire and curiosity about the activity, while extrinsic motivation is governed by the goals, values, interests of others, and external, tangible rewards (Covington and Müeller, 2001). The integrative/instrumental dichotomy is also broadly discussed (Dörnyei, 1994;Estupinan Boboy, 2014). ...
This study aims to explore what motivates Chinese mid-career educational practitioners to pursue Ed. D. A university in South China was selected as a case university, and 18 Ed.D. candidates were recruited to participate in semi-structured interviews. Grounded theory analysis was conducted on the transcripts of the interviewees' information. The findings uncovered four motivational patterns (pre-intrinsic, pre-extrinsic, post-intrinsic, and post-extrinsic) of Ed.D. candidates in China that mutually influence and reinforce one another. A theoretical model was thus constructed in which extrinsic factors moderate intrinsic factors, prepositional factors stimulate post-positional factors, with pre-intrinsic factors act as incentives, pre-extrinsic factors act as preconditions, and post-intrinsic factors and post-extrinsic factors act as internal and external reinforcers, respectively. This study broadens critical understanding of Ed.D. students' motivation and offers several implications that should be of interest to Chinese Ed.D. candidates, educational researchers, universities, and government officials.
... Die fremdbestimmte (extrinsische) Motivation hingegen bietet einen Antrieb von außen, weil man beispielsweise übt, um Belohnungen wie Preise zu erhalten oder Bestrafungen wie Fernseh-oder Internetverbot zu vermeiden (vgl. Covington & Müeller, 2001sowie Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018. Grundsätzlich werten musizierende Studierende verschiedener Ausrichtungen und Studienlevel intrinsische Motivationsfaktoren im Vergleich zu extrinsischen als entscheidender für ein anhaltendes Interesse am Musizieren im Ensemble (Diaz, 2010). ...
Motivation umfasst Prozesse der Zielverfolgung für die Initiierung, Aufrechterhaltung und Beendigung einer Tätigkeit. Das Erweiterte kognitive Motivationsmodell, das Rubikon-Modell der Handlungsphasen, die Motivdispositionstheorie und die Selbstbestimmungstheorie sind wichtige theoretische Rahmenkonzepte für die motivationalen Basiskomponenten Anreize, Motive, psychologische Grundbedürfnisse, Flow und Volition, wobei häufig zwischen extrinsischer und intrinsischer Motivation differenziert wird. In unserer Studie erfragten wir die hauptsächlich motivierenden Personen und Folgeanreize zur Teilnahme an „Jugend musiziert“, Merkmale von Flow als Tätigkeitsanreiz beim Üben und Volition als Realisierungsmotivation sowie die musikbezogene Karrieremotivation. Zusätzlich modellierten wir einen Autonomieindex, der als Maß für die Ausprägung der autonomen Motivation der Teilnehmenden diente. Zwar erwiesen sich die Lehrenden als die wichtigsten motivierenden Personen, jedoch gab etwas mehr als die Hälfte der Teilnehmenden sich selbst als Motivator an und mit steigendem Alter sogar mehr als zwei Drittel. Besonders die Hoffnung auf Herausforderung, aber auch die Flow-Erfahrung ließen sich als wichtigste Anreize zur Teilnahme an „Jugend musiziert“ aufzeigen und Beharrlichkeit als bedeutsamer Bestandteil für die Vorbereitung darauf. Autonome Motivation fanden wir ebenfalls bei der Mehrheit der Teilnehmenden, wobei mit zunehmendem Grad an autonomer Motivation auch mehr geübt wurde, die Übequalität zunahm und die Hoffnung auf Herausforderung bedeutungsvoller wurde. Etwa die Hälfte der befragten Jugendlichen zeigte im Durchschnitt Ambitionen für eine Musikkarriere und kaum jemand äußerte Abbruchmotivationen. Dabei ergaben sich positive Zusammenhänge zwischen dem Alter der Teilnehmenden bzw. Karriereambitionen und autonomer Motivation. Insgesamt ist festzuhalten, dass für das Üben eines Instruments bzw. der Stimme und die Teilnahme an einem Wettbewerb extrinsische und intrinsische Motivation gleichermaßen von Bedeutung sind.
... In total, the findings emphasize the importance of the congruence between different motivational mechanisms and the context in creating total motivation and directing behavior (Kruglanski et al., 2002). As commonly used, different motivational mechanisms occur or are applied in combination with one another (Covington and Müeller, 2001;Breugst et al., 2020). Thus, it is important to mix them appropriately so that they can create a consistent effect on individual's perceived locus of causality, leading to overall motivation and performance improvement. ...
One of the challenges in the motivation literature is examining the simultaneous effect of different motivational mechanisms on overall motivation and performance. The motivational congruence theory addresses this by stipulating that different motivational mechanisms can reinforce each other if they have similar effects on the perceived locus of causality. Reward salience and choice are two motivational mechanisms which their joint effects have been long debated. Built upon the motivational congruence effect, a recent empirical study affirms that a salient reward in a condition characterized by lack of choice and a non-salient reward in a condition characterized by provision of choice both increase overall motivation and performance. In this study, we examine the effect of reward salience and choice on overall motivation and performance in a controlling context, an effect which has not been studied before. A 2 (choice: present, absent) × 3 (reward: salient, non-salient, none) factorial design was conducted to examine research hypotheses. The results show that under controlling conditions, salient reward improves overall motivation and performance compared to non-salient and no-reward conditions.
... This pressure can also come from an external source, such as demands from a parent or teacher (i.e., external motivation). It is important to note here that research has shown that intrinsic motives can coexist with extrinsic motives (e.g., Covington and Müeller, 2001). Moreover, these different types of motivation can operate at different levels (Vallerand, 1997), such as trait, contextual (e.g., school level), and the situational level (e.g., for a specific subject or moment). ...
Being able to self-regulate one’s learning is essential for academic success but is also very difficult for students. Especially first year students can be overwhelmed with the high study load and autonomy in higher education. To face this challenge, students’ monitoring and self-regulated learning (SRL) processes are crucial. Yet, often students are not aware of effective SRL strategies or how to use them. In this study, the use of a mobile application with gamification elements (i.e., Ace Your Self-Study App) to support first-year university students’ SRL processes was investigated. In Study 1a, the Ace your self-study app was implemented in a first-year psychology course, and students’ SRL skills, motivation, self-efficacy, app use and satisfaction, and performance were measured. The results showed a significant increase in autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and metacognitive self-regulation skills (MSR-R) across the 5-week course. Moreover, students who used the mobile application with gamified elements showed higher autonomous motivation. Nevertheless, most students used the app only for a limited number of self-study sessions. In Study 1b, students’ self-study experiences were captured using focus group interviews to shed some more light on why students did or did not use the app. The results show that if students feel they do not need support for their SRL processes during self-study, they are less inclined to use the app. Specifically, regarding using study strategies, it was found that only if students’ strategies do not work well in their perception, they feel the need to change their way of studying and choose another strategy. These results are discussed in the context of theory on SRL and how to support it.
... Excellence strivers should be mostly driven by the need to achieve success. In contrast, perfection strivers can be seen as overstrivers (Covington & Müeller, 2001) and are likely to be "often faced with a conflict between seemingly opposite motives" (Hewitt et al., 2017, p. 37). Therefore, perfection strivers should be driven by a mixed, antagonistic, or conflictual style of achievement motivation with elevated desire to achieve success and to avoid failure. ...
An unresolved and controversial issue in the perfectionism literature is whether perfectionism is beneficial, harmful, or unneeded. The model of excellencism and perfectionism (MEP) was recently developed to address this question by distinguishing the pursuit of perfection from the pursuit of excellence (Gaudreau, 2019). In this article, we report the results of the first empirical test of the core assumptions of the MEP. Across five studies (total N = 2,157), we tested the conceptual, functional, and developmental distinctiveness of excellencism and perfectionism. In Study 1, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with two samples supported the hypothesized two-factor structure of the newly developed Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism (SCOPE). Study 2 provided evidence of convergent and discriminant validity from scores obtained from the SCOPE, and showed that, over and above excellencism, perfectionism was not associated with additional benefits (e.g., life satisfaction) or reduced harms (e.g., depression). Studies 3-4 focused on the academic achievement of undergraduates and showed that, compared to excellence strivers, perfection strivers more often aimed for perfect A+ grades (Study 3), but in fact achieved worse grades (Study 4). Study 5 adopted a four-wave longitudinal design with undergraduates and showed that excellencism and perfectionism were associated with an upward and a downward spiral of academic development. Overall, the results support the core assumptions of the MEP and show that perfectionism is either unneeded or harmful. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Motivation in a general sense is the underlying reason for humans' behaviors (Covington and Müeller, 2001). That is, motivation provides people with a purpose, direction, and orientation to pursue (Broussard and Garrison, 2004). ...
Since students' academic success is tied to their academic motivation and engagement, determining the predictors of these two variables seems critical. So, several inquiries have inspected the role of students' emotional and personal variables in their academic motivation and engagement. Nonetheless, the function of L2 enjoyment as an important emotional factor has remained elusive. Moreover, no inquiry has reviewed this issue neither systematically nor theoretically. To fill these lacunas, this review study aims to explain definitions, dimensions, and theoretical frameworks of L2 enjoyment, student academic motivation, and student academic engagement. This study also intends to outline the positive consequences of L2 enjoyment for students' academic engagement and motivation. Relying on the theoretical and empirical evidence, the positive role of L2 enjoyment in raising EFL students' engagement and motivation was firmly affirmed. Finally, the implications of the findings are discussed.
... In the present study, academic motivation was discussed in three different factors pointed by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Different studies Ayub (2010); Covington & Müeller, (2001); Jurisevic et al., (2008); Reiss (2012) and Ryan & Deci (2000) discussed intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn. All authors defined the terms and came up with a similar description stating intrinsic motivation as an act of doing something because it is inherently interesting, enjoyable, or satisfying to someone. ...
Linking motivation and learning is central to understanding students’ motivation toward learning and learning itself as complex cognitive phenomena. Some studies focused on students’ motivation toward learning biology in general; however, the shortage of studies on the effect of animation-based instruction and small-group laboratory activities as Resource-based Instructions (RBIs) on pre-service biology teachers was realized. The present study aimed to determine the effect of resource-based Instructions on pre-service biology teachers’ academic motivation toward learning biology at private and public Universities in Rwanda. Pre-service biology teachers were grouped into three groups at a public teacher traning University and received a pre-and post-assessment. Quasi-experimental, pre and post-test control group design was used at a public university, while a repeated measures design was used at a private university. The standard academic motivation scale for learning biology (AMSLB) yielded a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.71 before use. The t-Test was computed to measure the statistically significant difference between the pre-and post-assessment scores and group of RBI interventions. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) was computed to measure the effect of RBIs vis à vis the AMSLB factors. Findings revealed no statistically significant difference (df=18, p=.458) in the motivation of learning biology of pre-service teachers before and after learning via traditional instruction at a public university. However, a statistically signficant difference was found with animation instruction (df=18, p=.002) and lab instruction (df=18, p=.014). The motivation of learning biology increased at a public university than at a private university. However, animations and small-group lab activities increased pre-service biology teachers’ intrinsic and extrinsic—career motivation of learning biology at both universities. Therefore, the study recommends using RBIs to improve pre-service biology teachers’ motivation toward learning biology.
... Much of the literature agrees that motivation declines if related to social or performance norms. Pupils may link their self-worth to grades achieved, especially if comparison and competition feature too much in the classroom (Covington and Mueller, 2001), problematic in larger classes where rewards can be more scarce (it is easier to come in the top three of a class of 8 than 28). ...
This article discusses how one special school for pupils with moderate‐learning difficulties reflects themes in the literature on pupil motivation. It aims to highlight good practice and is based on reflections from prolonged working with the school as an advisory teacher, illustrated with teacher, pupil and parent comments from Y6 Education Health Care Plans and Y7 annual review documents (n = 23) and from OFSTED reports. It beings by exploring the origins and influences on pupil motivation, identifying the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and examining motivational traits and attributions within individuals. It then discusses the motivational influences of the social and learning contexts of the school: organisation, curriculum and pedagogy, and goals and rewards. Throughout, school‐specific observations are related to and discussed alongside themes in the literature. Motivation is commonly defined in quantitative terms that describe the intensity, direction and duration of behaviour and effort. It is the qualitative aspects of how motivation is aroused and maintained that are germane to this paper.
... The degree of attractiveness of performance activity for the student and the subjective probability of the expected result play a decisive role (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974). In accordance with the approach of Covington and Müeller (2001), the paper examines the performance orientation of a selected sample of students and their classification into motivational types according to the ratio of motivational tendencies. At the same time, it monitors differences in performance orientation according to achievement as an indicator of students' school success. ...
Introduction: The current school is strongly focused on student performance. Each student faces a large number of learning tasks, which place considerable demands on them, arouse in them a different degree of interest, evoke a different degree of commitment to work, are associated with different expectations or have a different degree of attractiveness. Performance situations are associated with pleasant experiences but also with experiences of failure, which in their essence affect the activity or passivity of the student, and thereby affect the prioritization of the necessity to excel or the need to avoid failure. These needs are the basis of performance orientation, which is analysed in the paper. The aim is to verify whether the motivational orientation of students is related to their beneficial outcomes.
Methods: The quantitative nature of the paper made it possible to use both indicators of descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, standard deviation) and inductive statistics (Mann-Whitney U test, Pearson's Chi-square test, Shapiro-Wilk normality test). The surveyed sample of 363 respondents consisted of an available selection of students from 14 primary schools in five regions of the Czech Republic in 2019. The data were collected physically at schools using a standardized questionnaire. Students were acquainted with its purpose and content. Statistical analysis of the data was carried out electronically, both in terms of methodology in accordance with the research design of Hrabal and Pavelková (2011).
Results: The analysis of the data of the sample of respondents revealed that the performance orientation of problem students differs statistically significantly from that of the performance motivation of non-problem students in two cases: 1) the need for successful performance, where differences were verified using hypothesis H1 and 2) in the ratio of performance needs, where the differences were verified using hypothesis H4. In other cases, no statistically significant difference was found between the two groups.
Discussion: The presented findings correspond to current domestic (Krykorková & Váňová, 2010) and foreign research (Weiner, 2000). They draw attention to the importance of a positive motivation of the student in terms of his degree of involvement in the development of his own dispositions, which affects the benefit of the student. Positively motivated students achieve better results with a comparable intellect than non-motivated students (Man & Mareš, 2005). The role of the teacher and his knowledge of motivational types of students is of paramount importance in this respect.
Limitations: The sample under examination of respondents does not bring a representative sample in terms of the representation of students according to school years, regions of the Czech Republic or according to the representation of so-called problem or non-problem students. The outcomes of the survey can thus be applied only to a given sample of respondents.
Conclusion: The benefitting for students in the sample showed lower positive motivation than their intellectually comparable non-problem classmates. It is a question of reserves, the use of which is a challenge not only for themselves, but also for the school and parents. The largest differences between the two groups were recorded in the specific ratio of positive and negative motivation 4: 2 within the T1 type and in the ratio 1: 3 within the T6 type. The attempt to determine the causes of this fact, especially proposing a remedy, is a topic for further research in this area.
Self-determined motivation, self-regulated learning, and academic persistence are recognized as pivotal non-cognitive factors shaping students’ academic advancement (Watts-Martinez, 2015). The increasing public interest in higher education outcomes propels researchers to explore the factors contributing to persistence and successful college completion. Motivation may function as a mediating factor between self-regulated learning and academic persistence. Despite their significance, the interrelation between these factors, particularly in the context of learning English as a foreign language, has not yet been thoroughly examined. This review delves into the theoretical foundations of this interrelation, shedding light on its importance and potential impacts, especially in non-English-speaking contexts such as Iran. The literature suggests that understanding how orientations of self-determined motivation, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, influence EFL students’ academic persistence is crucial. This gains particular significance in the context of English language education, especially at the tertiary level, warranting further analysis.
Information avoidance has been studied in medicine, economics, and psychology, and has recently been discussed in educational technology. In this study, the authors developed a grouping method to reduce students’ information avoidance in reading through group work. This two-step group method includes the k-means and genetic algorithm to explore the grouping method based on students’ marking tendencies. To examine the effect of this method, an experiment was conducted in a web-system development course with 33 graduate students. The results showed that information avoidance occurred less in the experimental group than in the control group. The students of the two-step grouping method evaluated group work as more helpful for their study than the students who attended the usual group work.
This study was conducted to explore the Influences of Online Learning on Social Loafing. Since the pandemic, online learning has become more popular, and students have been exposed to various cooperative and collaborative learning exercises. These group activities are not usually well-liked by students. Students who work in groups face various challenges, such as personal conflicts, unequal effort, scheduling, and others. This study utilized the qualitative research method. This study's sixteen (16) participants were selected through purposive sampling. The researcher's semi-structured interview guide was used in data gathering through interviews. The thematic analysis of Braun and Clarke was used to analyze the qualitative data. Ten (10) emergent themes were established from the participants' responses, classified under three (3) overarching themes that provided answers to sub-problems. The emergent themes were extracted from the significant statements of the key participants. For the description of the participants on their experiences during online learning, the overarching theme, Experience of the Participants of Social Loafing in an Online Learning, has three (3) emergent themes that were classified as Relying on the group leaders; Absence of collaboration; Poor Prioritization. The Factors of Online Learning that Contribute to Social Loafing has four (4) emergent themes that were classified: Group size, Internet Connectivity issue, Digital distractions, and Types of Leaders, while the Implications of the Participants' Contribution to Social Loafing in Online Learning has three (3) emergent themes that were classified as Affecting Group's Quality of Performance and Grades; Affecting Mental Health; Affecting groups relationship. The study's findings and recommendations were used to improve the issues encountered during online learning on social loafing.
This study examined a group of primary Swedish students' conceptions of their own motivation for learning. Altogether, 68 students in Grades 3, 6, and 8 participated in the study, in which similarities and differences among students in the three grades were considered. Theoretical and methodological aspects were guided by the phenomenographical approach. For most students, positive and negative influences on motivation emerged in seven distinct categories: feelings, teachers, teaching, subjects, learning environment, classmates, and well-being. The apparent importance of good teachers, structured and varied lessons, practical aesthetic subjects and more group-rooms was similar across the three different grades. Differences that emerged were students' reduced joy in learning, decreased interest in mathematics, higher levels of stress and pressure, more worry and anxiety, higher degree of preparation for the future, and a greater need for individualisation for the older students. The study's results confirm previous research but also provide new knowledge about variations across the grades and more specific factors that promote or inhibit students' motivation to study.
Understanding the role of motivation in engaging students in laboratory skill education is crucial for learning and academic achievement. Physical laboratories in science are considered experiential learning environments where students develop high-level conceptual learning. Attitudes towards these laboratories affect the efficacy of skill training. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, computer-based virtual laboratories (VL) had emerged as a potential medium for skill training and experimentation, compatible with lockdown restrictions. However, there remains a significant gap in VL adoption due to the lack of awareness and familiarity of VL amongst teachers and students. This study examined the key motivational factors impacting the efficacy of VLs to teach students laboratory skills and tasks. The survey-based data for the study was collected using an intrinsic motivation inventory (IMI) scale, self-reported survey responses for extrinsic factors, and a teachers' VL perception scale. Independent sample t-test and automatic linear modeling (LINEAR) were used to analyze the data. The findings show that the animated graphic learning materials of VLs had a higher impact on students' intrinsic motivation than the e-book learning materials. The role of teachers was also crucial in increasing students' motivation levels for performing laboratory experiments using VL. the results also indicate performing VL experiments for longer durations or multiple times, positively influenced students’ laboratory performance.
Background and purpose
The Netherlands has National Indication Protocols on proton therapy (PT) to select patients who benefit most from PT. However, referrals to proton therapy centres (PTCs) are lagging. The objective of this research is to identify the barriers for access to PT and to design interventions to address these barriers. Material and methods
We conducted a nationwide survey among radiation oncologists (ROs), and semi- structured in-depth interviews with ROs and patients. Subsequently, four workshops were held, in which ROs from one PTC and ROs from referring hospitals participated. The workshops were based on design-thinking research, where ideas were co-created on a multidisciplinary basis to encourage joint problem ownership. Kruskal Wallis and X2 tests were used to analyze data.
Results
The most prominent barriers mentioned by ROs were patient selection, poor logistics, and logistical worries about the combination of radiation treatment with chemotherapy. Patients pointed out the inefficient coordination between organisations, poor communication, travel issues and discomfort during treatment. Clues to increase referrals revealed the need for additional tools for patient selection and innovative ways to improve logistics. A case manager was identified as beneficial to the patients’ journey as part of a multidisciplinary approach. Such an approach should include the active involvement of medical oncologists, surgeons and pulmonologists.
Conclusion
Barriers for access to PT were identified and prioritized in the inter-organisational care- pathway of proton therapy patients in The Netherlands. Innovative solutions were co- designed to solve the barriers.
Audit quality rewards might create incentives for auditors to enhance their performance. We examine whether the effects of an audit quality bonus are contingent on appetitive motivation and engagement pressure. Appetitive motivation is a personality trait of goal pursuits that consists of drive, reward responsiveness, and fun seeking. Engagement pressure is the conflict between meeting time budgets and complying with auditing standards. Relying on cognitive evaluation theory, we expect that an audit quality bonus increases audit quality for auditors with lower appetitive motivation and decreases audit quality for auditors with higher appetitive motivation when engagement pressure is low. When engagement pressure is high, the effects of an audit quality bonus are difficult to predict. In an experiment with 420 auditors, we manipulate an audit quality bonus and the level of engagement pressure and measure appetitive motivation. The results are consistent with our expectations in the setting of low engagement pressure, but only for drive. In the setting of high engagement pressure, we find no effects for an audit quality bonus. When considering audit quality rewards, it is important to acknowledge the typical audit environment of conflicting pressures and the level of drive that both can constrain these rewards’ effectiveness.
هدفت الدراسة الحالية إلى التعرف إلى أفضل نموذج بنائي للعلاقات بين التحصيل الدراسي والتقويم البنائي من وجهة نظر المعلمات والتوجهات الدافعية لدى طالبات الصف العاشر الأساسي بغزة. وتكوّن مجتمع الدراسة من معلمات الصف العاشر الأساسي في مدارس مديريات التربية والتعليم خان يونس، وشرق خان يونس، ورفح، والبالغ عددهن (489) معلمة، كما تكوّن من طالبات الصف العاشر الأساسي في المدارس الحكومية التابعة لوزارة التربية والتعليم في محافظتي خان يونس ورفح للعام الدراسي (2019 - 2020م)، وبلغ عددهن (2337) طالبة. وتمّ اختيار عينة الدراسة بالطريقة الطبقية العشوائية، وقد بلغ عدد أفراد العينة (200) معلمة من معلمات الصف العاشر، و(296) طالبة من طالبات الصف العاشر الأساسي. وتمّ تطبيق مقياس التقويم البنائي على المعلمات إعداد الباحثين، ومقياس التوجهات الدافعية في التعلم على الطالبات إعداد زينب عبد العليم بدوي (2014)، وتم حساب الخواص السيكومترية للمقياسين من صدق وثبات. وحُدّد التحصيل الدراسي بمجموع الدرجات العام التي حصلت عليه طالبات الصف العاشر في اختبارات التحصيل المدرسية في جميع المقررات الدراسية نهاية الفصل الدراسي الأول 2019 ـــــ 2020م. وتوصلت الدراسة إلى النتائج التالية: وجود تأثير موجب مباشر وكلي دال إحصائيًّا لاستخدام المعلمات لأنشطة التقويم البنائي على التوجهات الدافعية في التعلم للطالبات، ووجود تأثير موجب مباشر وغير مباشر وكلي دال إحصائيًّا لاستخدام المعلمات لأنشطة التقويم البنائي على التحصيل الدراسي للطالبات، ووجود تأثير موجب مباشر وكلي دال إحصائيًّا للتوجهات الدافعية في التعلم على التحصيل الدراسي للطالبات.
The motivation to study may affect students’ successes and setbacks in their studies. Research has shown that multiple factors affect students’ motivation to study. The purpose of this article is to describe how students conceptualize the motivation to study. We gathered empirical data through group interviews with 32 Swedish students in six study programs. Through phenomenographical analyses, we identified six categories of how students experience the motivation to study: the importance of teachers, the subject, student characteristics and attitude, study results, and support from friends and family and the environment. Within each category, we distinguished various aspects. Differences in conceptions between students and programs or types of programs exist, but they are small. Only students from study preparation programs emphasized the importance of student characteristics and attitude for increasing study motivation and getting good jobs. The study’s results show both general and distinctive content in the meaning of study motivation. We make recommendations to develop incentives for all students, not just those who have favourable socio-economic study conditions, to develop motivational strategies to study.
Now, more than ever, while facing the worldwide pandemic COVID-19, communities such as Tasmanian cities are anticipating for the build from the ground up after the pandemic passes. Entrepreneurial emergence will play a crucial role in the re-establishing of Tasmania's identity, as these individuals are described as being motivated by opportunities and are recognized by their distinct eye for creation and innovation. Leadership competencies are the underlying characteristics of an individual, which can be demonstrated though knowledge, values, capabilities, and behaviors. With the COVID-19 pandemic depleting our resources and population, the need for individuals with effective and ethical leadership competencies has seen a rise, sparking the research question: How can authentic leadership competencies create and enable entrepreneurial emergence?
In this study, the authors investigated the attitudes of Japanese junior high school students towards studying English from the perspective of the Self-worth Theory. A total of 383 students aged 12 to 15 years participated in the qualitative study. Students were required to write three essays about how they would react under hypothetical circumstances in which their feelings of self-worth might be threatened. The contents of the students’ essays were analysed and matched with mechanisms within the quadrants of Covington’s Quadripolar Model of Achievement Motivation. Overall, the results suggested that the adolescents appeared to show traits of low defensive pessimism, high self-handicapping, and high helplessness, placing the students on the borderline of the Self-protectors and the Failure Acceptors. Reasons for the findings and pedagogical implications will be discussed.
Young adult caregivers are growing in number, yet there is a paucity of literature on their role in informal family caregiving. The Positive Aspects of Caregiving (PAC) framework has been developed within Dementia carers to indicate positive outcomes of the caring experience. The current study specifically explored the narratives of four young adult carers’ lived experience of caring towards their parents with cancer, using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) through the lens of PAC. Main themes developed from this study were unfolding the child-parent dyad, character building and affirmation of value systems, time reframed, and sustaining caregiving continuity with subthemes surrounding responsibility, appreciation beyond the role reversal, acceptance and sources of comfort. This small-scaled study contributes towards a new understanding of the young adult population, their perception of caregiving and briefly informs the PAC beyond a dementia population.
The current study aims at analyzing and comparing novice teachers’ motivations, values, and beliefs (N=810) from two different countries, namely the United States and Switzerland. Both groups, the US participants (n=327) and the Swiss participants (n=483) were enrolled in a teacher training program in their respective countries. Study results identified the main teaching motivations across all subsamples as related to participants’ personal values, social values, their teaching views, and instructional beliefs. Study results show that while motivational factors were similar at many levels between the two subsamples, their teaching views and their instructional beliefs were different and varied across participants from the two countries. Findings can help educators understanding the interplay between teaching motivations and beliefs as well as cultural nuances related to these concepts.
This study examines the effects of external environmental factors, specifically monetary reward and choice, on intrinsic motivation, and tests whether they are moderated by individual differences in causality orientation. We randomly assigned 103 undergraduates to one of four conditions: reward (reward vs. no reward) × choice (choice vs. no choice). Participants were given puzzles to solve in the experimenters' presence, which they were free to continue tackling when the experimenters left the room. We measured the time spent solving puzzles when free to choose other activities, task enjoyment, and perceived competence as dependent variables. Interest in puzzles was unaffected by receiving a reward in participants with high autonomy orientation but dropped significantly in participants with low autonomy orientation. Choice over the task increased competence in participants with high autonomy orientation but lowered competence in low autonomy orientation. Finally, we found no significant effects on time spent on puzzles. The present study contributes to current literature regarding the causes of differences in performance in various achievement settings.
Conducted a field experiment with 3-5 yr old nursery school children to test the "overjustification" hypothesis suggested by self-perception theory (i.e., intrinsic interest in an activity may be decreased by inducing him to engage in that activity as an explicit means to some extrinsic goal). 51 Ss who showed intrinsic interest in a target activity during baseline observations were exposed to 1 of 3 conditions: in the expected-award condition, Ss agreed to engage in the target activity in order to obtain an extrinsic reward; in the unexpected-award condition, Ss had no knowledge of the reward until after they had finished with the activity; and in the no-award condition, Ss neither expected nor received the reward. Results support the prediction that Ss in the expected-award condition would show less subsequent intrinsic interest in the target activity than Ss in the other 2 conditions. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Most contemporary achievement goal conceptualizations consist of a performance goal versus mastery goal dichotomy. The present research offers an alternative framework by partitioning the performance goal orientation into independent approach and avoidance motivational orientations. Two experiments investigated the predictive utility of the proposed approach-avoidance achievement goal conceptualization in the intrinsic motivation domain. Results from both experiments supported the proposed framework; only performance goals grounded in the avoidance of failure undermined intrinsic motivation. Task involvement was validated as a mediator of the observed effects on intrinsic motivation. Ramifications for the achievement goal approach to achievement motivation and future research avenues are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This research examined the impact of self-regulatory styles on the degree of consistency between behaviors and self-reported attitudes and traits. It was predicted that individuals who regulate their behavior in an autonomous manner would be more like{y to display behavior consistent with their self-reported attitudes and traits than individuals who regulate their behavior in accordance with external or introjected controls. In two intrinsic motivation laboratory experiments, subjects who were classified as autonomy oriented on the basis of their responses to the General Causality Orientations Scale were shown to display significantly higher attitude-behavior correlations than subjects classified as control oriented. In another experiment, autonomy-oriented subjects showed greater consistency between self-descriptions of conscientiousness and a behavioral criterion than control-oriented subjects. Together, these findings support Deci and Ryan's hypothesis that individual differences in self-regulation will influence indexes of personality integration.
Reviews research that demonstrates the importance of motivation, incentive value, and probability of success, independently measured, for predicting achievement performance and the frequency with which affiliation acts are performed. Both theory and research lead to the following conclusions: (1) motive strength, particularly in relation to the strength of other motives in the person, is the more important determinant of operant act frequency; (2) incentive value is the more important determinant of cognitively based choices; (3) motive strength and probability of success combine multiplicatively to predict response strength or probability; and (4) all determinants, plus this last interaction, together account for over 75% of the variation in operants such as affiliative act frequency. The remainder of the variation is readily attributable to environmental opportunities. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Hypothesized that reduced plausibility of explanations, such as insufficient study, lead to increasing self-attributions to inability that in turn mediate shame and lowered expectancies for future success. 339 undergraduates were administered a series of tests and the Michigan State Self-Concept of Ability Scale. Ss who experienced successive subjective failure gave postdictive explanations for each failure, indicated degree of shame, and rated expectancy for future success. Ss experiencing belated success after an initial failure were also examined. Path analysis confirmed self-worth predictions and suggested that despair observed in the learned helplessness paradigm occurred not so much from the noncontingent reinforcement of effort as from Ss' failure to protect a sense of personal competency. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the qualitative (motivational) and quantitative (performance) consequences of 2 fundamental features of task-mastery learning structures—retesting opportunities and criterion-referenced grading. As part of an introductory psychology course, 435 undergraduates were assigned to a norm-referenced (competitive) or a criterion-referenced grading system and to either a single-test or retest condition for a 2-wk period, ending with a midterm examination. Results show that performance superiority of mastery instruction occurred primarily because of the retest option, with enhanced motivation due to both retesting opportunities and criterion-referenced standards. Path analysis confirmed a complex interrelationship among these factors such that increased performance (caused by the retesting option) enhanced motivational involvement, which in turn fostered further learning gains. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 2 laboratory and 1 field experiment with 24, 24, and 8 undergraduates to investigate the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation to perform an activity. In each experiment, Ss performed an activity during 3 different periods, and observations relevant to their motivation were made. External rewards were given to the experimental Ss during the 2nd period only, while the control Ss received no rewards. Results indicate that (a) when money was used as an external reward, intrinsic motivation tended to decrease; whereas (b) when verbal reinforcement and positive feedback were used, intrinsic motivation tended to increase. Discrepant findings in the literature are reconciled using a new theoretical framework which employs a cognitive approach and concentrates on the nature of the external reward. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several investigations have confirmed self-worth predictions that greater shame at failure is experienced under high-effort conditions. In contrast, studies conducted under B. Weiner's (e.g., Weiner et al; see record
1972-22619-001) attributional model have suggested the opposite, that increased shame is associated with low-effort expenditure. The present research, conducted with 1,026 undergraduates, provided empirical support for a proposed resolution of these apparently conflicting findings. Ss were administered a questionnaire designed to manipulate different levels of perceived ability (high and low) and to establish different degrees of certainty regarding these ability perceptions. Results indicate that shame was a global, undifferentiated emotion that shared an ability-linked component (humiliation) and an effort-linked component (guilt). Consistent with self-worth predictions, effort was found to increase humiliation via inability ascriptions because a combination of high effort and failure implies low ability. Conversely, consistent with Weiner's theory, high effort also was found to decrease the guilt component of shame. It was further predicted and confirmed that the relative strength of these ability/effort → affect linkages also depended on whether the S had adopted a failure-avoiding or failure-accepting mode for coping with achievement demands. (64 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Addresses the centrality of the self-efficacy mechanism (SEM) in human agency. SEM precepts influence thought patterns, actions, and emotional arousal. In causal tests, the higher the level of induced self-efficacy, the higher the performance accomplishments and the lower the emotional arousal. The different lines of research reviewed show that the SEM may have wide explanatory power. Perceived self-efficacy helps to account for such diverse phenomena as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, level of physiological stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behavior, resignation and despondency to failure experiences, self-debilitating effects of proxy control and illusory inefficaciousness, achievement strivings, growth of intrinsic interest, and career pursuits. The influential role of perceived collective efficacy in social change and the social conditions conducive to development of collective inefficacy are analyzed. (21/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1982 American Psychological Association.
A model explaining how the motive to achieve and the motive to avoid failure influences behavior assumes strength of motivation as being a multiplicative function of motive, expectancy, and incentive. This accounts for level of aspiration and also performance level when only one task is presented. "It also assumes that the incentive value of success is a positive linear function of difficulty as inferred from the subjective probability of success; and negative incentive value of failure to be a negative linear function of difficulty." 2 theoretical implications are "that performance level should be greatest when there is greatest uncertainty about outcome" and people with strong motive to achieve should prefer immediate risk whereas those with strong motive to avoid failure will prefer easy tasks or extremely difficult and risky tasks. Experimental results are cited with implications for research on gambling and social mobility aspirations. 22 references.
"Too little is known about the processes of personality change at relatively complex levels." Empirical study of the problem is hampered by both practical and theoretical difficulties. Despite difficulties "a program of research has been under way for some time which is attempting to develop the achievement motive in adults." Motives are learned; they are "affectively toned associative networks" arranged in a hierarchy of strength within a given individual. A short course to develop n Achievement in some form or another has been established. 12 propositions dealing with means of producing motive change are specified and discussed. A table of variables (independent, intervening, and dependent) conceived as entering into the motive change process is presented. The "propositions should hold best… narrowly for motives and especially the achievement motive." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Intrinsic motivation is based in the human need to be competent and self-determining in relation to the environment. We now look at how this develops and evolves. In so doing we will consider both how intrinsic motivation affects development and how intrinsic motivation develops.
Some students purposefully use self-handicapping strategies (e.g., procrastinating, fooling around, getting involved in many activities) so that these circumstances, rather than lack of ability, will be seen as the cause if subsequent performance is low. The aim of the present study was to determine whether we could reliably assess fifth-grade students' reports of their use of self-handicapping strategies and to examine individual-and classroom-level predictors of self-handicapping. Surveys were given to 646 fifth-grade students. The handicapping items formed a single factor with good internal consistency Handicapping varied significantly across classrooms. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we found that boys used handicapping more than girls did and students' grade point average and perceived academic competence were negatively related to handicapping. Students' perceptions of an emphasis on relative ability in the classroom (ability goal structure) as well as teachers' reported use of instructional practices that highlight relative ability were positively related to handicapping. Implications for practice are discussed.
Participants from first grade through college (N = 168) evaluated the achievement behavior of hypothetical students differing in ability, effort expenditure, and test outcome, both from the perspective of student and teacher. Perceptions of teacher values were consistent over age: Effort and outcome were perceived as highly salient cues for determining degree of teacher rewards and punishment, with student ability level being of little relevance. In contrast, student perspectives indicated a high valuation of ability across all grade levels. Moreover, whereas effort was strongly valued in elementary school, inconsistencies appeared in junior high school such that by high school and college a devaluation of effort occurred. This progressive devaluation was associated with an evolving student belief that low-effort expenditure implies higher ability.
This paper reviews findings in relation to the self-worth theory of achievement motivation (Beery, 1975; Covington, 1984a, 1984b; Covington & Beefy, 1976; Covington & Omelich, 1979a). The purpose in doing so is to establish guidelines which may be used to advise counselling approaches for self-worth protective students. These are students who voluntarily withdraw effort in achievement situations in which poor performance is likely to reflect low ability. While low effort allows a sense of self-worth to be protected in the short term, long-term results include perpetuation of avoidance behaviours in situations which involve threat to self-esteem, substantial underachievement, and maintenance of low self-estimates of ability. Recommendations for counselling include cognitive restructuring as a means of altering unproductive perceptions and cognitions which lie at the heart of self-worth protection. These include a tendency to reject personal agency as cause of success, disproportionate emphasis given to achievement as a criterion of self-worth, and attributional uncertainty.
The history of research on achievement striving has been characterized by the development of several separate lines of inquiry in relative isolation, one from the other. Three themes are most notable: research on need achievement (motivation), formulations of test anxiety (emotion), and the exploration of information-processing (cognitive) factors with special attention given to the organization of effective study skills. In the absence of a unified approach to an understanding of achievement behavior, research has been largely confined to attempts to establish simple one-to-one correspondences between various organizing constructs, say, test anxiety, and the achievement outcomes they are thought to influence. For instance, a veritable flood of studies beginning at the turn of the century has demonstrated the existence of a negative relationship between level of anxiety arousal and performance across a variety of testing and assessment conditions (for a review, see Heinrich & Spielberger, 1982). Likewise, individual variations in level of need achievement (nAch) have been associated with preferences for risk taking and study persistence (Atkinson, 1957, 1964).
The highly interactive, regenerative, technological society now emerging will require something akin to mass genius, mass creativity, and lifelong learning; and schools as they now exist are already obsolete. Education of the future will be, and could be now, a utopian, voluntary, joyful, lifetime experience for its own sake. Our present level of education could be achieved in one-third the time or less, and could be extended to expansion of the mind and senses. In the future, children at school will learn delight, not aggression; heightened awareness and control; and the commonly-agreed-upon skills of the ongoing culture. They will learn how to ring creative changes, how to learn, and how to explore and enjoy the infinite possibilities in relations between people. This dimension of play and fun needs to be added to present-day electronic tutors. (JG)
The overjustification effect is a popular phenomenon that is often reviewed in psychology courses. This effect refers to the observation that positive reinforcement reduces one's intrinsic motivation for a behavior and, thus, decreases the overall probability that the behavior will be repeated. Despite the popularity of the Overjustification effect and the concept of intrinsic motivation, these constructs have serious limitations as explanations of behavior. I mention relevant literature that highlights these limitations and recommend that students be exposed to a more circumspect review of the effect and a broader account of contemporary theories of reinforcement.
Achievement behavior in schools can be understood best in terms of students' attempts to maintain a positive self-image. For many students, expending effort is scary because a combination of effort and failure implies low ability. Students have a variety of techniques for avoiding failure, ranging from cheating to setting goals that are so easily achieved that no risk is involved. Although teachers usually reward achievement and punish lack of effort, for many students risking the sense of defeat that comes from trying hard and not succeeding is too daunting. In "Making the grade," Martin Covington extracts powerful educational implications from self-worth theory and other contemporary views that will be useful for educators, parents, and all people concerned with the educational dilemmas we face. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Following the review of a number of motivational systems, the author contrasts an expectancy-value theory with a drive-habit theory of motivation. The emphasis is on human motivation. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #354 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
review the research conducted under the auspices of the Berkeley Teaching/Learning Project . . . dealing with the identification of individual difference factors important to college achievement / study the intersect between 2 factors: the tendency of students to approach success and to avoid failure / present data from our most recent efforts to extend a self-worth analysis by considering the personality attributes of those student types we initially identified by motive alone / [describe] those characteristic styles of coping, the dynamics of well-being and levels of personal adjustment associated with the various types / explore briefly the educational implications of our student typology and how best to accommodate the variety of needs and reasons for learning represented in the college classroom (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The author introduces the basic principles of motivation as they apply to classroom learning and management in a readable, nontechnical form. The book suggests practical, concrete ways that teachers can use classroom incentives to inspire a desire to learn. Positive reasons for learning are within the reach of all children, and the author places particular emphasis on rewarding the struggle for self-improvement over competition with others. This strategy promotes effort rather than the aggrandizement of ability and encourages creativity instead of compliance. The book also includes the latest research on gender and ethnic differences in motivation and learning in schools. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An understanding of the failure experience is felt to be vital to students and to professionals who work with them. Fear of failure lies behind widely diverse problem reactions to school, and is found in undergraduate and graduate students of all levels of ability. Aspiration-level experiments illustrate how failure avoidance operates by making use of a variety of strategies, as explained by attribution theory. Several case studies are examined to illustrate the use of such strategies. It is felt that for counselors the goal should be the client's sense of well-being and self-esteem rather than the external appearance of academic adjustment or high performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments are reported comprising an investigation of individual difference variables associated with self-worth protection. This is a phenomenon whereby students in achievement situations adopt one of a number of strategies, including withdrawing effort, in order to avoid damage to self-esteem which results from attributing failure to inability. Experiment 1 confirmed the adequacy of an operational definition which identified self-worth students on the basis of two criteria. These were deteriorated performance following failure, together with subsequent enhanced performance following a face-saving excuse allowing students to explain failure without implicating low ability.
The results of Experiment 2 established that the behaviour of self-worth protective students in achievement situations may be understood in terms of their low academic self-esteem coupled with uncertainty about their level of global self-esteem. Investigation of the manner in which self-worth students explain success and failure outcomes failed to demonstrate a tendency to internalise failure but revealed a propensity on the part of these students to reject due credit for their successes.
The implications of these findings in terms of the prevention and modification of self-worth protective reactions in achievement situations are discussed.
Turning work into play: The nature and nurtur-ing of intrinsic task engagement
- M V Covington
- S Wiedenhaupt
Covington, M. V., and Wiedenhaupt, S. (1997). Turning work into play: The nature and nurtur-ing of intrinsic task engagement. In Perry, R., and Smart, J. C. (eds.), Effective Teaching in Higher Education: Research and Practice, Special Edition, Agathon Press, New York, pp. 101–114.
Developing Achievement Motivation in Adolescents
- A S Alschuler
College level learner-centered practices: Instructor and student Perspectives
- K Müeller
- M V Covington