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Contextual and Cognitive Determinants of Procedural Justice Perceptions in Promotion Barriers for Women
Abstract
The relationships between procedural justice in promotion decisions for women and contextual factors deemed as contributing to glass ceilings were examined. The contextual factors examined were a lack of female role models, limited networking opportunities for women, gender segregation, and formal career ladders. It was found that gender schema is a moderator between procedural justice and the perceived number of female role models and between procedural justice and the perception of formal career ladders. Although gender schema was not a moderator in the relationship between procedural justice and gender segregation, nor in the relationship between procedural justice and networking opportunities for women, a significant main effect was found. These results are consistent with the notion that organizational justice perceptions are products of individual cognitive processes, which develop in response to cultural expectations.
... Networking (Bain & Cummings, 2000;Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Lemons, 2003;Li & Wearing, 2001;Linehan & Scullion, 2001;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mattis, 2004;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Walker & Aritz, 2015) Mentoring (Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Linehan & Scullion, 2001;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mattis, 2004;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Management perception & Company culture (Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Walker & Aritz, 2015) Gender stereotypes (Cooper, 2001;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Lemons, 2003;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Oakley, 2000;Shoaib, Khan, & Khan, 2010;Weyer, 2007;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Gender pay gap (Kay & Brockman, 2000;Oakley, 2000;Tandrayen-Ragoobur & Pydayya, 2015;Walker & Aritz, 2015;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Facilities provided by the organization (Kay & Brockman, 2000;Oakley, 2000;Tandrayen-Ragoobur & Pydayya, 2015;Walker & Aritz, 2015;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Global Social Sciences Review (GSSR) ...
... Networking (Bain & Cummings, 2000;Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Lemons, 2003;Li & Wearing, 2001;Linehan & Scullion, 2001;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mattis, 2004;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Walker & Aritz, 2015) Mentoring (Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Linehan & Scullion, 2001;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mattis, 2004;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Management perception & Company culture (Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010;Walker & Aritz, 2015) Gender stereotypes (Cooper, 2001;Hancock & Hums, 2016;Lemons, 2003;Mathur-Helm, 2006;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Oakley, 2000;Shoaib, Khan, & Khan, 2010;Weyer, 2007;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Gender pay gap (Kay & Brockman, 2000;Oakley, 2000;Tandrayen-Ragoobur & Pydayya, 2015;Walker & Aritz, 2015;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Facilities provided by the organization (Kay & Brockman, 2000;Oakley, 2000;Tandrayen-Ragoobur & Pydayya, 2015;Walker & Aritz, 2015;Yusoff, Kassim, & Seenivasa, 2011) Global Social Sciences Review (GSSR) ...
... Recruiting differences (Cooper, 2001;Eyring & Stead, 1998;Shoaib, Khan, & Khan, 2010;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010) Suitable employment/ Training opportunities (Eyring & Stead, 1998;Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010) Tokenism in top management circles (Hancock & Hums, 2016;Oakley, 2000;Shoaib, Khan, & Khan, 2010;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010) Behavioral double binds (Eyring & Stead, 1998;Oakley, 2000;Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998) Female role models (Cooper, 2001;Lemons, 2003;Mathur-Helm, 2006) Sexual harassment (Bell, McLaughlin, & Sequeira, 2002;Eyring & Stead, 1998) Promotion polices and opportunities (Mattis, 2004;Tlaiss & Kauser, 2010) Old boy network maintaining the status quo (Cooper, 2001;Oakley, 2000) Societal barriers (Mirza & Jabeen, 2011;Tabak, 1997) Lower productivity of women (Bain & Cummings, 2000) Departure from practices (Kay & Brockman, 2000) Unsupportive supervisors/colleagues and subordinates (Mattis, 2004) Governmental barriers (Mirza & Jabeen, 2011) Despite the positive trend of women's presence in the workplace, women are struggling to get to higher management specifically in developing countries. In Pakistan, men constitute 68% of the labor force as compare to women with 20% participation (PBS, 2018). ...
The glass ceiling has been termed the factor for underrepresentation of women in higher management positions. Pakistani society is believed to be dominated by men in all walks including positions in higher management. The purpose of this study is to explore whether it is the glass ceiling or the personal barriers that result in the underrepresentation phenomena of women in higher management. This exploratory study has surveyed, through a semi-structured interview, the middle and higher-level women manager from private organizations located in the twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The findings suggest that it is not only glass ceiling barriers but also personal characteristics that hinder womens professional growth. The study also contributes to identifying personal and glass ceiling barriers and their relative importance.
... Within these studies we see a strong tendency toward gender segregation in advertising creative departments. Gender segregation both vertically and horizontally are essentially artificial barriers, which mitigate women's ability to reach their full potential (Lemons 2003). ...
... Gender segregation is commonly described in terms of horizontal and vertical segregation (Grow and Deng, 2104;Lemons 2003;Martin 2007;Stockdale and Nadler 2013; !Weeden 1998). Horizontal segregation refers to gender distribution across a Machismo Men and Pinkified Women 5 ! ...
... In the context of their experiences, the results clearly articulate both horizontal and vertical gender segregation (Cooper and Puxty 1996;Grow and Deng, 2104;Lemons 2003;Martin 2007;Weeden 1998) within Peruvian creative departments. The results also support Del Río's (2007) argument that creativity is influenced by social and environmental, which are highly impacted by the social groupings or the "boy's club," which evolves out of the machismo culture that appears to permeate Peruvian creative departments. ...
I
In advertising women are well represented in every department but creative. While creativity does not depend on gender, women represent less than one-quarter of all creatives. Current literature has little on Peruvian advertising and nothing on creative women. At the same time Peruvian women comprise only 3% of all creatives. Thus, this study, exploring creative women working in Peru examines their experiences and teases out patterns. Through in-depth interviews the findings suggest that both horizontal and vertical segregation are powerful markers within Peruvian creative departments. A machismo culture permeates Peruvian creative departments with social groups nurturing men and disenfranchising women.
... Overall, social networks were further emphasized of being a crucial mean for women's career advancement (Brass et al., 2004;Eby et al., 2003;Griffiths et al., 2007;Higgins & Kram, 2001;Linehan & Scullion, 2008;Morgan & Martin, 2006;Seibert et al., 2001). Especially the value of informal networks was stressed, and women's access to the informal 'old boys'' networks was viewed as important but difficult (Forret & Dougherty, 2004;Lemons, 2003;Sparrowe & Liden, 2005). Further understanding of this difficulty was provided, namely women's low visibility in organizations and management was reported to negatively affect access. ...
... The business case argument for women's social networks to advance their careers was presented as an influential idea (e.g., Forret & Dougherty, 2004;Linehan & Scullion, 2008). Despite this request, women continued to be described as tokens, especially in top managerial positions and their exclusion from influential social networks was the topic of continued interest (Forret & Dougherty, 2004;Ibarra et al., 2005;Lee & James, 2007;Lemons, 2003;Ryan & Haslam, 2007;Sagas & Cunningham, 2004;Tharenou, 2001). ...
This article carries out a literature review of research on social networks regarding women's careers in the context of organizations and management for the period of 1970-2021. Our focus is on the concep-tualization of social networks, understanding gender, and identification of the network effects that are important for women's careers. The study enables us to create a comprehensive foundation of research knowledge conducted over several decades and build a profound base of suggestions for further research. Our analysis shows that the field has widened to include individual, organizational, and social environment viewpoints. The research on women's social networks has evolved from establishing the field, to individu-alistic understanding, to accounting for sociocultural dynamics. The approach to gender has evolved from gender comparison to gender particularity and then contextualizing gender. Our suggestions for future research avenues include incorporating environmental aspects, virtual social networking, diversity, and leadership perspectives to improve women's inclusion in social network research.
... Gender segregation both horizontally and vertically results in essentially artificial barriers, which mitigate women's ability to reach their full potential (Grow & Deng, 2014;Lemons, 2003;Martin, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Specifically, horizontal segregation refers to gender distribution across a professional area, in this case advertising creative departments . ...
... These data clearly demonstrate horizontal segregation (Lemons, 2003;Martín, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Many of the participants said women can not even get in the door simply because they "can get pregnant." ...
Gender segregation begins early and is reinforced within the workplace. Advertising creative departments appear to have extreme gender segregation with women representing just 20% of all those working within creative departments worldwide. Yet, creativity does not depend on gender. Thus, the underrepresentation of women is particularly troubling. In Peru women comprise 3% to 10.4% of all people working in advertising creative, which suggests the situation for creative women in Peru is dire. In order to understand this phenomenon, and with the hope of finding solutions, this study uses indepth interviews to explore the experiences of Peruvian women working in advertising creative departments. The study investigates three primary aspects of Peruvian creative women’s experiences. First, it looks at relationships with colleagues and clients. Second, work/life balance is explored. Third, the study examines how the environment within creative departments constrains creative women’s employment and advancement opportunities. Findings suggest that Peruvian creative departments are strongly machismo environments where discrimination and gender segregation are staunchly entrenched. This machismo environment creates challenging relationships between creative women and their colleagues and clients, it negatively impacts creative women’s work/life balance and it leads to severely constrained hiring, promotion and retention of creative women in Peruvian advertising agencies. The discussion closes with suggestions to help creative women succeed in Peruvian creative departments.
... individual, organizational and social barriers are examined under three headings. Obstacles caused by individual factors are multiple roles and personal preferences and perceptions of women (Lemons, 2003). ...
... Kadın yöneticilerin cam tavan sendromunun oluşmasına yol açan engeller; bireysel, örgütsel ve sosyal engeller olmak üzere üç başlık altında incelenmektedir. Bireysel faktörlerin neden olduğu engeller, kadınların çoklu rolleri ve kişisel tercihleri ve algılarıdır(Lemons, 2003). Uzun yıllardır eğitim ve öğretimle ilgilenen kadın öğretmenler, eğitme ve öğretme işini, eğitimi yönetmekden daha çekici bulmaktadır. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the obstacles in front of female teachers in our country in the context of glass ceiling syndrome. This research has been conducted on sequential explorer pattern which is one of the mixed method research patterns. Qualitative data of the study were collected by semi-structured interviews with 41 female teachers working in private and public schools chosen by using snowball method. The sample of the quantitative section consists of 549 female teachers who work in different types of institutions in the 2017-2018 academic year and participated in the study online. The quantitative data of the study were obtained from Glass Ceiling Syndrome Questionnaire, which is improved by the researchers. Content analysis method was used for analysis of qualitative data and nonparametric statistical analysis methods were used for analysis of quantitative data. The main results of the qualitative research are as follows: it is possible to rank the glass ceiling barriers of women teachers as individual, organizational and social. The quantitative analysis revealed that the opinions stated differed significantly according to the demographic variable of the female teachers (age, seniority, institution type, marital status etc.). Women teachers working with a female manager in their schools have positive ideas about their future careers. Female teachers, who are both mothers and spouses, find it difficult to build a career for themselves. Also, the responses of female teachers working in public schools and female teachers working in private schools are quite different from each other. Teachers in the private school have a stronger desire to become a manager than teachers in a public school.
... Height--ened visibility creates performance pressures; po--larization leads to isolation from social and profes--sional networks; and assimilation generates stereo--typed role entrapment for women, common within creative departments . Fur--ther, Lemons (2003) argues that "gender segrega--tion may result in a token status for women when they a empt to enter upper-management levels that are usually dominated by men. This situation creates pressure because women become visible whether they want to be or not" (p. ...
... Dahlerup (1998) suggests that women with agency and resources offer the critical promise for change, even from a token posi--tion. Lemons (2003) might suggest other--wise. However, "leaning in" (Sandberg, 2013) as a token can be a perilous proposition as it challenges the status quo. ...
... Gender segregation both horizontally and vertically results in essentially artificial barriers, which mitigate women's ability to reach their full potential (Grow & Deng, 2014;Lemons, 2003;Martin, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Specifically, horizontal segregation refers to gender distribution across a professional area, in this case advertising creative departments . ...
... These data clearly demonstrate horizontal segregation (Lemons, 2003;Martín, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Many of the participants said women can not even get in the door simply because they "can get pregnant." ...
Gender segregation begins early and is reinforced within the workplace. Advertising creative departments appear to have extreme gender segregation with women representing just 20% of all those working within creative departments worldwide. Yet, creativity does not depend on gender. Thus, the underrepresentation of women is particularly troubling. In Peru women comprise 3% to 10.4% of all people working in advertising creative, which suggests the situation for creative women in Peru is dire. In order to understand this phenomenon, and with the hope of finding solutions, this study uses in-depth interviews to explore the experiences of Peruvian women working in advertising creative departments. The study investigates three primary aspects of Peruvian creative women’s experiences. First, it looks at relationships with colleagues and clients. Second, work/life balance is explored. Third, the study examines how the environment within creative departments constrains creative women’s employment and advancement opportunities. Findings suggest that Peruvian creative departments are strongly machismo environments where discrimination and gender segregation are staunchly entrenched. This machismo environment creates challenging relationships between creative women and their colleagues and clients, it negatively impacts creative women’s work/life balance and it leads to severely constrained hiring, promotion and retention of creative women in Peruvian advertising agencies. The discussion closes with suggestions to help creative women succeed in Peruvian creative departments.
... Gender segregation both horizontally and vertically results in essentially artificial barriers, which mitigate women's ability to reach their full potential (Grow & Deng, 2014;Lemons, 2003;Martin, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Specifically, horizontal segregation refers to gender distribution across a professional area, in this case advertising creative departments . ...
... These data clearly demonstrate horizontal segregation (Lemons, 2003;Martín, 2007;Stockdale & Nadler, 2013;Weeden, 1998). Many of the participants said women can not even get in the door simply because they "can get pregnant." ...
Gender segregation begins early and is reinforced within the workplace. Advertising creative departments appear to have extreme gender segregation with women representing just 20% of all those working within creative departments worldwide. Yet, creativity does not depend on gender. Thus, the underrepresentation of women is particularly troubling. In Peru women comprise 3% to 10.4% of all people working in advertising creative, which suggests the situation for creative women in Peru is dire. In order to understand this phenomenon, and with the hope of finding solutions, this study uses in-depth interviews to explore the experiences of Peruvian women working in advertising creative departments. The study investigates three primary aspects of Peruvian creative women's experiences. First, it looks at relationships with colleagues and clients. Second, work/life balance is explored. Third, the study examines how the environment within creative departments constrains creative women's employment and advancement opportunities. Findings suggest that Peruvian creative departments are strongly machismo environments where discrimination and gender segregation are staunchly entrenched. This machismo environment creates challenging relationships between creative women and their colleagues and clients, it negatively impacts creative women's work/life balance and it leads to severely constrained hiring, promotion and retention of creative women in Peruvian advertising agencies. The discussion closes with suggestions to help creative women succeed in Peruvian creative departments.
... In a study of the relationship between the glass ceiling variables and procedural justice, Lemons (2003) asserts an organization may be perceived to be unfair in promotion decisions based upon the lack of female role models, career ladders, and networking opportunities, regardless of the actions of the organization. Bowling, Kelleher, Jones and Wright (2006) contend there are fewer barriers for women to ascend the administrative ladder today than in the past. ...
... Were gender, race and family responsibilities truly communicated to these participants as reasons for denial, or did the participants misread the question? Lemons (2003) asserted an organization could be perceived to be unfair in promotion decisions due to the lack of opportunities and role models for females, regardless of the actions of the organization. ...
... Jei manoma, kad gaunama maþiau nei nusipelnoma, palyginti su kitais, iðgyvenamas trûkumo ir / arba nepasitenkinimo jausmas, kuris sàlygoja tokius elgesio ir psichologinius padarinius organizacijoje kaip stresas, pravaikðtos, darbuotojø kaita (Marjorie, 2000). Toks darbuotojø lyginimasis tarpusavyje labai tikëtinas paaukðtinimo situacijoje, kai darbuotojai þino, kokia jø ir kitø darbuotojø, kurie gali bûti paaukðtinti, kvalifikacija (Lemons, 2003). ...
... Nors paaukðtinimai daþnai vertinami kaip darbuotojø atrankos forma, vidinë paaukðtinimo sistema skiriasi nuo iðorinës atrankos proceso. Darbuotojai, suinteresuoti paaukðtinimu, kitaip nei iðoriniai kandidatai, turi daugiau galimybiø susipaþinti su paèia sprendimo priëmimo procedûra, geriau þino, kokia jø ir kitø darbuotojø, kurie gali bûti paaukðtinti, kvalifikacija (Lemons, 2003). Darbuotojai, kurie yra atmetami paaukðtinimo proceso metu ir vertina tà procesà kaip neteisingà, tikëtina, pasiþymës labiau iðreikðtomis neigiamomis nuostatomis ir elgesiu, palyginti su paaukðtintais darbuotojais. ...
Nors organizacinis teisingumas turi svarbių padarinių organizacijoje, esama vos keleto tyrimų, nagrinėjančių organizacinio teisingumo vaidmenį priimant sprendimus dėl paaukštinimo. Todėl buvo atliktas tyrimas, kurio tikslas buvo nustatyti suvokto skirstymo, procedūros ir sąveikos teisingumo vaidmenį priimant sprendimus paaukštinti. Šiuo tyrimu siekiama išsiaiškinti, kaip suvoktas skirstymo, procedūros ir sąveikos teisingumas yra susijęs su sprendimo dėl pareigų paaukštinimo palankumu, pasitenkinimu darbu ir paaukštinimo galimybėmis, įsipareigojimu organizacijai, ketinimu išeiti, pasitikėjimu vadovu ir vadovybe. Tyrime dalyvavo 132 darbuotojai iš įvairių organizacijų. Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidžia, kad suvoktas skirstymo teisingumas yra teigiamai susijęs su sprendimo dėl pareigų paaukštinimo palankumu ir pasitenkinimu darbu. O suvoktas procedūros teisingumas yra teigiamai susijęs su įsipareigojimu organizacijai ir neigiamai susijęs su ketinimais išeiti. Be to, suvoktas skirstymo ir sąveikos teisingumas yra teigiamai susijęs su pasitenkinimu paaukštinimo galimybėmis. Galiausiai tais atvejais, kai sprendimą dėl pareigų paaukštinimo priima tiesioginis vadovas, suvoktas sąveikos teisingumas yra susijęs su pasitikėjimu vadovu. O kai sprendimą paaukštinti pareigas priima aukštesnio lygio (netiesioginis) vadovas, suvoktas sąveikos teisingumas yra susijęs su pasitikėjimu vadovybe. Maža to, nei suvoktas procedūros, nei suvoktas sąveikos teisingumas nėra susiję su sprendimo dėl pareigų paaukštinimo palankumu.
Pagrindiniai žodžiai: skirstymo teisingumas, procedūros teisingumas, sąveikos teisingumas, pareigų paaukštinimas.
The Role of Organizational Justice in Promotion Decisions
Jurgita Lazauskaitė-Zabielskė, Dalia Bagdžiūnienė
Summary
Organizational justice perceptions are important for organizations, because they help to predict organizationally important outcomes. However, justice regarding promotions in particular is studied less than other types of organizational justice. Therefore the research was conducted to examine the role of organizational justice aspects, i. e. distributive, procedural and interactional justice, in promotion decisions. The purpose of this study was to determine how perceived distributive, procedural and interactional justice are related to favourability of promotion decision and various levels of outcomes. In particular, this study explored the relationship between perceived distributive, procedural and interactional justice and job satisfaction, satisfaction with promotion opportunities, organizational commitment, turnover intentions, trust in supervisor and trust in management. 132 employees from various organizations participated in the study. The results of the study revealed that favourability of promotion decision (i. e. promotion or non-promotion) is related to perceived distributive justice (Z = –5.867, p ≤ 0.001), but not related to perceived procedural and interactional justice. While perceived justice of decision is related to decision favourability, fair procedures and fair interpersonal treatment is valued irrespective of it. The study also showed that different aspects of organizational justice are related to different outcomes. Perceived distributive justice is related to job satisfaction (β = 0.602, p ≤ 0.01) and satisfaction with promotion opportunities (β = 0.721, p ≤ 0.01). The more decision regarding promotion is considered as fair the more employees are satisfied with their job and promotion opportunities. Perceived procedural justice is the best predictor of organizational outcomes such as organizational commitment (β = 0.676, p ≤ 0.01) and turnover intentions (β = 0.687, p ≤ 0.01). When employees perceive promotion procedures as fair they are more committed to organization and less likely to leave. Moreover, perceived interactional justice is positively related to satisfaction with promotion opportunities (β = 0.138, p ≤ 0.01). Finally, when promotion decisions are made by supervisor, perceived interactional justice is positively related to trust in supervisor (β = 0.716, p ≤ 0.01). On the other hand when promotion decisions are made by upper-level manager, perceived interactional justice is positively related to trust in management (β = 0.682, p ≤ 0.01). Limitations of the study and possibilities for future researches and practical applications are discussed.
Keywords: distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, promotion decisions.
... The non-empirical research from this sector includes supporting articles which focused on the role of stereotypes and beliefs (Chaffins et al. 1995;Ridgeway 2001), salary differences (Kay and Hagan 1995), and the stratification of women in the workforce (Kay and Hagan 1995;Reskin 1988;Lemons 2003) and the resulting connections to a glass ceiling. A sizable number of these articles were primarily literature or research reviews (e.g., Chaffins et al. 1995;Chernesky 2003;Powell 1999;Reskin 1998;Ridgeway 2001;Padavic and Reskin 2002). ...
... The frameworks utilized by the studies from this sector encompass scholarly traditions from a variety of disciplines. These include feminism, postmodernism and social constructivism (Buzzanell 1995), human capital theory, labor segmentation and Marxist analysis (Reskin 1988;Kay and Hagan 1995), gender schema theory (Lemons 2003), and expectation states theory (Ridgeway 2001). ...
The concept of “glass ceiling effects” has emerged in social science research in general and higher education in particular
over the past 20years. These studies have described the impediments that women and people of color encounter in their quest
for senior-level positions (e.g., CEOs) in society as glass ceiling effects. Literature, both empirical and non-empirical,
has provided broad and varied interpretations of glass ceiling effects. In turn, the literature is less-than-settled on the
application of glass ceiling effects. In this manuscript, the authors analyzed and critiqued 66 documents in order to advance
theoretical and practical knowledge regarding glass ceiling effects in higher education.
... ʈ ʈ > ʄ <ʆ ɸ ʅʈ> ʇɷ < ʄʈɳ 159 ʆ ɸ ʇɷ ɷ> @ < ʆɳ > ɹ ʈ ʇ> ɳ ɸɳ ɷ ʈ ʆɮ ɳ ɷɳ > (Simpson & Holley, 2001) . ɳ ɸɳ @ɳ @ ɸɳ ɷ @ɳ : Lemons, 2003 ( . ...
استفاده از منابع انساني در جوامع توسعه يافته يکي از عوامل کليدي دستيابي به توسعه پايدار محسوب ميشود. زنان نيمي از جمعيت فعال هر کشور را تشکيل ميدهند و ميزان حضور آنها در اداره اجتماع, يکي از معيارهاي مهم توسعهيافتگي است. در کشور ما علي¬رغم اينکه قانون اساسي بر مشارکت مردم در تعيين سرنوشت خود تأکيد داشته و تبعيضي بين زن و مرد قائل نشده است و با وجود آنکه شاهد اشتياق زنان براي حضور پررنگتر در عرصههاي سياستگزاري مشاهده ميشود. اما متأسفانه ميزان حضور زنان در ردههاي مديريتي, اعم از خرد يا کلان بسيار ناچيز است و زنان در استفاده از فرصتهاي استخدامي و دستيابي به سطوح بالاتر از شانس مساوي با مردان برخوردار نيستند. اين پديده که, «سقف شيشهاي» ناميده ميشود, از عوامل متعدد اجتماعي, فرهنگي, روان شناختي يا سياسي ناشي مي¬شود. در اين مقاله عامل روانشناختي «خودپنداري» مورد بررسي قرار گرفته است. يافتههاي تحقيق نشان ميدهد که هر چه ميزان خودپنداري زنان بيشتر باشد, ادراک وجود سقف شيشه¬اي کمتر خواهد شد.
... In other words, a job promotion contains the concept of progress in organizational situations in a workplace and how people can step in the path of promotion. Promotion is defined as a clear path to progress in organizational positions and the availability of organizational positions to all when competent (Lemons, 2003). According to the report released by The American Association of University Women (AAUW) (2016), women have recorded significant improvement in labor participation and executive positions, but there is stark disparity regarding women representation in corporate leadership position in many other institutions (Rahim et al., 2018).Governments are currently seeking NGOs as well as international organizations to promote women to an equal position with men in many areas, including medical health and education. ...
Background: Glass ceiling is introduced as an obstacle to the progress of competent individuals, especially women within organizations. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between the glass ceiling and job promotion of in Women Employees of Health Centers. Methods: This was a correlation-descriptive study. 142 female employees working in the health centers of Shahrekord were studied through census. Data were collected using two Smith Glass Ceiling Questionnaires and a job promotion questionnaire in Chow organizations. Data analysis was performed with descriptive and inferential statistics tests (Pearson correlation) using SPSS software Ver.24. Results: Pearson correlation test results showed that there was a negative and significant relationship between the mean score of the glass ceiling and the job promotion of women working in health centers (r = 0.73and p < 0.001). Conclusion: According to the findings of the study, glass ceiling can prevent women's progress in health centers. Therefore, it is suggested that the Ministry of Health and health centers officials emphasize the meritocratic system and ask for support from the women who have shown the necessary capabilities in managerial positions.
... In particular, the theory proposes that sex typing results from the fact that the self-concept itself is assimilated in the gender schema (Bem, 1981) . The influence of the gender schema concept on promotion decisions for women was examined by Lemons (2003) . The study evaluated contextual factors deemed as contributing to procedural justice or the "glass ceiling effect." ...
Women are underrepresented among faculty in the sciences and engineering. The National Science Foundation's ADVANCE program seeks to address this issue through comprehensive and creative strategies aimed at institutional transformation. Virginia Tech's ADVANCE program (AdvanceVT) hosted a conference for women in the academic pipeline to facilitate their entry into academic careers. This paper discusses our efforts in designing this conference; we hope that it will help to address the relative lack of literature on conference design and provide a starting point for others who are designing conferences. We first introduce four conference design heuristics that emerged during the process of determining what information to present at the AdvanceVT conference and how to present it: (1) undertake requirements elicitation, (2) choose an appropriate modality for presenting information, (3) account for interactions, and (4) emphasize shared interests and traits. We then discuss the application of these heuristics to the first design iteration of the AdvanceVT conference. Included in the discussion of the application of the heuristics are the results of three requirements elicitation activities: an online survey, focus groups, and interviews.
... Cam tavan da bu engellemelerin bir sonucudur (Lemons, 2003). Günü üz e ç l n k nl aile ve i rolleri birbiriyle ç ğ n ya kariyerlerinden zgeç ek durumunda k l k l ya da ikisi ç s n diye üs ün bir çaba gös e eye ç l k l . ...
... Their caring responsibilities at home including children and elderly relatives (Sargeant, 2001) unavoidably creates a restrictive impact in their way to development (Sargeant, 2001;Wilson, 2003). Relating to external pressures one of the biggest pressures a woman faces and is aware of is prevailed gender culture at work (Lemons, 2003;. Since, it limits women behavioral expressions . ...
Logically it is assumed that society is man-made. Practically men have been considered as one of the dominant force in developing and shaping social institutions as well public life whereby women dominate in shaping family life. In the context of Pakistan which still have traces of world's oldest cultural society, men are assumed as wage earners whereas women are assumed as family care takers. Thus in this cultural context the current study intends to explore which sort of pressures a married working women face and what sort of coping mechanism has been adopted by them to deal with these pressures. The current study utilized qualitative approach as it best serve the purpose of study which was intended to explore challenges as well experiences faced by married working women. In order to understand the subjective explanations, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) rooted in phenomenological philosophy was carried out. This method allows understanding the lived experiences of the participants from their (participants) perspective. The target of the study was married working women thus the study employed purposive sampling technique to select out study participants. The sample consisted of 118 participants holding prominent positions who were interviewed (semi-structured) to generate their responses regarding challenges faced by them while performing multiple roles. The findings of current study can be concluded that despite facing external as well as internal family pressures, women in Pakistan wear a mask to comply with family and work requirements. In current social system, they sought numerous middle grounds to smoothen family as well work life.
... Yabancı literatürde spesifik olarak yüksek öğretim kurumlarında veya özel olarak üniversitelerde kadın çalışanlar üzerinde gerçekleştirilen bazı çalışmalarda (Johnsrud & Heck, 1994;Lemons, 2003;Shultz, Montoya & Briere, 1992;Young, 2011) cam tavan algıları test edilmiştir. ABD'de 1991 yılında kadınların yükselmesini engelleyen bariyerleri tespit etmek ve insanların özel sektörde üst yönetim pozisyonlara terfi etmesine destek olan başarılı programları ortaya çıkartmak amacıyla Bush ve ekibi tarafından 21 üyeden oluşan Federal Cam Tavan Komisyonu (The Federal / U.S. Glass Ceiling Commission) kurulmuştur. ...
Türkiye’de cam tavana dair akademik çalışmalarının çoğu cinsiyet/kadın ve yaş gibi sınırlı bir veya birkaç değişkene odaklanmıştır. Türkiye’nin kamu personel sisteminde açıklık, eşitlik ve tarafsızlık ilkelerini zedeleyen ve bazıları cam tavan sendromuna da yol açan uygulamaların tespiti ve giderilmesi açısından önceki çalışmaların kapsamı yeterli değildir. Türkiye özelinde yapılan çalışmalarda sektörel ve mesleki göstergeleri dikkate alarak geliştirilen ölçeklerin ve endekslerin olmaması da sorunun akademik ve uygulama düzlemlerinde anlaşılması ile çözüm önerileri geliştirmede gözlemlenen önemli bir eksikliktir. “Akademisyenlerin İdari Görevlerine Dair 'Cam Tavan' Algısına Yönelik Ölçek” geliştirilmesi amaçlanan bu çalışmada literatürdeki diğer Türkiye kökenli cam tavan ölçeklerindeki cinsiyette ilave ve daha spesifik çeşitli değişkenler de kullanılmaktadır. Araştırma 1992’de kurulan Devlet üniversitelerinde 2016 yılında görevde bulunan öğretim üyeleriyle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veri toplama aracı olarak literatür ve pilot çalışma ışığında yazarlarca geliştirilen Türkiye’de öğretim üyelerinin akademik boyutu olan idari görevlere yükselmede karşılaştıkları engelleri tespit etmeye dair anket temelli algı ölçeği formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmadan elde edilen geçerli anket verileri üzerinde çeşitli ileri istatistiksel analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bulgular çerçevesinde 26 madde ve 7 alt boyuttan oluşan “Türkiye’de Akademisyenlerin İdari Görevlere Yükselmesine Dair Cam Tavan Algısı Ölçeği” geliştirilmiştir.
... We added a single dummy variable for gender as a demographic control. Research has shown that gender impacts justice perceptions (Lemons, 2003), although gender produces both significant and nonsignificant relationships with POS, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction (e.g., Adair Erickson & Roloff, 2008;Bakhshi, Kumar, & Rani, 2009;Lambert & Hogan, 2009;Loi et al., 2006). The dummy variable is coded 0 if the respondent identified as male and coded 1 if the respondent identified as female. ...
Disasters are increasing in both number and severity. Thus, effective emergency response is becoming increasingly important to lessen human and economic impacts from disasters. Little research has been performed, however, on how leaders influence the attitudes of responders that motivate them toward increased performance and overall effectiveness. Using survey data from two separate fire departments, this study explores the relationships between distributive and procedural justice, and the affective outcomes of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Perceived organizational support is also tested for mediation using bootstrapping procedures for indirect effects. Overall, the results for both departments show that perceived organizational support mediates the positive and significant relationships between the justice dimensions and affective outcomes. In turn, this suggests that leaders in the fire service may build more successful fire departments by providing fair treatment, procedures, and outcomes to firefighters as favorable treatment is reciprocated to benefit the organization.
... Organizacional y el Compromiso Organizacional, si bien, en línea con el trabajo de Omar (2006), dicha relación entre las diferentes dimensiones de ambos constructos dependerá de la cultura predominante en el territorio, ya que la percepción de justicia del individuo está influida por las respuestas cognitivas que obedecen a unas expectativas culturales (Cohen-Carash y Spector, 2001;Greenberg, 2001, Lemons, 2003. Así pues, existen evidencias empíricas de que la justicia es percibida y tiene un grado diferente de importancia según la cultura en que nos encontremos (Mladinic y Isla, 2002). ...
... Likewise, different factors-those upon which glass ceilings produce effects-have also been researched. Salary (Cotter et al., 2001;Cotter, Hermsen, & Vanneman, 1999;Fisher, Motowidlo, & Werner, 1993;Ginther & Hayes, 1999;Johnsrud, 1991;Johnsrud & Heck, 1994;Kay & Hagan, 1995;Morgan, 1998;Yamagata et al., 1997), position attainment and promotion (Bain & Cummings, 2000;Ginther & Hayes, 1999;Johnsrud, 1991;Johnsrud & Heck, 1994;Shultz, Montoya, & Briere, 1992), and gender segregation (selfsegregation and otherwise) of the workplace (Kay & Hagan, 1995;Lemons, 2003;Reskin, 1988;Yamagata et al., 1997) are among the factors that have been investigated. ...
This study investigates the role of gender in senior-level position attainment for teaching faculty and academic leaders in the academic workforce. Guided in part by the glass ceiling concept, employment models were specified to examine gender disparities in position attainment with regard to productivity-related variables. More specifically, the study investigates to what extent male and female employees differ on various indicators of career advancement. Results from the study highlight disparities by gender as well as its interaction with race/ethnicity regarding workplace experience and job satisfaction. Additionally, findings show that work-life balance issues (e.g., the presence of childcare benefits and leave policies) produced only minimal impact on the career prospects of either male or female employees.
... Likewise, different factors-those upon which glass ceilings produce effects-have also been researched. Salary (Cotter et al., 2001;Cotter, Hermsen, & Vanneman, 1999;Fisher, Motowidlo, & Werner, 1993;Ginther & Hayes, 1999;Johnsrud, 1991;Johnsrud & Heck, 1994;Kay & Hagan, 1995;Morgan, 1998;Yamagata et al., 1997), position attainment and promotion (Bain & Cummings, 2000;Ginther & Hayes, 1999;Johnsrud, 1991;Johnsrud & Heck, 1994;Shultz, Montoya, & Briere, 1992), and gender segregation (selfsegregation and otherwise) of the workplace (Kay & Hagan, 1995;Lemons, 2003;Reskin, 1988;Yamagata et al., 1997) are among the factors that have been investigated. ...
This study investigates the role of gender in senior-level position attainment for teaching faculty and academic leaders in the academic workforce. Guided in part by the glass ceiling concept, employment models were specified to examine gender disparities in position attainment with regard to productivity-related variables. More specifically, the study investigates to what extent male and female employees differ on various indicators of career advancement. Results from the study highlight disparities by gender as well as its interaction with race/ethnicity regarding workplace experience and job satisfaction. Additionally, findings show that work-life balance issues (e.g., the presence of childcare benefits and leave policies) produced only minimal impact on the career prospects of either male or female employees.
... The study found that the personal characteristics, the degree of role conflict, as well as the company's corporate culture affects women as corporate executives. According to Lemons (2003), it has used middle management women as objects and found the promotion barriers will affect career development, life satisfaction and job satisfaction, and the relationship between career job satisfactions. In short, the glass ceiling effect will not only affect women's career development, but also affect their work and life satisfaction, thus will also affect the work performance of women, and this is kind of a crisis for businesses. ...
p>Leadership emphasis on leader abilities, personality traits, influence of relationships, cognitive versus emotional orientation and individual versus collective interests (Deanne & Hartog, 2001).With the accelerate development of human civilization, women began playing indispensable leading roles in different social realm, particularly in business, society and political area. With women began playing increasing significant leading roles currently, it raised the influence of women’s leadership in organization.
In this study, through the full research of female leaders and the influential factors of women leadership, by analysing the of female leaders and through the deep assessment of women leadership, it summarized the existing achievements made by female leaders, pointed out the common problem existed in women leadership as well, and found out the relationship between leadership effectiveness of female leaders and women leadership. In general, this study summed up the dimensions of leadership effectiveness of female leaders, then concluded how these dimensions influenced on female leaders in middle management level. This research will be conducted on the basis of women senior managers in SMEs in Kuala Lumpur.
... Leventhal, 1980). According to Lemons (2003), organizational justice perceptions are products of individual cognitive processes, which develop in response to cultural expectations. Definitions of justice/fairness may vary by context (e.g. ...
This study investigated the relationship between a perceived glass ceiling in an organization and commitment to that organization, with the expectation that the effect would be indirect and mediated by distributive justice perceptions. The same hypothesis was put forward with turnover intent as an outcome. The study uses VIE, Equity, Social Exchange, and Social Identity Theories to frame these arguments, and in both cases, partial mediation was present. Specifically, the effect of a perceived glass ceiling on each of the dependent variables was greater alone than when considered together with perceptions of distributive justice. The analyses and findings are outlined, and implications for theory and for practice are discussed.
... By being the key personnel in an organization, women will indirectly position themselves as role models to other female workers. Research conducted by Catalyst in 2003, shows that one of the barriers of the glass ceiling is a lack of role models within the same sex [17] [16]. As a matter of fact, Roomi et.al [6] stated that, this kind of network will help female entrepreneurs in building their enterprises while supplying information, emotional support, and role models. ...
Numerous studies and research have been conducted in order to identify the scenario of “glass ceiling” in women‟s career and ways to encounter this situation. Throughout the years, the world witnessed the advancement of women in career building and penetration into job that was conventionally dominated by men, however, based on several research and studies, this progression is somehow still limited and hindered by some sort of gender discrimination, and women does not exactly progressing to a level that they deserved to be. The paper address this gender discrimination under the three main issues that have been found and frequently reviewed in previous research, studies in relation to „glass ceiling‟. There are gender wage gap, gender/job segregation and barrier in promotion process. Subsequently, this study will show that these three issues are directly related to each other.
... further stated that the phrase "make a concerted effort" should be The position has helped to break the barrier of the glass ceiling allowing more females (at least one per NCAA member institution) to serve as administrators within intercollegiate athletics. Lemons (2003) stated that providing more role models and providing mentors for females may help to break the glass ceiling as well. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine Senior Woman Administrators (SWAs) perception of organizational commitment. Three types of organizational commitment were surveyed: affective, normative, and continuance commitment. This study was delimited to Senior Woman Administrators (n=66) at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division IAA member institutions across the country. This study used the Organizational Commitment Scale(s) to examine Senior Woman Administrators (SWAs) perceptions of organizational commitment. The study examined the relationship between the demographic variables of ethnicity, marital status, current annual salary, age, years in present position, highest degree earned, and alumni status and organizational commitment. The study also examined the significant differences between the demographic variables and organizational commitment.
The results of this study revealed the demographic variables of current annual salary, age, and alumni status were significantly related to affective organizational commitment, ethnicity was significantly related to normative organizational commitment and alumni status was significantly related to continuance organizational commitment. The results also revealed that there were significant differences in mean scores for SWAs perception of affective organizational commitment according to age and alumni status and there was a significant difference in mean scores for SWAs perception of normative organizational commitment according to alumni status.
... Segregated environments have negative impacts on individuals that can include development of a distorted sense of social reality, mutual suspicion, distrust and hostility, perpetuation of rigid stereotypes, violence, and racial tension (Bernard, 1949;Clark, Chein, & Cook, 2004). There is also evidence from occupational work literature that segregation in a work environment fosters perception of procedural unfairness within the company ( Lemons, 2003); while occupational settings are different than correctional incarceration settings, it is not a giant leap forward to suggest that institutional-based segregation creates and/or reinforces perceptions that the criminal justice system operates unfairly among imprisoned minority and marginalized populations (in this case, African Americans and Hispanics). In correctional settings where correctional officers (who are often disproportionately White) ''reproduce racial inequality'' (Richmond & Johnson, 2009, p. 573) by ensuring that White inmates are treated differently than minority inmates, the potential for variation in perceptions of injustice by race and ethnicity is exacerbated. ...
The study tests the explicit and implicit racial/ethnic divide, gradient, and justice system contact propositions of comparative conflict theory and explores whether prior incarceration experience (personal and vicarious) alters the observed relationship between race/ethnicity and perceptions of injustice. The study uses data from the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, the Washington Post, and Harvard University 2006 survey concerning issues relating to African American males. The study found support for the racial/ethnic divide, gradient, and justice system contact hypotheses. The study also found support for the notion that prior incarceration experience intensifies the relationship between race/ethnicity and perceptions of injustice. The gap between African Americans and Whites in perceptions of injustice is more pronounced among persons with prior incarceration experience. The gap in perception of injustice between Whites and Hispanics was also stronger among those with prior incarceration experiences. The gap between African Americans and Hispanics was not impacted by prior incarceration experience. Future research should continue to explore the potential for prior incarceration experience to impact the relationship between race/ethnicity and perceptions of injustice.
... In particular, the theory proposes that sex typing results from the fact that the self-concept itself is assimilated in the gender schema (Bem, 1981). The influence of the gender schema concept on promotion decisions for women was examined by Lemons (2003). The study evaluated contextual factors deemed as contributing to procedural justice or the "glass ceiling effect". ...
... La orientación hacia el colectivismo o hacia el individualismo ha sido una de las diferencias culturales más analizadas en relación con la percepción de justicia en el lugar de trabajo (Cropanzano y Greenberg, 1997), sobre todo porque se considera que tales valores culturales actúan como una lente subjetiva que afecta las creencias y percepciones (Primeaux, Karri y Caldwell, 2003), y porque la percepción de justicia es producto de procesos cognitivos individuales que se desarrollan como respuesta a expectativas culturales (Lemons, 2003). La revisión de estudios sobre diferencias culturales en el uso de las reglas de justicia (cfr. ...
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE, INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM, AND WORK STRESS. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship betwen organizational justice perceptions and work stress among Argentinian workers, and to verify the impact of cultural values (individualism-collectivism) on these relationships. A self-administered survey method was employed to collect data from 378 employees (216 male and 162 female). Results revealed that some sociodemographic variables affect organizational justice perceptions; that perceptions of lack of organizational justice relate negatively to work stress, and that the orientation toward the employees collectivism act as a moderating variable over such relationships. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for organizational practices and programs.
RESUMEN: El objetivo del presente artículo fue explorar las relaciones entre percepciones de justicia organizacional y estrés laboral en muestras de trabajadores argentinos, y verificar el impacto de los valores culturales (individualismo-colectivismo) sobre tales relaciones. La muestra estuvo integrada por 378 empleados (216 varones y 162 mujeres), los que respondieron una encuesta autoadministrada. Los resultados revelaron que algunas variables sociodemográficas afectan las percepciones de justicia organizacional; que la percepción de falta de justicia se relaciona negativamente con el estrés laboral, y que la orientación hacia el colectivismo de los empleados actúa como una variable moderada sobre tales relaciones. Se discuten los resultados en términos de sus implicancias sobre las prácticas e instrumentación de programas organizacionales.
Public trust and perceptions of institutional legitimacy are vital to the functioning of the federal court system, and recent work challenges the long-standing belief that these attitudes are relatively stable in the populace. We posit that one threat to perceptions of trust and legitimacy is the lack of representation for women in the federal judiciary. Using a series of experiments, we show that, while women desire descriptive representation, this is an insufficient condition for preserving support for the institution. Substantive representation on issues critical to women leads to significantly increased trust and legitimacy and lowered perceptions of institutional bias among women. While female judges may bring their own social identities to bear in their decision-making, our work suggests that efforts to diversify the federal judiciary, while important, are unlikely to bolster public support for the courts if the new judges and justices fail to substantively represent the communities of interest.
This study examines the promotion of paternity leave by focusing on the role of female directors on boards. Drawing on insights from the literature on the upper echelons theory and strategic leadership, we argue that efforts to break gender stereotypes in upper‐echelon positions, particularly through female representation on boards, can promote paternity leave. Analyzing data from 633 Japanese firms between 2017 and 2021 with pooled regression models revealed that a high proportion of female directors promoted paternity leave. Additionally, it implied that the proportion of female department managers can strengthen the positive effects of female directors on paternity leave promotions. Our results contribute to the theory and practice of gender equality in organizations by providing implications for promoting crucial management practices that may be hindered by gender stereotypes.
Medikal turizm, bireylerin başka ülkelere tedavi amaçlı yaptığı seyahatlerdir. Medikal turistlerin
tedavi almak istediği ülkelerden çeşitli beklentileri vardır. Sunulan sağlık kalitesi, maliyet tasarrufu,
iklim, kültürel benzerlikler ve dini inanç bu beklentilerden bazıları olarak sıralanabilir. Helal medikal
turizm ise medikal turistlerin tedavi öncesi ve süresince konaklama, yeme-içme, turistik faaliyetler ve
tedavi hizmetlerinin İslami şartlara uygun olarak yerine getirilmesidir. Medikal turizm tedavi hizmetleri
ve turizm faaliyetlerinin yanı sıra birçok sektörün birlikte iş birliği halinde olduğu bir alandır. Sağlık
ve turizm sektörüne ek olarak ulaşım, iletişim, finans ve aracı kuruluşlar bu birlikteliğin birer parçası
halinde kabul edilir. Bu çalışma, helal medikal turizm konusunu incelemek, dünyadaki ve Türkiye’deki
durumunu ortaya çıkarmak ve helal medikal turizmi diğer paydaşlarla beraber değerlendirmek için
derleme yöntemiyle hazırlanan nitel bir çalışmadır. Türkiye’nin helal medikal turizmde önde gelen
ülkelerden biri haline gelmesi, helal akreditasyona sahip sağlık kuruluşlarının sayısının artırılması,
Müslüman nüfusunun daha fazla olduğu orta doğu ve uzak doğu ülkelerinden Müslüman medikal turist
çekebilmek için tanıtım ve pazarlama faaliyetlerinin artırılması, yabancı Müslüman turistlerle iletişimin
sağlıklı gerçekleştirilebilmesi için yabancı dil bilen personellerin istihdamının sağlanması ile mümkün
olabileceği değerlendirilmiştir
Cam tavan sendromu, kadınların iş yaşamlarında yöneticilerle arasında yer alan ve çalışanın başarı ve liyakatine bakılmaksızın iş hayatında yükselmesini engelleyen, kariyer boyutunda belirli bir yere kadar ilerleme durumudur. Bu durumun ortaya çıkmasında pek çok sebep olduğu, yapılan araştırmaların ise kadınların çalışma yaşamında geçemedikleri bir cam tavanın varlığını belirtmektedir. Cam tavan, kadın çalışanların her ne kadar başarılı olsalar bile liyakatlerine bakılmadan yükselmelerini önleyen, açık bir şekilde görülmeyen, aşılması mümkün olmayan engellerdir. Birçok kadın çalışma yaşamında erkek egemenliğini kabullenmiş durumda olduğu için kurum içerinde yapılan terfi yarışmalarından uzak dururlar. Sonuç olarak kurumda en tepe yönetime kadar yükselemeyeceğini bilirler. Son yıllara bakıldığında kadın nüfusunun artmasına paralel olarak çalışan kadınların sayısında gün be gün artış olmakta fakat çalışılan iş ortamında cam tavana kadar yükselebilmektedirler. Bu çalışmada Kadınların iş yaşamında karşılaştıkları bireysel ve örgütsel faktörlerden kaynaklanan engellere, toplumsal faktörlerden kaynaklanan engellere, çalışma hayatında kadın yöneticiler yöneticilik pozisyonlarına gelme çabalarında karşılaştığı güçlüklere, ortaya çıkan sorunlara yer verilen bir derleme çalışmasıdır.
Women expose to barriers in their work-life that are not stated clearly. Although these invisible barriers occur in many sectors, they are common in the education sector. So, this study aimed to reveal the relation between the paternalistic leadership displayed by principals in traditional collectivist cultures and the glass ceiling syndrome experienced by female teachers. For this reason, the correlation survey model was used in the research. Female teachers living in Istanbul were selected with the appropriate sampling method due to the Covid 19 outbreak. "The Paternal Leadership Behaviors Scale of School Principals" and "Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale for Female Teachers" were applied to 358 female teachers. Applied t-test, correlation, ANOVA, and regression analysis. As a result of statistical analysis, it saw that the benevolent, moral, authoritarian, and exploitative leadership behaviors perceived by teachers significantly predicted the perceptions of glass ceiling syndrome. Although benevolent, moral, authoritarian, exploitative paternalistic leadership behaviors mainly indicated teachers' perception of the glass ceiling, they were even low. Especially authoritarian and exploitative paternalistic leadership behaviors explained 5% of the total variance in teachers' perception of the glass ceiling syndrome.
Draft of Law on Religious Courts (RUUPA) about unregistered-marriage have led to pros and cons among the Muslims. This issue is also noticed by Bundo Kanduang; one of women’s Institutions in the city of Padang, West Sumatra. This institution is more concerning on the advantages of this enacted-draft as well as the disadvantages experienced by the women if it is not enacted. This institution shows its agreement by the reason that the draft of RUUPA can minimize negative impacts that may occur. One of the negative impacts is: there is no legality towards children born from this unregistered-marriage. This is due to the condition that parents do not report their marriage on the office of religious affairs
In this study the reasons employees perceived for promotions of both themselves and others, and their reactions to those perceptions were examined. Previous research usually ignores (i) the potential antecedents of organizational justice regarding promotions and (ii) justice perceptions’ relations to the treatment of self versus others. Results showed that people consider promotions based on performance fair, whereas they consider non-performance criteria for promotions unfair. Furthermore, perceptions of promotion channels for self and others’ promotions each demonstrated unique prediction of justice, and gender interacted with employee promotion perceptions to predict promotional justice. Discussion focuses on implications regarding (i) similarities and differences in views of self versus others’ outcomes, (ii) equal opportunity, and (iii) future research.
This study examined the relationships among self-efficacy beliefs, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and academic adjustment among 111 African American women in college. Results revealed that self-efficacy beliefs predicted Motivation to Know, Externally Regulated motivation, Identified motivation, and academic adjustment. Furthermore, Motivation to Know partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and academic adjustment. Contrary to prediction, extrinsic motivation did not mediate the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and academic adjustment. The implications of these findings for faculty, higher education administrators, and mental health counselors are provided, as well directions for future research. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)
The present paper proposes a model of knowledge sharing, in which coworker congruence, outcome interdependence, perceived organizational support, and procedural justice influence knowledge sharing indirectly through the mediation of instrumental ties and expressive ties, and examined gender differences in causal connections within the model. In a sample of employees in Taiwan, it was shown that the influence of instrumental ties on knowledge sharing is stronger for females than for males; the influence of expressive ties on knowledge sharing is stronger for males than for females; the influence of coworker congruence on expressive ties is stronger for females than for males; the influence of outcome interdependence on instrumental ties is stronger for females than for males; and the influence of perceived organizational support on instrumental ties is stronger for males than for females.
Orgutlerdeki ortak ve isbirligine dayanan hareketlerin temel esaslarindan birisi olan orgutsel adalet, endustri ve orgut psikolojisi, insan kaynaklari yonetimi ve orgutsel davranis alanlarinda incelenmekte olan bir konudur. Is doyumu ise orgutsel arastirmalarda en cok incelenen konulardan biri olmasi yaninda adalet algilari ile iliskili bir kavramdir. Bu arastirmanin amaci orgutsel adalet algisi ve is doyumu iliskisini incelemektir. Arastirma Turkiye’de otomotiv sektorunde faaliyet gosteren bir isletmede, 310 isgorenin katilimiyla gerceklestirilmistir. Arastirma bulgularina gore, orgutsel adalet algisi, is doyumunu belirleyen etmenlerden biri olarak ortaya konmaktadýr. Boyutlar acisindan bakildiginda ise, dagitim adaleti ve kisilerarasi adalet algisinin is doyumu uzerinde etkili olmasina karsin, islemsel ve bilgisel adalet algilari acisindan herhangi bir etkinin olmadigi tespit edilmistir.
Despite the need for qualified personnel in the field of information technology (IT), women are under represented. Recruiting
has been difficult and those women entering the profession often leave. Gender schema theory adds to the explanation of behaviors
and attitudes in the workplace that may adversely impact women in technology. We surveyed members of Systers, an online forum
for women in technology, to examine gender schemas of IT women to see if there is a significant difference between them and
the general public. Our findings suggest that there is a significant difference in the gender-schemas of women in technology
and the gender-schemas of the general population. A subsequent sample of male IT students and men in the general public also
indicated a significant difference in gender schemas of these two groups. Implications of these differences and future research
in this area are discussed.
This study reports the findings of 6 focus groups conducted with male and female managers working in information technology (IT) at three different companies. The views the managers shared regarding the barriers that men who work in IT face that their female counterparts do not are presented. The themes which emerged in the analysis are viewed through the lens of gender schema theory. In this study, the concept of family responsibilities was raised only by the females and it was only evoked as a cause concept. In contrast, the concept of gender discrimination was evoked as only an effect concept, but it was discussed by both the men and the women. The issue of opposite gender interaction was raised by both males and females with the females often resorting to gender isolation as an approach to avoid inappropriate or uncomfortable interactions.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Our purpose was to test an explanation of how procedural justice may influence organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The model tested suggests that procedural justice affects OCB by influencing perceived organizational support, which in turn prompts employees to reciprocate with organizational citizenship behaviors. Results suggest that procedural justice is an antecedent to perceived organizational support, which in turn fully mediates its relationship to three of four OCB dimensions.
The article explores the attitudes of male managers toward women as senior executives of multinational corporations (MNC) subsidiaries. Women are moving into previously male-dominated roles and occupations. They are pursuing their ambitions across boundaries they have never before crossed. MNCs would be well advised to take note of this development for two reasons. First, there is an increasing shortage of managerial talent for complex organizations. Second, international business requires that management methods be continuously adapted to changing conditions and social values, and geared to taking advantage of opportunities in host environments. In view of the magnitude of problems anticipated by respondents, most of them concluded that only exceptional women could actually succeed in the job. It was not that they had a personal preference for working with outstandingly competent women, but that they believed such competence was necessary to overcome the barriers. The majority of 111 Host Country Organization managers studied stated that a woman could successfully head an MNC subsidiary, but most had serious reservations. Consequently, MNCs committed to greater equality in the top jobs could use the lower upper ranks of the subsidiary hierarchy as a training ground for women, preparing them to become chief executives in the future. Implications for MNC personnel policy in selection, training, and assignment are offered.
Two studies examined how litigants' evaluations of the outcome and process of lawsuits affected their judgments about the fairness of procedures and their acceptance of awards from court-ordered arbitration. The studies tested predictions concerning the operation of a "fairness heuristic"-that procedural justice judgments mediate the effects of process impressions and outcome evaluations on the decision to accept or reject the directives of an authority. Participants in the studies were corporate and individual litigants in federal tort and contract actions that were subject to court-ordered arbitration. In both studies the decision to accept the arbitrator's award or reject it and go to trial was strongly correlated with judgments of procedural justice, and much or all of the effect of outcome evaluations and process impressions on award acceptance was mediated by procedural justice judgments, which had a stronger effect than either subjective or objective measures of the arbitration award. Separate analyses of corporate and individual decision makers in the second study suggested that both groups relied heavily on procedural justice judgments in deciding whether or not to accept the arbitration award. The findings provide evidence of widespread use of a fairness heuristic and support the extension of justice-judgment research to corporate decision making.
Behavioral plasticity theory is offered as an explanation for the moderating effects of self-esteem on role perception-employee response relationships. According to this theory, because individuals with low self-esteem are more reactive than their counterparts with high selfesteem, they are more susceptible to adverse role conditions, such as role conflict, ambiguity, and overload, and a poor work environment and poor supervisory support. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed significant moderating effects for organization-based selfesteem on role condition-response relationships, thereby providing support for predictions based on behavioral plasticity theory. It has been empirically demonstrated that role-related influences such as conflict, overload, and ambiguity can have an impact on the affective and behavioral responses of organization members. Researchers have further argued that an individual's ability, adaptability, and self-esteem may influence those reactions. The purpose of the research reported here was to evaluate empirically the hypothesis that an employee's level of self-esteem affects the impact of role conditions on performance and satisfaction. The research is important in that it provides insight into the viability of behavioral plasticity theory (cf. Brockner, 1988) for predicting relationships between role conditions and employee responses. In addition, this investigation employed an organization-based rather than a global self-esteem measure so the measure is framed within the same context as the affective and behavioral responses under investigation. Finding support for the moderating effects of self
In order to be competitive, organizations are finding ways to become more efficient and effective. One key component in this process is human resources. In an effort to encourage employees to work to their potential, organizations have installed a variety of human resource plans designed to make employees responsible for their behavior. However, many of these plans fail. One possible reason for their failure is that the employees are not capable of understanding the link between effort and performance. Individuals who fall into this category are considered learned helpless. To better understand why some individuals cannot link effort and performance, a model is presented that depicts how individuals become learned helpless, and the potential organizational consequences of learned helplessness. Testable propositions are derived from the model.
Bern's gender schema theory (Bern 1981, 1983, 1993) provides a useful framework for examining the influence of women scientist role models on girls’ perceptions of science and scientists. The purpose of this paper is (1) to describe how Bern's gender schema theory serves as a framework for guiding future research, (2) to examine the fundamental premises of Bern's gender schema theory as they relate to the processing of information about science and gender roles, and (3) to identify key conditions and criteria from gender schema theory to guide the design of television programs that use role models to reduce gender‐stereotyping of science.
Mentoring provides career guidance and psychological support to employees. However, women may have difficulty establishing a mentoring relationship. This paper describes the individual and organizational factors that may inhibit the development of mentorships for women. An agenda for research on the development and dynamics of mentoring relationships is proposed.
Organizational justice researchers have long debated the distinction between procedural and interactional justice. Recently, several researchers have proposed that procedural and interactional justice can be distinguished from one another using social exchange theory. In particular, procedural justice applies more to the exchange between the individual and employing organization, whereas interactional justice generally refers to the exchange between the individual and his or her supervisor. If this theory is correct, procedural justice should be more closely associated with reactions toward upper management and organizational policies, whereas interactional justice should be more closely associated with reactions toward one’s supervisor and job performance. These predictions were tested in a field study involving approximately 107 employees and their supervisors. Predictions were generally confirmed, though there were some unexpected findings.
Evidence will be presented of the impact of the assessment and selection techniques used in a management development program in a major UK financial services organization. The assessment techniques involved are situational interviews and two different assessment centers. Drawing on a questionnaire study of 141 managers, data are presented concerning the impact of such techniques on organizational commitment and job and career withdrawal cognitions. The results suggest that assessment procedures and decisions have some impact on candidates' post-assessment attitude to the organization and their intention to leave their jobs and careers. The article also presents data on the reactions of the participants to the selection and assessment process. A preliminary theoretical view of the impact process is presented and discussed.
Sixteen oral histories were collected from male and female white, Black, and Hispanic managers to describe the daily experiences which may lead to different treatment within the corporation. Thematic analysis of transcriptions revealed feelings of acceptance within the corporate environment were related to gender, racial, and ethnic identity.
Substantial differences in occupational employment by gender still remain; the degree of these differences varies according to several factors, such as educational attainment and age.
This chapter discusses the relevance of several key issues that have been addressed by attribution theorists and researchers that are important for an understanding of justice. Perceptions of justice are based fundamentally on attributions of cause and responsibility. Whether one focuses on the person on the street, the subject in a research setting, the social theorist, or the philosopher, justice perceptions are grounded in these attributions. Their crucial importance can be observed by noting the following: (1) differences between individuals' perceptions of justice are based on differing attributions of cause and responsibility, attributional conflicts; (2) an individual's perception of justice will change as a consequence of changes in these attributions; and (3) individuals asked to describe and explain their justice perceptions search for attributional information and base their explanations on appeals to such information. Attempts by social psychologists to understand lay perceptions of justice are often forced to invoke implicit assumptions about causal and responsibility beliefs. Important philosophical disagreements on the nature of justice rest in a fundamental way on differing assessments of the extent to which persons can be held morally responsible for their characteristics and actions in a given context and social structure.
Social psychological research of the past years has been greatly preoccupied with the question of the validity of results obtained in the typical laboratory experiment. In the late 1950s and the early 1960s, several authors warned that pervasive sources of contamination may be operative in psychology experiments, and that the data collected therein may not be what they seem. This chapter attempts a critical review of the literature on subject-artifacts. The notion of artifact has been explicated. The chapter discusses the possible reasons for the quick concessions to the claims for subject artifacts. However, the gist of the discussion revolves about the validity of the critiques. The chapter outlines several distinct strategies for the study of subject-artifacts and examines the unique difficulties of each approach. The empirical evidence bearing on the part played by the various artifacts has been considered in an attempt to estimate the extent of the biases involved.
122 employed professional men and women in early career stages provided information about the functions served by their relationships with peers. Most respondents were aware of functions served by their peer relationships. Most common functions were informational, future contacts, and referrals. Professionals from larger organizations, having more extensive peer relationships or belonging to formalized network groups received more network functions. Women and minorities were as active in peer relationships as were men and majority group members.
This paper analyzes data describing jobs in 100 establishments in order to test hypotheses about the characteristics of jobs and organizations associated with the structure of internal promotion ladders. The diversity of labor market arrangements found within the organizations indicates only weak support for hypotheses linking internal labor markets to organizational or sectoral imperatives. At the job level, however, there is support for hypotheses linking job ladders to firm-specific skills, organizational structure, gender distinctions, technology, occupational differentiation, the institutional environment, and the interests of unions. The paper concludes with an examination of how promotion ladders are formed from clusters of jobs associated with each other by occupation, skill, or gender composition.
Empirical investigations of differences between females and males in the industrial salesforce have not been published. This study is an attempt to begin to fill this void. Women and men are compared on six job satisfaction components, value importance of the job components, performance, role clarity, and propensity to leave the organization. The findings generally support the hypothesis of "no difference" between males and females. However, women did have lower role clarity scores and higher propensity to leave scores.
How does gender segregation at work affects men's well-being, as expressed in their psychological orientations toward work? Analyzing a sample of employed males in the 1973 Quality of Employment Survey, we find that men in mixed work settings report significantly lower job-related satisfaction and self-esteem and more job-related depression than men in either male- or female-dominated work settings, even after controlling for individual, job, organizational, and economic determinants of well-being. These findings are difficult to reconcile with theories suggesting that men dislike gender integration at work simply for economic reasons or with the view that male tokens suffer psychologically by occupying low-status positions viewed as "female" jobs. Rather, our findings are more consistent with perspectives that emphasize how the quality and quantity of intergroup relations decline as groups become more balanced. The implications of our results for segregation theories and for efforts to remedy segregation are discussed.
The rapid influx of women into the industrial salesforce over the last decade has created a need to upgrade understanding of the female salesperson. The authors examine gender differences in job-related attitudes and performance outcomes in an integrated salesforce. Results showing few gender differences bring into question anecdotal suggestions that women require special programs to facilitate their assimilation into the salesforce. Specific recommendations are provided about individual treatment for both male and female salespeople.
In this article we integrate contextual and cognitive explanations for gender-based selection in the workplace; we also consider the implications of this integration for understanding gender segregation. We argue that decision makers' propensity to use applicant gender as a basis for hiring and promotion decisions varies systematically across organizational contexts. We explore specific ways in which organizational context influences decision makers' development and use of gender-associated schemas of typical jobholders. We also argue that the interaction between context and cognition may be partially responsible for the persistence of gender segregation. Finally, we discuss the implications of our approach for the practice of personnel selection and research on selection and gender segregation.
Recent enthusiasm for the social schema concept has been accompanied by a wave of criticism. Skeptics argue that the concept is imprecise and nonfalsifiable, irrelevant to real social phenomena, and simply old wine in a new bottle. While finding elements of truth in each criticism, this article concludes that the strengths of the schema framework more than outweigh the liabilities associated with these criticisms.
Do protégés report having more power than nonprotégés? Do male protégés report having more power than female protégés? Do high-level protégés report having more influence than low-level protégés? To answer these questions, mentored and nonmentored men and women in high- and low-level positions were asked to evaluate their level of organizational policy influence, access to important people and their level of resources in their organizations. The results of the study revealed that mentored individuals reported having more of each of these three forms of power than nonmentored individuals. Protégés' perceptions of their power were not affected by their gender or level.
In this article, the authors present an expanded model of organizational behavior modification that incorporates insights from social learning theory. This new approach draws from interaction among situation, person, behavior, and consequence components. he adage that "there is nothing as practical as a good theory" seems particularly relevant to the management of human resources in to-day's organizations. A good behavioral the-ory can help contemporary managers solve productivity problems, meet the challenge of foreign competition, and prepare subor-dinates for dramatic changes in the v^ork-place now and in the future. Unfortunately, the theorizing about organizational behavior to date has produced a confusing array of normative prescriptions and techniques that fragment rather than integrate managers' ap-proaches to getting the most out of their peo-47 48 Robert Kreitner is a professor of management at Arizona State University. After a four-year tour of duty in the U. S. Coast Guard (includ-ing service on the icebreaker, EASTWIND, in Antarctica), he earned B.S. and M.B.A. degree:-from the University of Nebraska-Omaha and ii Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Prior to joining ASU, he taught management overseas (Micronesia) and at Western Illinois University. He co-authored (with Fred Luthans) the widely referenced book, Organizational Be-havior Modification (Scott. Foresman, 1975), that was honored with the Outstanding Human Resource Management Book Award for 1975 by the American Society for Personnel Administra-tion. A second edition of this book will appear in 1985 under the title. Organizational Be-havior Modification and Beyond: An Operant and Social Learning Approach. Kreitners Management (2nd edition, Houghton-Mifflin. 1983), is a leading text in the principles of mar-ket management. He has written mimerous articles within the field of organizational be-havior that have appeared in such journals as Business Horizons, Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, and Personnel Journal. He is past chairman of the Management Edv-cation and Development Division of the National Academy of Management. Professor Kreitner has conducted many management trai.i-ing and development sessions pertaining to organizational behavior modification, human resources management techniques, and wellness/ stress management for a wide variety of or-ganizations, including U.S. Steel, Honeywell, Amdahl. U. S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Stati-Farm Insurance Cotnpatiies. and Goodyear Aerospace.
Women face a complex panorama of choices and constraints in their career and life development. This article presents an approach to the understanding of women's careers that (a) takes into account non-work as well as work issues; (b) incorporates subjective as well as objective measures of career and life success; (c) incorporates the influence of personal, organizational, and societal factors on women's choices and outcomes; and (d) does not assume that women's careers go through a predictable sequence of stages over time. Such an approach is vastly different from traditional models of men's careers. Implications of this approach for research, organizations, and men's careers are discussed.
The present article chronicles the history of the field of organizational justice, identifies current themes, and recommends new directions for the future. A historical overview of the field focuses on research and theory in the distributive justice tradition (e.g., equity theory) as well as the burgeoning topic of procedural justice. This forms the foundation for the discussion offive popular themes in contemporary organizational justice research: (a) attempts to distinguish procedural justice and distributive justice empirically, (b) the development of new conceptual advances, (c) consideration of the interpersonal determinants of procedural justice judgments, (d) new directions in tests of equity theory, and (e) applications of justice-based explanations to many different organizational phenomena. In closing, a plea is made for future work that improves procedural justice research methodologically (with respect to scope, setting, and scaling), and that attempts to integrate and unify disparate concepts in the distributive and procedural justice traditions.
Despite voluminous research indicating that women and minorities have limited access to or are excluded from organizational networks, two central questions remain unanswered: (a) In what specific ways, if any, do the interaction networks of men and women and whites and racial minorities differ? and (b) What mechanisms produce those differences? The central thesis of the article is that the organizational context in which interaction networks are embedded produces unique constraints on women and racial minorities, causing their networks to differ from those of their white male counterparts in composition and characteristics of their relationships with network members. Organizational context is hypothesized to affect personal networks directly, as well as through its impact on individuals' strategies for managing constraints. A theoretical perspective that views women and minorities as active agents who make strategic choices among structurally limited alternatives is offered.
The controversy over using college students as subjects in applied research has been a topic of philosophical discourse and empirical investigation. Thirty-two studies are reviewed in which students and nonstudents participated as subjects under identical conditions. In studies reporting statistical tests of between-group differences, the preponderance of findings indicated that the experimental results differed in the two samples. By contrast, no major differences associated with the type of subject were reported in the majority of studies which did not employ statistical procedures to compare the findings in the two samples. Explanations for differences in the sample are offered, and serve as a basis for recommendations for future research.
Sex-role spillover is the carryover of gender-based roles into the work setting. It is exacerbated by having a highly skewed ratio of the sexes at work. The sex roles associated with the majority sex become incorporated into the work roles. In male-dominated jobs, activity, rationality, and aggressiveness are emphasized, whereas nurturance and passivity are associated with “women's work. “ The implications of sex-role spillover for sexual behavior at work was investigated through analysis of a telephone survey of working adults in Los Angeles County in 1980. Sex-role spillover affects people in traditional work by having their sex role and work role merged together, and affects people in nontraditional work by the fact that they are a visible minority and their sex does not correspond to the sex roles normally associated with their jobs. In the case of sexual behavior at work, the fallout of sex role spillover is more visibly negative for women than for men. Very few men work in nontraditional or integrated jobs. Women in traditional jobs who work a great deal with men face the problem of being seen by the men as sex objects. Women in nontraditional jobs face the problems of being visible role deviants and attract sexual overtures. Sex role spillover is not a major problem in integrated jobs because the sex ratios are fairly balanced and, hence, neither male nor female sex roles are emphasized. Therefore, there is little sexual harassment in sex-integrated jobs.
This paper argues that two network mechanisms operate to create and reinforce gender inequalities in the organizational distribution of power: sex differences in homophily (i.e., tendency to form same-sex network relationships) and in the ability to convert individual attributes and positional resources into network advantages. These arguments were tested in a network analytic study of men's and women's interaction patterns in an advertising firm. Men were more likely to form homophilous ties across multiple networks and to have stronger homophilous ties, while women evidenced a differentiated network pattern in which they obtained social support and friendship from women and instrumental access through network ties to men. Although centrality in organization-wide networks did not vary by sex once controls were instituted, relative to women, men appeared to reap greater network returns from similar individual and positional resources, as well as from homophilous relationships.