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Strategies for assessing the potential for positive adjustment following trauma
Abstract
The subset of survivors who evidence resilience rather than pathology following trauma is frequently overlooked in empirical studies and theoretical discussions of PTSD. Susceptibility to dysfunction is clearly not a simple function of individual fortitude. The present paper discusses the complex interplay of variables which may influence post-trauma adjustment and suggests assessment instruments which may be useful in future research on this topic.
... In addition Blanchard et al (1996) in their research foimd that the extent of the injury the person received and the risk of death was also predictive of PTSD. Lyons (1991) also suggests that the extent of personal disfigurement suffered following the traumatic event is a further influential factor on subsequent symptomatology. ...
... For example, found that the number of post-disaster life events experienced was significantly related to the general psychological well-being of survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Lyons (1991) in examining survivors who demonstrate resilience rather than pathology following traumatic events suggests that the presence of a supportive network, financial resources and the ability to continue to function in occupational roles at a pre-trauma level all contribute to a positive outcome. Figley (1985) also emphasises the importance of social support and the role of the family in adjustment following traumatic experiences. ...
... Post-disaster life events which found to relate to the psychological well-being of survivors one can also consider to militate against having a 'laboratory' -if one has further difiQculties to construe there will be little time and energy available for reconstruing the trauma. Finally, factors such as social support which a number of researchers suggest influences the course of PTSD (Lyons, 1991;Figley, 1985;Smith, 1985) can be seen as conducive to creating a safe, secure environment/laboratory in which alternative constructions of the trauma can be tried out and, hopefully, validated. ...
An investigation of the Constructivist Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder was undertaken. A within subjects design was used. Participants completed symptom measures and the Life Events Repertory Grid before receiving psychological therapy for PTSD. Thirteen participants were interviewed and, given this small sample size, the results obtained should be interpreted with caution as they do not allow for a confident confirmation or rejection of the research hypotheses. Exploratory data analysis revealed that these participants seemed to be viewing the traumatic event as more distant from all other life events than non-trauma events. There was some evidence to suggest an association between this variable (distance of trauma from other life events) and participants' scores on the Intrusion subscale of the Impact of Events Scale. Cases illustrating this relationship and outliers presenting a contradiction to the association are described. Other variables (extremity of rating of the traumatic event and the designation of the construct poles used by participants) seem to suggest that the trauma was being rated more extremely than other life events for these participants. The utility of a further variable - the level of elaboration of the traumatic event within the construct system - was not demonstrated in this study. In addition three case studies are described for those participants who were interviewed post-therapy and changes in their construct systems are discussed in relation to the model. The results suggest that further exploration and testing of the potential of the Constructivist Model for informing theoretical understanding of the psychological processes involved in trauma-based disorders would be of benefit. Implications for theory and practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... Proactive probing for changes in risk profile, rapid and accurate access to changes in system states (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006;Dinh et al. 2012) 17. Survival Ability of system to persevere and survive while providing a viable level of service (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006) 18. Tolerance How a system behaves at the boundary; graceful or abrupt degradation (Woods 2006;Jackson and Ferris 2012) Personal beliefs that promote a sense of meaning and purpose; ability to sustain effort over time; help overcome negative effect of personal, social, and economic risks; a sense of equanimity about one's life conditions (Olsson et al. 2003;Sinclair and Wallston 2004;Skodol 2010;Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) 2. Fortitude, conviction, tenacity, and resolve Perseverance to tasks and goals; sustained by a deeply held belief that life has meaning; beliefs that sustain motivation and effort to adapt/survive; mastery motivation; agency (Masten and Wright 2010;Olsson et al. 2003;Masten 2014a;Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) 3. Moral reasoning Informed conscience, capacity to judge right from wrong; valuing compassion, fairness and decency; internal standards for the way things should be; based on ethical grounds; moral perception associated with faith (Kumpfer 1995;Stokols, Lejano, and Hipp 2013) 4. Perceive beneficial/strengthening effect of stress Viewing stress as an opportunity for growth; positive perception of stress; enhanced optimism, patience, and perceived value of interpersonal communications; posttraumatic growth; learning from crises (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Rutter 1985;Lyons 1991;Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004;Kobasa 1979) 5. Personal/collective goals Ability to set desirable objectives and obtain a sense of mastery when life events threaten beliefs; contribute to a sense of coherence and meaning; self regulation (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Rutter 1985;Mayer and Faber 2010) 6. Self-esteem Having a value, acceptance, and respect of oneself; sense of self-worth; positive self-appraisal of personal strengths and capabilities; enhanced by creativity (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Skodol 2010;Campbell, Chew, and Scratchley 1991;Rutter 1987;Kumpfer 1995) 7. View change/stress as a challenge/opportunity Perceive stress as a vehicle of positive change; experiences of awakening to responsibility, validation and acceptance from others; able to be self-nurturing to recognize and seek-out individual needs (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Kobasa 1979;Skodol 2010;Lyons 1991) ...
... Proactive probing for changes in risk profile, rapid and accurate access to changes in system states (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006;Dinh et al. 2012) 17. Survival Ability of system to persevere and survive while providing a viable level of service (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson 2006) 18. Tolerance How a system behaves at the boundary; graceful or abrupt degradation (Woods 2006;Jackson and Ferris 2012) Personal beliefs that promote a sense of meaning and purpose; ability to sustain effort over time; help overcome negative effect of personal, social, and economic risks; a sense of equanimity about one's life conditions (Olsson et al. 2003;Sinclair and Wallston 2004;Skodol 2010;Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) 2. Fortitude, conviction, tenacity, and resolve Perseverance to tasks and goals; sustained by a deeply held belief that life has meaning; beliefs that sustain motivation and effort to adapt/survive; mastery motivation; agency (Masten and Wright 2010;Olsson et al. 2003;Masten 2014a;Dyer and Mcguinness 1996) 3. Moral reasoning Informed conscience, capacity to judge right from wrong; valuing compassion, fairness and decency; internal standards for the way things should be; based on ethical grounds; moral perception associated with faith (Kumpfer 1995;Stokols, Lejano, and Hipp 2013) 4. Perceive beneficial/strengthening effect of stress Viewing stress as an opportunity for growth; positive perception of stress; enhanced optimism, patience, and perceived value of interpersonal communications; posttraumatic growth; learning from crises (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Rutter 1985;Lyons 1991;Tedeschi and Calhoun 2004;Kobasa 1979) 5. Personal/collective goals Ability to set desirable objectives and obtain a sense of mastery when life events threaten beliefs; contribute to a sense of coherence and meaning; self regulation (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Rutter 1985;Mayer and Faber 2010) 6. Self-esteem Having a value, acceptance, and respect of oneself; sense of self-worth; positive self-appraisal of personal strengths and capabilities; enhanced by creativity (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Skodol 2010;Campbell, Chew, and Scratchley 1991;Rutter 1987;Kumpfer 1995) 7. View change/stress as a challenge/opportunity Perceive stress as a vehicle of positive change; experiences of awakening to responsibility, validation and acceptance from others; able to be self-nurturing to recognize and seek-out individual needs (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Kobasa 1979;Skodol 2010;Lyons 1991) ...
... Positive appraisal/outlook of stressful events or adverse conditions; belief that one can influence the outcome of a stressful situation; associated with coping, positive reinterpretation, and seeking support (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Kumpfer 1995;Skodol 2010) 13. Patience Capacity to accept/tolerate delay, accepting of conditions without undue stress (Connor and Davidson 2003;Connor 2006;Lyons 1991) 14. ...
Despite Federal directives calling for an integrated approach to strengthening the resilience of critical infrastructure systems, little is known about the relationship between human behavior and infrastructure resilience. While it is well recognized that human response can either amplify or mitigate catastrophe, the role of human or psychological resilience when infrastructure systems are confronted with surprise remains an oversight in policy documents and resilience research. Existing research treats human resilience and technological resilience as separate capacities that may create stress conditions that act upon one another. There remains a knowledge gap regarding study of those attributes in each that build infrastructure resilience as an integrated system of humans and technologies. This work draws on concepts found in the resilience engineering and psychology literature to examine the dynamic relationships between human resilience and the resilience of complex, socio-technical critical infrastructure systems. We identify and organize 18 system capacities and 23 human capacities that influence infrastructure resilience. We then correlate individual human and system resilience capacities to determine how each influences four socio-technical processes for resilience: sensing, anticipating, adapting, and learning. Our analysis shows that the human and technical resilience capacities reviewed are interconnected, interrelated, and interdependent. Further, we find current literature is focused more on cognitive and behavioral dimensions of human resilience and we offer ways to better incorporate affective capacities. Together, we present a simple way to link the resilience of technological systems to the cognitive, behavioral, and affective dimensions of humans responsible for the system design, operation, and management.
... Esta última es una de las más aceptadas y utilizadas (Ahem, Kiehl, Lou, & Byers, 2006;Baek et al., 2010;Campbell-Stills & Stein, 2007;Gilliespie et al., 2009;Serrano-Parra et al., 2012;Windle, Bennett, & Noye, 2011). Connor y Davidson (2003), basándose en los trabajos previos de Kobasa (1979), Rutter (1985) y Lyons (1991), consideran que la resiliencia es una capacidad personal que protege de las situaciones estresantes, es antes un estado que un rasgo y, por lo tanto, modificable. A partir de aquí, plantean que la resiliencia se compone de cinco dimensiones: competencia personal, confianza en los propios instintos, tolerancia a la adversidad, aceptación positiva del cambio, control e influencia espiritual, y diseñan una escala de 25 ítems distribuidos en las dimensiones anteriormente mencionadas. ...
... Con este trabajo se dispone de una medida de la resiliencia válida y fiable que puede ser utilizada tanto con fines de investigación como de gestión organizativa. En este último sentido, por ejemplo, al ser considerada la resiliencia como una variable estado y maleable (Lyons, 1991;Rutter, 1985), su evaluación facilita en gran medida que los programas de formación y desarrollo de la resiliencia puedan evaluarse. ...
The aim of the study is to analyze the psychometric properties of the Spanish adaptation of the scale of resilience CD-RISC of Connor and Davidson (2003) in the 10-item version in a sample of workers. Two samples were used. In the first sample a total of 386 workers completed this scale. We carry out EFA to observe the factor structure of the scale which resulted in one main factor responsible for 55.8% of the total variance and containing the 10 items. The internal consistency was appropriate (Cronbach's alpha of 0.87). In order to ratify the model obtained in the AFE, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted with data from sample 2 (N = 238) which corroborated the univariate model. As for the divergent validity, correlations with scores on the variable burnout, psychological health and job satisfaction were statistically significant and followed the theoretical direction (total sample= 624). It is concluded that the Spanish 10-item version of the CD-RISC by Connor and Davidson (2003) presents adequate psychometric properties to estimate resilience in workers.
... a. La Escala de Resiliencia de Connor y Davidson (2003) denominada CD-RISC y diseñada a partir de otras escalas (Lyons, 1991). La utilidad, en su origen, era destinada al campo clínico para identificar prematuramente conductas resilientes, así como apreciar las respuestas a procesos farmacológicos o psicológicos centrados en la población adulta, aplicándose en España años más tarde por Menezes et al. (2006). ...
Antecedentes: Actualmente, la profesión militar es ardua y perseverante, llena de sacrificios basados en el deber que demanda la nación. Ello conlleva que sus miembros, en ocasiones, estén sometidos a presiones psicológicas que les podrían ocasionar problemas psicosociales, afectando a sus competencias y/o habilidades, así como a sus relaciones interpersonales. Objetivo General: Analizar los constructos psicológicos de: inteligencia emocional, empatía, resiliencia y autoestima en personal militar perteneciente al Ejército de Tierra español. De este Objetivo General, se desprenden los siguientes Objetivos Específicos: 1) Conocer si existen diferencias de medias entre nivel de inteligencia emocional, empatía, resiliencia y autoestima según: género, consumo de alcohol diario, consumo de tabaco, participación en misiones internacionales, estado civil, escala militar, número de años de servicio militar, nivel de estudios, y tiempo de finalización de la última misión internacional; 2) Explorar la relación entre inteligencia emocional, empatía, resiliencia y autoestima, en relación con la edad, número de hijos/as y número de misiones internacionales realizadas; y 3) Conocer la influencia de la resiliencia sobre la inteligencia emocional, empatía y autoestima, y cómo influye la resiliencia, empatía y autoestima sobre la inteligencia emocional. Método: La muestra estuvo compuesta por N = 739 militares pertenecientes a las tres escalas del ejército (oficiales, suboficiales y militares profesionales de tropa y marinería), de edades comprendidas entre los 18 y 66 años. Los cuestionarios utilizados fueron: a) un cuestionario elaborado ad-hoc para conocer los datos sociodemográficos; y para la medida de los constructos psicológicos: b) el Inventario de Inteligencia Emocional EQ-i-M20; c) el The Interpersonal Reactivity Index para la empatía; d) la Escala de Resiliencia The Resilience Scale; e) la Escala de Autoestima Self-Esteem Scale. Respecto a las técnicas de análisis para las diferentes variables, se llevaron a cabo: estadísticos descriptivos, prueba t de Student, correlación de Pearson, prueba ANOVA, análisis de regresión (logística, lineal simple y lineal múltiple), scatter plot, análisis clúster bietápico y análisis de efectos directos e indirectos. Resultados: Entre los resultados obtenidos, se reportó la correlación significativa entre inteligencia emocional, empatía, resiliencia y autoestima, presentando mayor nivel el personal militar que no consumía alcohol diariamente. La inteligencia emocional estaba explicada por la empatía, resiliencia y autoestima. Los análisis de mediación simple reportaron que la resiliencia mediaba sobre el factor Estado de Ánimo General de la inteligencia emocional y el componente Toma de Perspectiva de la habilidad empática. Conclusión: Los resultados obtenidos permiten postular que los constructos estudiados influyen en la mejora del bienestar en el personal militar del Ejército de Tierra español actual, por lo que es importante que se tengan en cuenta para el diseño de futuros programas de intervención en la institución militar.
... The above 5 factors were drawn based on the following characteristics of resilient people identified in previous research viz. view change or stress as a challenge/opportunity, Commitment, Recognition of limits to control (Kobasa, 1979); Engaging the support of others, Close, secure attachment to others, Personal or collective goals, Self-efficacy, Strengthening effect of stress, Past successes, Realistic sense of control/having choices, Sense of humor, Action oriented approach, Adaptability to change (Rutter, 1985); Patience, Tolerance of negative affect (Lyons, 1991), Optimism and Faith. , 1993): RS-14 targets individuals from all age groups from adolescents upwards and also has evidence of applicability in working adult populations. ...
EMOTIONAL RESILIENCE IN ADULTS-A REVIEW OF KEY MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS SUMIT PAHWA AND DR. NUSRAT KHAN ABSTRACT Emotional Resilience is the ability of an individual to cope up with adversities and bounce back from failures. There are many factors responsible for Emotional Resilience and accordingly many instruments have been designed to measure the same. Each instrument is different in its own way based on applicability, target population, factors involved etc. The objective of this paper is to do a narrative review of the different instruments used to measure emotional resilience, study their target population, dimensions and established psychometric properties, in order to propose the best scales for use for emotional resilience in general adult populations. The key inclusion criteria for selection of scale research papers was original scale development or evaluation papers published in English from 1990 to 2021, addressing adolescents or adults and used or cited in at least one study on emotional resilience. The study concludes CD-RISC, EQ-I, RS-14, DRS-15 and RAW may be the best scales to use with the general adult populations to measure the emotional resilience of individuals and synthesizes 14 unique dimensions from the above-mentioned five scales on emotional resilience. This paper also seeks to serve as compendium of twenty four most popular scales on Emotional Resilience in adolescents or adults and presents their target population and dimensions.
... Personal meaning often involves negative feelings such as anger, loss, betrayal, and helplessness. For some, however, personal meaning may evolve into a renewed appreciation of their lives (Lyons, 1991) and even for the organization in which they work. ...
This study examines an expanded debriefing model used with bank robbery victims. The model provides organizational consultation before a trauma and aids recovery after the incident through individual assessment and organizational support. Victims’ perspective of the bank robbery, the recovery process, and satisfaction with the intervention was studied. Although victims’ stated their functioning level stabilized with a supportive organization environment, continued efforts must be made to explore effective assistance in dealing with traumatic workplace-related events.
... The theoretical basis of the CD-RISC is based upon the coping, adaptation, and stress literature [11,21,22] and is a measure of an individual's ability to cope with stress [19]. It has been suggested the original version of the CD-RISC had an unstable factor structure [23] and Campbells-Sills and Stein made a series of empirically driven modifications to create a revised version, the CD-RISC 10. ...
There is debate within the literature about whether resilience should be considered a stable character trait or a dynamic, changeable process (state). Two widely used measures to assess resilience are the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA). The aim of this study was to evaluate the true stability (invariance) and change across time in resilience captured by these two measures. Using the perspective of Latent State-Trait theory, the aim was to decipher if the CD-RISC and the RSA are more trait-like or more state-like and to address whether true differences in resilience between participants increased (or decreased) across time. In this longitudinal study, UK-based employees ( N = 378) completed the CD-RISC (10-item version) and the RSA (33-item version, aggregated and analyzed under six parcels) at three occasions over six months. A latent-state model and latent-state model with indicator specific residual factors were utilized. The analysis suggested that both questionnaires capture trait and state components of resilience. These results contribute to the discussion about how resilience scales are measuring change and stability, and how we define resilience as a more trait-like or state-like phenomena. The findings also highlight the issue of what resilience scales are measuring and whether resilience is a quantifiable construct.
... À l'instar de Frantz, ils ont choisi de ne pas penser global mais de penser local, de ne plus penser long terme mais de penser court terme. Plusieurs études sur la résilience montrent que les victimes de traumatisme ont développé des compétences nouvelles (Rutter 1985;Lyons 1991). « Les qualités associées à la résilience sont la patience et la tolérance aux sentiments négatifs, ainsi que l'optimisme et la confiance » 371 (Connor 2006, 47 Au-delà de cette expérience à l'international, ces DAS, médicaux, logisticiens ou administrateurs, voient en MSF le moyen de se former techniquement. ...
À une époque où l’épanouissement personnel constitue un enjeu central dans nos différentes sphères de vie, le travail est pourtant régulièrement présenté comme source de stress, de risques psychosociaux voire de burn-out. En prenant appui sur le personnel international humanitaire, aussi appelé « expatrié », de l’organisation « Médecins Sans Frontières » (MSF), cette thèse étudie l’insatisfaction, entendue ici comme l’ensemble des expériences ou des émotions jugées négativement par l’individu. Sur la base d’une cinquantaine d’entretiens réalisés sur le terrain et d’une observation participante en tant qu’« expatrié » lors de dix missions humanitaires sur quatre continents, cette recherche ouvre plusieurs perspectives. Elle offre non seulement une vision, de l’intérieur, d’un secteur en mutation (croissance de la proportion d’expatriés issus du Sud, multiplication des critiques internes et externes, étiolement de l’engagement au profit de la professionnalisation), mais elle interroge en même temps les ressorts sociaux du processus émotionnel. L’insatisfaction, en l’occurrence la « frustration » du personnel international humanitaire, est communément décrite comme un écart entre des attentes et la survenue d’événements. Grâce à l’étude successive des tensions inhérentes au fonctionnement de MSF, des parcours de vie des « expatriés », puis de l’interaction entre ces individus et l’organisation, cette recherche défend la thèse suivante : quel que soit l’écart entre attentes et survenue d’événements, l’insatisfaction ou non d’un individu est d’abord le reflet de sa confiance dans l’entité jugée responsable, c’est-à-dire de sa reconnaissance des légitimités et des rapports de domination en jeu.
... Although resilience can be measured at various levels (e.g., community resilience), Connor and Davidson (2003) noted that resilience at the individual level refers to traits or characteristics that make an individual likely to adapt when faced with an adverse stressor. This construct includes the conceptualization of stress as a challenge, self-efficacy, internal sense of control, patience, and the ability to tolerate negative emotional experiences (Connor & Davidson, 2003;Kobasa, 1979;Lyons, 1991;Rutter, 1985). As with self-compassion, it is reasonable to theorize that trait resilience may affect the development of psychological distress following PTE exposure. ...
The authors investigated the relationship between self‐compassion and trait resilience and tested the potential moderating roles of these variables in the relationship between trauma exposure and general psychological distress in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 296). Results revealed a significant relationship between self‐compassion and trait resilience. Self‐compassion emerged as a significant moderator in this relationship, whereas trait resilience did not. Given high rates of trauma exposure in college student populations, implications for counseling are discussed.
... 2. The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale Inventory (CD-RISC) prepared by Connor and Davidson (2003) based on previous work by Kobasa (1979), Rutter (1985) and Lyons (1991). The CD-RISC consists of a total of 25 items distributed in five dimensions that we have named: ...
... Resilience is a multi-dimensional concept that reflects the ability of an individual, community or organization to adapt and move on in a positive way from stressful or adverse events (Cimarello et al., 2016;Connor and Davidson, 2003;Rees et al., 2015;Tugade and Fredrickson, 2004;Wu et al., 2017). Resilience is made up of concepts such as personal hardiness, goal orientation, adaptability, endurance, and the ability recover and recharge (Jackson et al., 2007;Judkins et al., 2005;Kobasa, 1979;Lyons, 1991;Maslach et al., 2001;Rutter, 1985;Sonnentag and Fritz, 2007;Sonnentag and Kruel, 2006). Resilience measures occur at individual, team, and organizational levels (Jeffcott et al., 2009) because social vulnerabilities inherent in interactions, institutions and systems can affect individual or overall community resilience (Achour and Price, 2010;Cimarello et al., 2016;McAllister and McKinnon, 2009). ...
Objective:
To design and validate a brief set of measures identifying staff and work areas exhibiting low levels of resilience within healthcare organizations.
Data sources/study design:
Primary data were gathered via survey administration between April and August of 2016 from 33,622 respondents across 123 facilities. These surveys included pilot items designed to measure resilience and were administered to all employees alongside employee engagement surveys.
Data collection/extraction methods:
Following the data collection period for the pilot survey, data from all organizations were integrated into a single analytical dataset. Factor analyses were used to determine the underlying constructs of healthcare worker resilience. Cronbach's alpha and correlation analyses tested the internal consistency and validity of the instrument.
Principal findings:
A brief set consisting of eight items was identified as a psychometrically validated measure of resilience. This measure consists of two subscales, Activation and Decompression. These measures exist independent of employee engagement, indicating an empirical distinction between the two concepts. Resilience was found to predict 38% of variance in engagement scores.
Conclusions:
An eight-item instrument can accurately measure resilience to identify burnout risk and serve as a predictor of other workforce outcomes such as engagement.
... Beyond the personal traits that one brings to every situation, a major factor that appears in the general PTG literature (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004) is perceived social support. Similar to measures of stress, perceived support is thought to be a better indicator of whether someone's needs are being met than actual support (Lyons, 1991). The significance of this variable is confirmed in a meta-analysis of 46 studies reporting a moderate positive relationship between social support and growth following a range of stressful events (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2009). ...
Parenthood is undoubtedly one of the most meaningful and significant events in life, and carries with it a shift in status, roles, and identities. This chapter focuses on parents’ experience of personal growth, that is, positive psychological change comprising changes in self-perception, interpersonal relationships, and priorities, which may be triggered by the multiple stresses and demands that come with the transition to parenthood. It considers both normative parenthood to a single baby and special circumstances, such as delivering twins or preterm babies or being a single mother by choice. Based on a review of recent literature from around the world, the issues discussed include: the association between stress and personal growth; diverse contributors to personal growth, including demographic characteristics, personal resources (e.g., self-esteem, optimism, attachment orientation, perception of the event, coping modes), and external resources (e.g., support provided by grandparents, the couple relationship); and the development of personal growth over time. The chapter concludes with theoretical implications and recommendations for future research.
... Based on these characters, the researchers made indicators that were able to show resilience inside an individual. For example, a resilience scale that was developed by Kobasa [22], feature framework by Rutter [23], items for resilience assessments by Lyons [24], and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale or CD-RISC by Connor and Davidson [25]. ...
One of frequent natural disasters in Lampung Province is earthquake. This natural disaster often cause loss for public, both properties and life. The earthquake threat shall be worse when people are unable to deal with. The perspective of earthquake disaster from form benefit point of view can bring a new paradigm toward the disaster threat into positive. The change of perspective of the earthquake threat can be a new opportunity for people to use the nature into capitals for effective regional development. The objectives of this research were to describe history, fact, potential, and disaster management model, especially earthquake disaster in Lampung Barat district. Outputs to reach in this research were 1) scientific publication in an international reputation journal and/or in an accredited national journal; 2) a text book concerning natural disaster as a supplement for teachers and a student's book for junior and senior high school that would be published by a national reputation publisher and distributed nationally; 3) to produce another output in form of intellectual property right in the education engineering. This research used qualitative and quantitative method (mixed method approach) that combined qualitative and quantitative data collections and analyses in a single research. There were four main types of designs of the mixed method; explanatory, exploratory, embedded, and triangulation. The research result showed that the earthquake disasters occurred in Liwa in 1908, 1933, 1994, and 23 August 2018. Most of people (95%) did not understand the standard of operation procedure for natural disaster. 56% people always worried about earthquake, despite that learning about earthquake was very important. A model of learning community was developed by involving stakeholders, especially parents as the members of school committee. Parents would be a vital part in determining success of school program in building students with characters to have resilience.
... En relación con la forma de medir la resiliencia, Ahern, Kiehl, Sole y Byers (2006) y Windle, Bennett y Noyes (2011) desarrollaron revisiones sobre los principales instrumentos y plantearon que las escalas de resiliencia (RS) de Wagnild y Young (1993) y de resiliencia (CD-RISC) de Connor-Davidson (2003) eran la más utilizadas en poblaciones adultas. Al respecto, la escala de resiliencia CD-RISC fue desarrollada por Connor-Davidson (2003) sobre la base de trabajos previos de Kobasa (1979), Rutter (1986) y Lyons (1991), definiéndola como la "la capacidad personal que protege de las situaciones estresantes" (p.77). ...
The present study aimed to determine the psychometric characteristics of the Spanish version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10) in Colombian population. A total of 265 university students participated at the cities of Bogota and Villavicencio. Exploratory factor analysis indicates resilience as a single factor; we verified the model with confirmatory factor analysis, and a Cronbach's alpha of 0.838. The results show high reliability and factor structure in accordance with the original version, which implies adequate validity of this scale in Colombian population.
... wrong with individuals (Lyons, 1991;Tedeschi & Kilmer, 2005) and have been criticised for their continuous "hunt for indicators of maladjustment" (Dahlquist, 2003, p. 45). Historically, research in child mental health has focused on pathology and much of the existing literature exploring psychological adjustment in individuals with a VFD has focused on the challenges that the researchers assume are experienced by this population. ...
Much of the research focusing on the difficulties experienced by young people with a visible facial disfigurement (VFD) has focused on the view from the outside (social/cultural views towards disfigurement) and the view from the inside (the psychological impact of living with a VFD). Part 1 presents a review of the literature on the attitudes of non-disfigured children towards individuals with a VFD. Sixteen studies were included in this review following a systematic search of the literature. Overall, results indicated that non-disfigured children demonstrate a negative bias towards individuals with a VFD. Part 2 presents a qualitative study which explored the lived experiences of young people with a VFD, specifically focusing on their peer relationships and experiences of social rejection relating to their appearance. Semi-structured interviews were completed with 10 adolescents (aged 11-14 years) with a range of congenital VFDs and analysed using thematic analysis. All young people described experiencing negative and unwanted attention from others. Many identified positively with their disfigured appearance and saw it as a part of who they were. In spite of this, the majority of young people did not wish to have a VFD for the rest of their lives. Part 3 presents a critical appraisal of the qualitative study. It explores the possible barriers to engaging young people in research and considers the unique contributions made by this study in considering the focus on psychopathology in the existing literature on young people with VFDs and in understanding the heterogeneity reported by this population.
... Engagement, secure attachments, personal and collective goals, self-efficacy, coping skills, past successes, realistic sense of self-control, sense of humor, action-oriented approaches to problem solving, and the adaptability to change are some of the many aspects of resilience found in an educational context (Rutter, 1985). Variables such as patience, spirituality, optimism, and tolerance for negative affect have also been incorporated into the definition over time (Alexander, 1998;Lyons, 1991). More recent research has also focused on what contributes to the conditions under which resilience may develop (Campbell-Sills, Cohan, & Stein, 2006;Gillespie, Chaboyer, & Wallis, 2007). ...
Resilience is a key component in the success equation for many students attending a historically Black college or university (HBCU). Although traditional indicators of prior academic achievement are often used to predict persistence to degree completion, there is growing support for including latent non-cognitive characteristics into this model. The current study surveyed third-year African American HBCU students using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale to gauge their existing resilience. Results indicated that the instrument was appropriate for use with this cohort, who displayed slightly higher than average resilience compared to the general population, which could have been due to the respondent’s already persisting to their junior year. More research is needed to address the relationship between resilience and other sociodemographic, environmental, and institutional factors that may impact HBCU students’ prior to, and across the entire range of their college career.
... Similarly, Connor and Davidson (2003) developed the self-rated assessment scale, the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), but emphasize the aspect of ability or capacity to successfully cope with the adversity. The contents of the Scale were drawn from several studies, including the concept of hardiness (strong commitment and control; Kobasa, 1979); protective factors for mental disorders possibly triggered by the negative life experiences; adaptability to change, self-efficacy, sense of humor, and support of others (Rutter, 1985); and positive adjustment following trauma, that is, resilience (Lyons, 1991). By reflecting the numerous theory-based aspects, resilience has been considered a multi-dimensional concept (Connor & Davidson, 2003). ...
The current review synthesized studies investigating the relationships between resilience and Big Five personality traits and aimed to investigate how the relationships vary according to the two types of resiliency, psychological resilience and ego-resiliency. Thirty studies with a total sample size of 15,609 met the inclusion criteria to be used for the current meta-analysis. Results indicated that overall, estimated average correlation coefficients for resilience were: r = −0.46 with Neuroticism, r = 0.42 for Extraversion, r = 0.34 for Openness, r = 0.31 for Agreeableness, and r = 0.42 for Conscientiousness. When comparing the differences between the two types of resiliency, a stronger negative relationship with Neuroticism, and stronger positive relationships with Openness and Agreeableness were obtained with ego-resiliency, compared with trait resilience. However, there was a lack of homogeneity in effect sizes across studies especially for ego-resilience. Directions for future research regarding resilience and the limitations of present research are discussed.
... Waite & Richardson, 2004;Bradshaw et al., 2007). Resilience is often defined in terms of an individual's ability to handle stress, such as viewing stress as a challenge or opportunity (Kobasa, 1979), having a sense of self-efficacy, engaging the support of others, adopting an action-oriented approach (Rutter, 1985) and being able to tolerate negative effects (Lyons, 1991 Smith, 1992). ...
This paper presents an overview and discussion on Dean’s (2000) cognitive investigative styles, paying particular attention to the skill and risk styles. In particular, the concept of ‘creativity’ in policing is discussed as the overlapping dimension between Dean’s (2000) two latter investigative styles. A brief overview of the literature on creativity in policing is then presented followed by a discussion on the various benefits of a creative approach. Finally, some possible hurdles which may stand in the way of the integration of creativity within the policing sector are overviewed. The paper concludes by proposing further research into Dean’s (2000) skill and risk styles as templates for sharing and fostering creative knowledge within the policing domain.
... Waite & Richardson, 2004;Bradshaw et al., 2007). Resilience is often defined in terms of an individual's ability to handle stress, such as viewing stress as a challenge or opportunity (Kobasa, 1979), having a sense of self-efficacy, engaging the support of others, adopting an action-oriented approach (Rutter, 1985) and being able to tolerate negative effects (Lyons, 1991 Smith, 1992). ...
This paper proposes the use of Dean’s (2000) previous research on investigative thinking styles as the methodological scaffolding for developing a measurement instrument that can capture and hence improve the management of tacit investigative knowledge within the policing sector.
... Spirituality was one theoretical construct for this scale. They also derived theoretical information from a variety of other sources (Kobasa 1979;Lyons 1991;Rutter 1985) and included characteristics such as hardiness, seeking help, having secure attachments, patience, viewing change as a challenge and persevering to attain goals. ...
Resilience – which is a process and capacity for adaptation when experiencing adverse life circumstances or cumulative stress – seems to be a particularly relevant for music therapists. However, there are challenges when assessing resilience. We screened sources (N=307) and identified seven scales that provide a quantitative measure of the degree of resilience: Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM), Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA), Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS), Resilience Scale (RS), Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA), Resilience Scale for Adolescents (READ). We reviewed each scale, identified salient psychometric properties, and drew conclusions about practical uses in music therapy (screening, profiling for intervention, and measuring effects of treatment). Music therapists strive to promote clients’ wellbeing and resilience measurement instruments may provide a way of screening, profiling for intervention, or establishing specific research protocols that target strength-based competencies. These measures, however, may only provide a snapshot of the total variables that may affect responses to treatment since adaptation is only relevant within the broad community systems in which each individual belongs.
... No Ruttera (Rutter, 1985) pētījuma izmantotas tādas iezīmes kā spēja attīstīt uz mērķi virzītu stratēģiju un pielāgoties pārmaiņām, orientēšanās uz darbību, stipra pašapziņa, prasme risināt sociālas problēmas, humors un spēka pieaugums stresa situācijā, atbildības uzņemšanās par stresa pārvarēšanu, stabilas, drošas un mīlestības pilnas attiecības, panākumu un sasniegumu pieredze. No Laionsa (Lyons, 1991) darba iekļauti paragrāfi, kas novērtē pacietību, spēju paciest stresu vai sāpes. Iepazīstoties ar 1912. ...
jēdziens ir nozīmīgs arī psiholoģijā. Šī pētījuma mērķis ir iepazīstināt lasītājus ar jēdzienu, teorētiskām pieejām piedošanas jēdziena izpratnē un sniegt ieskatu mūsdienu pētījumos par piedošanu.
Latvijā piedošana līdz šim ir maz pētīta, taču pētījumi Latvijā varētu būt nozīmīgi, ņemot vērā gan Latvijas vēsturiskos aspektus, gan sabiedrības kultūras daudzšķautņainību un krīzes radīto sabiedrības sociālo noslāņošanos. Piedošanai veltītās zinātniskās literatūras analīze šai rakstā parāda, kas līdz šim ir pētīts un atklāts par pašu piedošanu, un ar to saistītos konceptus, kā arī dod ieskatu, ko pētīt nākotnē Latvijā.
... Para la medida de la variable resistencia se empleó la escala Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) elaborada por Connor y Davidson (2003) basándose en los trabajos previos de Kobasa (1979) Rutter (1985) y Lyons (1991). Consta de un total de 25 ítemes distribuidos en cinco dimensiones: competencia personal, confianza en los propios instintos, aceptación positiva del cambio, control e influencias espirituales. ...
The aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between personality (Big Five) and resilience, with emotional exhaustion in a diverse sample. The sample is 311 workers from different sectors, but predominantly within the service sector. We use MBI, BFI and CD-RISC, as instruments in a cross-sectional design study. As expected by previous studies, we have found significant associations between selected variables.. Moreover, we found that resilience acted as a moderator variable between personality and emotional exhaustion, as results has shown a significant interaction between Resilience and Conscientiousness. By multiple regression analysis, we obtained the predictive capability of the personality factor Neuroticism, Resilience, and the product of Conscientiousness and Resilience. Consequently, it highlights the importance of personality in the core dimension of burnout, emotional exhaustion. Further, resilience is a promising variable to be considered in organizational and employment studies. This is relevance as few studies have addressed this problem.
... It is a brief self-rated instrument that measure resilience, which consists of 25 items on 5-point Likert scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003). The measurement content was extracted from different number of sources, from Kobasa's seminal work (Kobasa, 1979), Rutter's work (Rutter, 1985), Lyons (1991) and experiences of Shackleton's heroic adventure in the Antarctic in 1912 (Alexander, 1998). ...
... Resilience is a broad term denoting one's ability to cope with life stress or adversity (Connor and Davidson, 2003;Windle et al., 2011). Based on several personality theories (Kobasa, 1979;Rutter, 1985;Lyons, 1991), Connor and Davidson (2003) developed a measure to quantify one's resilience, which they called the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Connor and Davidson (2003) viewed resilience as a modifiable psychological construct that could be enhanced by clinical intervention. ...
Suicide prevention efforts in reducing risk factors have been found to be more beneficial to older women than men, suggesting potential gender differences in effective prevention. The study aimed to examine gender difference in resilience for suicidal behavior in a community sample of older adults in Korea. A community-based survey was conducted to investigate resilience and risk factors of suicidal behavior using the Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), as well as questions regarding physical illness and depression history. After accounting for well-known risk factors, resilience was inversely associated with suicidal behavior, but this protective role of resilience was applicable to men only. The findings of this study indicated gender difference in resilience against suicidal behavior in the elderly population. Gender-specific preventive intervention strategies need to be developed for community-based suicide prevention for older adults.
... The content of the 25-item CD-RISC scale was drawn from a number of sources: items reflecting control, commitment, and viewing change as a challenge were developed from Kobasa's work with the construct of hardiness [14]; Rutter's work on resilience in the face of adversity [15] was used to create items focusing on planning, action orientation, strong self-esteem/confidence, adaptability when coping with change, social problem solving skills, humor in the face of stress, the strengthening effect of stress, taking on responsibilities for dealing with stress, secure/stable affectional bonds, and previous experiences of success and achievement; and finally, items assessing patience and the ability to endure stress or pain were included from the work of Lyons on positive adjustment in the face of trauma [16,17]. ...
Purpose:
Prevention of mental disorders worldwide requires a greater understanding of protective processes associated with lower levels of mental health problems in children who face pervasive life stressors. This study aimed to identify culturally appropriate indicators of individual-level protective factors in Rwandan adolescents where risk factors, namely poverty and a history of trauma, have dramatically shaped youth mental health.
Methods:
The sample included 367 youth aged 10-17 in rural Rwanda. An earlier qualitative study of the same population identified the constructs "kwihangana" (patience/perseverance) and "kwigirira ikizere" (self-esteem) as capturing local perceptions of individual-level characteristics that helped reduce risks of mental health problems in youth. Nine items from the locally derived constructs were combined with 25 items from an existing scale that aligned well with local constructs-the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). We assessed the factor structure of the CD-RISC expanded scale using exploratory factor analysis and determined the correlation of the expanded CD-RISC with depression and functional impairment.
Results:
The CD-RISC expanded scale displayed high internal consistency (α = 0.93). Six factors emerged, which we labeled: perseverance, adaptability, strength/sociability, active engagement, self-assuredness, and sense of self-worth. Protective factor scale scores were significantly and inversely correlated with depression and functional impairment (r = -0.49 and r = - 0.38, respectively).
Conclusions:
An adapted scale displayed solid psychometric properties for measuring protective factors in Rwandan youth. Identifying culturally appropriate protective factors is a key component of research associated with the prevention of mental health problems and critical to the development of cross-cultural strength-based interventions for children and families.
... Resilience is often conceptualized as multiple protective factors that work together (Herbert, Manjula, & Philip, 2013;Lyons, 1991;Wagnild & Young, 1990). For example, Wagnild (2009) designated five characteristics that comprise the "Resilience Core": perseverance, equanimity, meaningfulness, self-reliance, and existential aloneness. ...
The primary goal of this chapter is to demonstrate that the key factors that promote resilience and posttraumatic growth are related to the perception of meaning in life. According to Viktor Frankl, founder of logotherapy, a forerunner to today’s positive psychology movement, life has meaning under all circumstances—even those that involve unavoidable suffering. Meaning-making is thus an essential aspect of being human and dealing with adverse circumstances. A sense of meaning prior to the experience of a potentially traumatic event, coupled with the ability to perceive meaning during and after such events, likely plays an integral role in one experiencing positive psychological outcomes. This perceived sense of meaning before, during, and after a potentially traumatic event might impact whether one not only recovers (and is thus resilient), but also goes on to experience posttraumatic growth. The literature suggests that higher levels of perceived meaning are associated with resilience and posttraumatic growth, as well as related to key correlates of these concepts. The foremost aim of this chapter involves the consideration and integration of the respective meaning, resilience, and posttraumatic growth literatures, thus uniting key areas of logotherapy and positive psychology. Systematic and rigorous empirical inquiry is necessary to better understand the causal relationships between meaning, resilience, and posttraumatic growth. Such empirical pursuits have potential to inform clinical treatments and community-based interventions. For clinicians who work with clients where resilience and posttraumatic growth have potential to serve as essential treatment elements, we posit that meaning is a vital concept that warrants consideration.
... The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) [52] is a 25item, self-rated measure of respondent's ability to adapt well and overcome adversity. The items were designed to reflect content related to well established sources and theories of resilience [8,53,54]. In response to items such as "I am able to adapt to change," participants rated each item on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from "0=not true at all" to "4=true nearly all of the time." ...
Moderate Trauma Exposure and Severity Provides Greater Potential for Posttraumatic Growth
Objective: This study examined the relations among trauma exposure, trauma severity, and positive change variables of resilience and posttraumatic growth (PTG).
Methods: Quadratic and cubic relationships were examined through polynomial regressions for 908 participants with a mean age of 19.99 (SD=1.97) years.
Results: Relationships were not significant for trauma exposure and resilience, and trauma severity and resilience. However, an inverted U-shaped, quadratic relationship was significant for PTG and trauma severity, suggesting positive consequences for intermediate levels of severity in comparison to higher or lower levels. After moderate levels of trauma severity are experienced, PTG begins to decrease. A cubic relationship was significant between trauma exposure and PTG. Initial trauma exposure corresponded to increases in PTG, but as the number of exposures increased beyond a moderate level, PTG began to decline. This relationship increased again as trauma exposures became even greater.
Conclusions: Collectively, these findings highlight that the greatest potential to experience PTG after trauma occurs is when the level of trauma exposure and trauma severity is at a moderate level.
... This means that the personal characteristics-related attributes such as self-esteem [45], selfconfidence [46], optimism [15], patience [47], hardiness [48], positive emotions [49], and selfefficacy [50] can be considered personal resources or protective factors for resilience. Resilience-related protective factors protect people against the psychological risks associated with adversity [51]. ...
This study examined the psychometric properties of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) with a Chinese military population with the aim of finding a suitable instrument to quantify resilience in Chinese military service members. The confirmatory factor analysis results did not support the factorial structure of the original or the Chinese community version of the CD-RISC, but the exploratory factor analysis results revealed a three-factor model (composed of Competency, Toughness, and Adaptability) that seemed to fit. Moreover, the repeat confirmatory factory analysis replicated the three-factor model. Additionally, the CD-RISC with a Chinese military sample exhibited appropriate psychometric properties, including internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and structural and concurrent validity. The revised CD-RISC with a Chinese military sample provides insight into the resilience measurement framework and could be a reliable and valid measurement for evaluating resilience in a Chinese military population.
... Connor and Davidson (2003) developed the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) to provide a framework for understanding the multifaceted construct of resilience and to clarify the relationship of resilience to psychopathology and treatment outcomes. Items included in the final version of the scale were drawn from three lines of research on resilience (Kobasa, 1979;Lyons, 1991;Rutter, 1985) in addition to research by Connor and Davidson. The scale includes 25 items assessed using a 5-point Guttmann-type scale ranging from 0 (not true at all) to 4 (true nearly all of the time). ...
Purpose/objective:
To examine resilience in the context of adjustment to traumatic brain injury (TBI), including the relative roles of demographic and theoretically related constructs such as coping, social support, and positive affectivity on resilience within the first 5 years postinjury. Research Method/Design: This was a cross-sectional, observational study of 67 persons with medically documented mild complicated to severe TBI. Participants completed a battery of measures including cognitive tests; questionnaires assessing self-report of emotional symptoms, perceived social support, and coping style; and a measure of resilience.
Results:
Approximately 60% of the sample endorsed moderate to high levels of resilience during the first 5 years postinjury. Brain injury severity, premorbid intelligence, and cognitive flexibility did not predict resilience, as measured by the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale. By contrast, task-oriented coping and perceived social support were strong and unique covariates of resilience. Positive and negative affectivity were related to resilience but were not unique covariates of it in the presence of task-oriented coping and perceived social support. Discriminant validity of resilience as a concept and the means of assessing it was supported by findings that emotion-oriented and avoidance coping were not meaningfully related to resilience.
Conclusions/implications:
Overall, the findings indicate that the majority of individuals in this sample reported high levels of resilience after brain injury and that correlates of resilience in adults with TBI is similar to that observed in adults without the history of cognitive impairment. (PsycINFO Database Record
... The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) was used to measure resilience in this study. With the exception of two questions on optimism and faith, the content of this assessment is based on Kobasa's (1979) work on hardiness, Lyons' (1991) work on positive adjustment, and Rutter's (1985) work on protective factors that might buffer an individual's risk of developing a psychiatric disorder following a traumatic event Kobasa, 1979;Lyons, 1991;Rutter, 1985). Resilience has been described as both an innate quality or characteristic that protects an individual from developing PTSD following a traumatic event as well as a factor that can be influenced through training or experience, resulting in improved psychological outcomes (Bonanno, 2004;Tedeschi & Kilmer, 2005). ...
... The Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) is a 25item metric developed from previous work by Kobasa [19], Rutter [7], and Lyons [20], with a theoretical grounding in stress, coping and adaptation research [12]. Items are scored on a 5-point scale (0-4) with higher scores reflecting higher levels of resilience. ...
Objectives
To systematically review and examine the psychometric properties of established resilience scales in older adults, i.e. ≥60 years.
Methods
A systematic review of Scopus and Web of Science databases was undertaken using the search strategy “resilience” AND (ageing OR aging)”. Independent title/abstract and fulltext screening were undertaken, identifying original peer-reviewed English articles that conducted psychometric validation studies of resilience metrics in samples aged ≥60 years. Data on the reliability/validity of the included metrics were extracted from primary studies.
Results
Five thousand five hundred nine studies were identified by the database search, 426 used resilience psychometrics, and six psychometric analysis studies were included in the final analysis. These studies conducted analyses of the Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and its shortened 10-item version (CD-RISC10), the Resilience Scale (RS) and its shortened 5- (RS-5) and 11- (RS-11) item versions, and the Brief Resilient Coping Scale (BRCS). All scales demonstrated acceptable levels of internal consistency, convergent/discriminant validity and theoretical construct validity. Factor structures for the RS, RS-11 and CD-RISC diverged from the structures in the original studies.
Conclusion
The RS, RS-5, RS-11, CD-RISC, CD-RISC10 and BRCS demonstrate psychometric robustness adequate for continued use in older populations. However, results from the current study and pre-existing theoretical construct validity studies most strongly support the use of the RS, with modest and preliminary support for the CD-RISC and BRCS, respectively. Future studies assessing the validity of these metrics in older populations, particularly with respect to factor structure, would further strengthen the case for the use of these scales.
... They may accept the need for greater preparedness but perceive this as applying to others, not to them ( Johnston et al., 1999). Self-efficacy influences receptivity to information and dealing with hazards (Bandura, 1997;Bishop et al., 2000;Lyons, 1991). ...
Natural and human-caused disasters disturb the social-ecological system and result in much pain, death, harm, and property and environmental destruction. How do humans prepare for and cope with disasters? Psychological adaptation to disasters has been an interesting area of research for psychologists. This non-empirical study examines the psychological literature relevant to disaster preparedness with the objective of answering the above question and describing what has been studied. Delineated here are individual characteristics; psychological qualities; reaction to risk and hazard; effects of knowledge, experience, and action; environmental considerations and effects; and social and cultural factors. Theories of threat response and disaster preparedness are also depicted. The concluding discussion briefly summarizes the contributions, notes areas and questions that could gain from inquiry, notes how these could be useful both for psychologists and persons affected by disasters, calls for cross-boundary research, and calls for recognition of disasters, their effects, and disaster preparation as important areas of ecopsychology. Key Words: Disasters—Disaster preparedness—Psychological factors—Environment—Hazard—Place attachment—Human-environment interaction—Psychology of environmental destruction.
... Para la medida de la variable resistencia se empleó la escala Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) elaborada por Connor y Davidson (2003) basándose en los trabajos previos de Kobasa (1979) Rutter (1985) y Lyons (1991). Consta de un total de 25 ítemes distribuidos en cinco dimensiones: competencia personal, confianza en los propios instintos, aceptación positiva del cambio, control e influencias espirituales. ...
El objetivo del presente estudio es analizar las relaciones entre los Big Five y la resistencia con el agotamiento emocional en una muestra multiocupacional. La muestra está compuesta por 311 trabajadores de diferentes sectores, aunque predominan los pertenecientes al sector servicios. Se les aplicaron los cuestionarios MBI, BFI y CD-RISC, mediante un diseño transversal. Tal como esperábamos por estudios anteriores hemos encontrado asociaciones significativas entre las variables seleccionadas. Mediante regresión múltiple obtuvimos la capacidad predictiva de los factores de personalidad Neuroticismo, Conciencia y Resistencia. Asimismo, en nuestro estudio hemos encontrado que la resistencia actúa como moderador entre la personalidad y el agotamiento emocional, ya que la resistencia presenta interacción con el factor de personalidad Conciencia. De esta manera, se pone de manifiesto la importancia de los factores de personalidad en la dimensión fundamental del burnout, el agotamiento emocional; así como de la resistencia, una variable poco estudiada que se presenta prometedora en el contexto laboral. La relevancia de tales asociaciones se incrementa al ser escasos los estudios que han abordado esta problemática.
... Another way to look at this issue is to view the characteristics of resilient people that have been considered for formation of resilience scales. Sense of commitment, engagement of support, close and secure attachments, self-efficacy, sense of control, action orientation, flexibility, optimism, being goal directed are frequently named (Connor & Davidson, 2003;Kobasa, 1979;Rutter, 1985;Lyons, 1991). The Connor-Davidson (2003) resilience scale reports a Chronbach's alpha of .89, ...
Conservation of resources (COR) theory has become one of the two leading theories of stress and trauma in the past 20 years, along with the pioneering theory of Lazarus and Folkman (1984). COR theory emphasizes objective elements of threat and loss, and common appraisals held jointly by people who share a biology and culture. This places central emphasis on objective reality and greater focus on circumstances where clear stressors are occurring, rather than a focus on personal appraisal. Although originally formulated to focus on major and traumatic stress, COR theory has also become a major theory in the field of burnout and the emerging field of positive psychology. This chapter reviews the principles of COR theory and covers new ground by examining more closely aspects of resource gain cycles and how they might contribute to resilience.
... The CD-RISC was developed using constructs shown previously to be related to resilience, such as hardiness (Kobasa, 1979), which is a dispositional form of resilience and characteristics derived from the presence of protective factors found in research on resilient individuals (Lyons, 1991; Rutter, 1985 ). Examples of such characteristics include self-efficacy, the strengthening effect of stress, close relationships to others, and an action oriented approach to situations (see Connor & Davidson, 2003 for detailed list). Items from the CD-RISC were tested in general and clinical populations, specifically individuals from a typical American community, primary care outpatients, general psychiatric outpatients, individuals with generalized anxiety disorders, and individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). ...
... Esta última es una de las más aceptadas y utilizadas (Ahem, Kiehl, Lou, y Byers, 2006;Baek et al., 2010;Campbell-Stills y Stein, 2007;Gilliespie et al., 2009;Serrano-Parra et al., 2012;Windle, Bennett yNoye, 2011). Connor y Davidson (2003), basándose en los trabajos previos de Kobasa (1979), Rutter (1985) y Lyons (1991), consideran que la resiliencia es una capacidad personal que protege de las situaciones estresantes, es antes un estado que un rasgo y, por lo tanto,modificable. A partir de aquí, plantean que la resiliencia se compone de cinco dimensiones: competencia personal, confianza en los propios instintos, tolerancia a la adversidad, aceptación positiva del cambio, control e influencia espiritual, y diseñan una escala de 25 ítems distribuidos en las dimensiones anteriormente mencionadas. ...
El objetivo del estudio es analizar las propiedades psicométricas de la adaptación española de la escala de resiliencia CD-RISC de Connor y Davidson (2003) en su versión de 10 ítems en una muestra multiocupacional. Se utilizaron dos muestras. En la primera completaron esta escala un total de 386 trabajadores y se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio que arrojó un único factor que explica el 55.8% de la varianza total. La consistencia interna de la escala fue adecuada (alfa de Cronbach de 0.87) y la eliminación de ningún ítem mejoraba la fiabilidad de la escala. Con el fin de ratificar el modelo obtenido en el AFE, se llevó a cabo un análisis factorial confirmatorio con los datos de la segunda muestra de 238 participantes que corroboró el modelo unifactorial. Para analizar la validez divergente se utilizó los datos de las dos muestras (N=624); así, las correlaciones con las puntuaciones de las variables burnout, bienestar psicológico y satisfacción laboral fueron estadísticamente significativas y siguieron la dirección teórica esperada. Se concluye que la versión española de 10 ítems de la CD-RISC de Connor y Davidson presenta adecuadas propiedades psicométricas para estimar la resiliencia en trabajadores.
... As regards individual responses to past collective violence, victims are generally more likely to suffer mental health problems in relation to their past experience. There is indeed extensive literature confirming that exposure to trauma and collective violence correlates with subsequent distress, low vitality, demoralization , posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Brown, 2003; Lyons, 1991; Norris, Slone, Baker, & Murphy, 2006; Pedersen, 2002; Shaw, 2003). Thus, 8 years after the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the past experience of collective violence during the Apartheid period was still related to higher levels of distress, and of PTSD symptoms (Stein, Seedat, Kaminer , Herman, Sonnega, & Williams, 2008). ...
Se estudia el rol predictor de variables psicosociales sobre las creencias en torno al perdón político luego de la dictadura chilena (N=1267). Un análisis de regresión múltiple indica que las variables que cumplen un rol más relevante (R2=0.23) son: la eficacia percibida en las disculpas (β=0.24), la emoción de ira (β=-0.17), el compartir social (β=0.44) y la confianza institucional (β=0.64). A menores niveles de ira y mayores niveles de confianza institucional,sinceridad y eficacia percibida en las disculpas, mayor es el acuerdo con que las víctimas de la violencia política lograrán perdonar a quienes les han hecho daño en el pasado.
Finally, after many years of resistance, the majority accepts the scientific evidence that we live in what Paul Crutzen, Fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science, defined as the Anthropocene Era, because humanity has left a major impact on not just the planet but all life forms. (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000). Nowadays, with the rising frequency and magnitude of negative impacts that we bring upon ourselves by the way we act, the general public is becoming more and more aware of the rising threats we create for ourselves and the whole planet (UNESCO, 2021). Like in any other form of addiction, many humans tend to defend themselves by becoming aware of their self-destructive behaviors, tricking and soothing themselves by ignoring the mounting man-made threats and engaging in cognitive dissonance to avoid anxiety-inducing awareness. The exponential growth of the human population and its consumption patterns has resulted in such dramatic and exorbitant costs to the environment. Not only have our current lifestyles negatively impacted our planet’s ecosystems, but a growing number of scientists have warned us that we are rapidly reaching a tipping point where mitigation and/or reversal of trends is no longer possible (IPCC, 2014). If we do not act promptly and effectively, we will face not just the consequences but existential threats that threaten the survival of planet Earth’s self-proclaimed intelligent species.
Taking the first steps towards learning to cope with both the threat and the actuality of disasters is a great challenge. Resilience and adaptation to climate change indicate processes of flexibility and adjustment. The range of adaptations open to individuals and by extension collectives will be limited in many ways. One important limiting dynamic is associated with capacity to learn, and the depth or superficiality of any learning. This includes the relative capacity individuals hold to deal with the challenges to normality that disasters bring.
Central to the argument of experience of learning as influencing learning outcomes is the degree to which learning opens space for reflection. Having the time, space and opportunity for reflection is more likely to allow the learner to undergo deeper shifts in values and associated behaviour - so called transformational learning and that this opens important space for learning to live with disaster risk and loss. This provides a framework with which to identify and assess TL and its drivers, rather than explain how it might be carried out. Study populations were identified to represent a specific social context for learning:
1. The Community Emergency Response Team (CERT). This group provides formal training courses for local actors at risk to become community emergency response teams.
2. Listos. A less formal learning programme aimed at Spanish speakers in Santa Barbara, centred on personal and family preparedness.
3. UK based humanitarian NGO practitioners whose responsibility lies with enacting policy change within their organisations through monitoring and evaluation and learning roles.
This thesis explores these different learning contexts, testing the hypothesis that learning outcomes expressed through value and behavioural change are linked to the experience of learning - who learning is shared with, what is being learned and how this is reinforced.
Esta obra aborda la salud en el ámbito laboral desde una perspectiva positiva, con el fin de gestionar y desarrollar el bienestar de los trabajadores. En los diferentes capítulos se presentan trabajos de investigación en torno a la salud mental positiva ocupacional, un constructo que parte de un paradigma auténticamente positivo.
Relacionar la habilidad intelectual no verbal del alumno de secundaria con el bajo desempeño académico para elaborar estrategias de intervención. No existe ningún tipo de relación entre las variables y el bajo desempeño académico. Hipotesis: existe una correlación positiva alta entre el CI no verbal y el bajo desempeño académico. El enfoque de la investigación que se propone es de carácter cuantitativo. Esta
investigación utiliza la recolección de datos para probar hipótesis, con base en la medición numérica y el análisis estadístico, para establecer patrones de comportamiento y probar teorías.
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Recibido: 24 abril 2015 Aceptado: Resumen El presente estudio, tuvo como objetivo analizar las propiedades psicométricas de la versión en español del cuestionario Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10) en población colombiana. La muestra estuvo conformada por 265 estudiantes universitarios de las ciudades de Bogotá y Villavicencio. El análisis factorial exploratorio denota un solo factor, resiliencia, que explica el 41,139% del total de la varianza acumulada, modelo verificado con el análisis factorial confirmatorio, y un alfa de Cronbach de 0,838. Los resultados muestran una alta confiabilidad y concordancia en la estructura factorial con la versión original, lo que implica adecuada validez de la prueba en población colombiana.
Abstract The present study aimed to determine the psychometric characteristics of the Spanish version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC 10) in Colombian population. A total of 265 university students participated at the cities of Bogota and Villavicencio. Exploratory factor analysis indicates resilience as a single factor; we verified the model
Violent conflict can have devastating and lasting consequences for mental as well as physical health. Posttrauma interventions have been a key focus of the global mental health movement, but have also given rise to an extensive body of literature criticizing the inappropriate transfer of Western psychological assumptions to contexts where they may not be meaningful. This chapter focuses on what has emerged from this debate and argues for building a richer cross-cultural understanding of mental disorder in war and post-war situations by paying attention to the complex interrelations of trauma-focused pathways, psychosocial pathways, and local expressions of distress.
Research has shown the importance of resilience by demonstrating its significant relationship with students' academic achievement, future workplace performance, and subjective well-being. However, few studies distinguish among different definitions of resilience or distinct approaches of measuring resilience. Also there is little evidence obtained from longitudinal studies involving multiple methods in assessing resilience skills. The current study is able to overcome those limitations and make substantial progress toward the use of resilience scales and the understanding of the predictive power of resilience.
Placing resilience into a broader context of non-cognitive skills, the author identifies four groups of definitions of resilience and successfully places scales of resilience into the same four categories. Using information of nearly four thousand middle school students collected longitudinally at three time points and a resilience scale which consists of three subscales, the author explores the psychometric property of the scale, asks questions on how resilience changes over time and examines the predictive validity of resilience on various future outcomes.
In order to extract the true resilience variance from each of the scale and purify the scale from the wording effect, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory bi-factor analysis are conducted. The author is able to obtain a single reliable factor which achieves scalar measurement invariance across time for each of the three subscales. However, the attempt to derive a general resilience factor fails because of the low correlations among the three subscale scores.
This paper also presents the results on the change of resilience over time and the relationship between each of the resilience scores and the key outcomes. By fitting different types of hierarchical linear models and growth curve models, the author finds that resilience can significantly predict students' future grade point average and life satisfaction. The relative predictive power of different resilience scores varies by outcome.
Results reveal that resilience is a promising predictor of students' academic learning and life satisfaction. Based on the results, the author provides recommendations for practitioners and researchers. Implications, limitations, and future directions of research are also discussed.
This paper reveals the resilience of hunter-gatherer Baka Pygmy children, as demonstrated by their drawings. Twenty-five boys and six girls were asked to draw their favorite things on paper with pencils, colored pens and pastel crayons. The results should be considered from different angles such as their drawing process, style, and the content of their works. Their spontaneity, curiousness, adjustability to the unfamiliar stimuli and joy in the new experience were shown during the drawing process. Their final products also revealed resilient factors such as “Productive activity” “Insight and warmth,” “Confident Optimism,” “Skilled expressiveness,” “Adaptability to change.” Through their resilience, i.e., a flexible learning attitude to a transitional and critical situation, I speculate that humans have also been thriving similarly in the face of adversity throughout history.
A rationale for using a projective approach, in addition to self-reports, is presented. A resilience exercise is described, consisting of 6 sentences describing adverse situations, in response to which participants write projective stories. A scoring scheme for such stories is introduced. 152 adults (A(age) = 34.28, SD = 9.15; M-educ = 14.55, SD = 2.31) working in organizations, completed the exercise and self-report scales. On the basis of initial scoring by two judges, the scoring scheme was revised to clarify some instructions. On a new sample of 20 protocols a 0.87 agreement between two judges was obtained. One judge then re-scored all protocols on the revised manual. A word count per protocol correlated 0.54 (p < 0.000) with the total score. Scores per story and scores per scoring category, were corrected for word count, using a regression procedure. The 6 stories all loaded on a single resilience factor. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed a e-factor model to fit the data best, producing factors which measured abstract and concrete aspects. The total resilience score correlated 0.26 (p < 0.001) with Antonovsky's Sense of Coherence scale (short form) and 0.21 (p < 0.01) with Diener's Satisfaction with Life scale.
The level of overall adjustment assessed by "Global Assessment of Functioning Scale" (FS), the features of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other psychopathology, the information about the demographic, social and professional status, the peculiarities of subjective evaluation of posttraumatic experience and its consequences in personality were revealed by "Structured clinical diagnostical interview" - SCID for DSM-III-R. The FS scoring has provided the separation of the veterans into two groups - "adjusted" (n = 37, FS ≥ 81) and "maladjusted" (n = 25, FS ≤ 48) persons. The estimation of individual readjustment in veterans with high FS ratings was accordingly higher on all parameters than in veterans with low FS ratings. Moreover the PTSD symptoms were not the only factor of successful posttraumatic readjustment. The significance of positive subjective evaluation of individual traumatic experience of personality for the effective coping with consequences of mental trauma has been confirmed. It was established that the estimation of posttraumatic status in Afghan war veterans is coincided with the peculiarities of it in other categories of victims of traumatic stress.
Our knowledge about the role of aging as a moderating or mediating influence on the expression of posttraumatic symptoms, and their remission and resolution, is nascent. This is reflected in the current state of empirically supported psychotherapies for older adults with PTSD. At this time, there are no empirically validated psychotherapeutic or psychopharmacologic treatments for this age group. This chapter highlights general issues and other factors unique to aging, such as changes in cognition, that must be taken into consideration when embarking on PTSD treatment with older adults. We review extant psychotherapy research that has applicability to this cohort: treatment studies on anxiety and depression for older adults, as well as treatment studies for younger adults with PTSD. Next, we describe promising PTSD interventions for older adults that have yet to be tested on large samples or in randomized controlled trials. The chapter culminates in the presentation of a multi-modal psychotherapy intervention designed to address factors unique to aging, and which involves a gentler version of trauma-related therapy that allows exposure to be optional.
Work on the psychological aftermath of traumatic events suggests that people ordinarily operate on the basis of unchallenged, unquestioned assumptions about themselves and the world. A heuristic model specifying the content of people's assumptive worlds is proposed. The schema construct in social cognition is used to explore the role of these basic assumptions following traumatic events. A major coping task confronting victims is a cognitive one, that of assimilating their experience and/or changing their basic schemas about themselves and their world. Various seemingly inappropriate coping strategies, including self-blame, denial, and intrusive, recurrent thoughts, are discussed from the perspective of facilitating the victim's cognitive coping task. A scale for measuring basic assumptions is presented, as is a study comparing the assumptive worlds of people who did or did not experience particular traumatic events in the past. Results showed that assumptions about the benevolence of the impersonal world, chance, and self-worth differed across the two populations. Findings suggest that people's assumptive worlds are affected by traumatic events, and the impact on basic assumptions is still apparent years after the negative event. Further research directions suggested by work on schemas are briefly discussed.
100 45–64 yr olds completed a hassles scale, an uplifts scale, a recent life events schedule, and a health status questionnaire. Analysis showed that hassles—the repeated or chronic strains of everyday life—were more strongly associated with somatic health than were life events. Hassles shared most of the variance in health that could be accounted for by life events, and when the effects of life events were statistically removed, hassles and health remained significantly related. Daily uplifts made little contribution to health that was independent of hassles. The assessment of daily hassles appears to be a useful approach to the study of life stress and could be an important supplement to the life events approach that, alone, is insufficient for full understanding and practical prediction of health outcomes. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Provides a preliminary model for preventive local school psychological service (SPS) intervention in an extreme emergency. Following a terrorist attack on an Israeli town's neighborhood, the local SPS reorganized its staff to make its service available to the neighborhood schools, using the primary prevention and the secondary prevention models. The implementation of these models' principles is demonstrated, basic emergency issues facing the mental-health agent are delineated, and selection of specific techniques under explicit stress conditions is described. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a previous study by the present 1st author et al, evidence was found that items in several leading stress measures, including a hassles scale developed by A. D. Kanner et al (1981), are confounded with measures of psychological distress. R. S. Lazarus et al (see record
1986-10770-001) disagree with the present authors' conclusions about the hassles scale and present additional data indicating that their measure is not confounded. Lazarus et al also argue in more general terms that the present authors' theoretical and methodological approach is a misguided quest for rigor. In rebuttal, the present authors offer further analyses of their data and compare their theoretical approach to that of Lazarus et al. On the matter of confounding, it is concluded that the hassles scale is even more confounded than originally supposed. With regard to the theoretical issue, it is believed that a rapprochement would be both feasible and useful. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The ethical responsibilities of psychologists for providing professional treatment to people at risk for stress reactions and posttraumatic stress disorders include (a) the identification of such client groups in advance of urgent need and (b) the creation of a professional climate in which primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions are provided. Political or ideological bias, however inadvertent, may place some groups of potential clients beyond the pale of professional help during periods of urgent need. Two case studies are presented to illustrate this phenomenon: former Israeli settlers evicted from their homes as part of the peace settlement with Egypt, and American combat veterans in the aftermath of the Vietnam conflict. Recommendations for identifying groups at high risk for ideological bias are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Interviewed 40 people (mean age 44 yrs) who had lost a spouse and 54 people (mean age 42 yrs) who had lost a child in a motor vehicle accident 4–7 yrs earlier to gather information concerning support attempts from others that were helpful and unhelpful. Support attempts most frequently mentioned as helpful were contact with a similar other and opportunity to express feelings; those most frequently mentioned as unhelpful were giving advice and encouraging recovery. To understand better the unhelpful support attempts, comparisons were made with 100 control Ss' reports of what they would do or say to help a bereaved person. The possibility that unhelpful support attempts occur because people do not know what to say to bereaved persons seems implausible in view of the enlightened responses given by controls. The close correspondence between bereaved Ss' reports of how recovered they felt and control respondents' estimates of how recovered the bereaved would be suggests that unhelpful support attempts are not based on misconceptions about recovery. These findings indicate that factors inherent in the transaction between the bereaved and potential supporters should be addressed in future research concerned with understanding support attempts that fail. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Defines posttraumatic stress disorder (PSD), which has been used to circumscribe the varied symptoms reported by combatants, and briefly presents a conditioning model for the development of PSD. The model explains PSD as a combination of high-order conditioning and stimulus generalization. The benchmark symptoms for a diagnosis of PSD are (1) intrusive thoughts regarding the traumatic event, (2) vivid recollections of the traumatic event wherein the individual reports that he/she feels that the trauma is actually reoccurring, and (3) terrifying nightmares that contain specific details of the event. A previous study by the authors (unpublished) is reported in which several symptoms were assessed by evaluating Ss' performance on cognitive and behavioral tasks and by questionnaires selected for their relationship to specific symptoms to the disorder. Responses of PSD veterans on these tasks were compared to those of well-adjusted Vietnam combat veterans without PSD. Results show that performance on 5 of the 6 tasks was effective in distinguishing Vietnam veterans with PSD from those who were well adjusted: PSD Ss demonstrated increased physiological arousal; motoric agitation; intrusive, combat-related cognitions when exposed to cues resembling the original traumatic event; poor concentration; and poor performance on emotion identification. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relation of social support and the hardy personality, which have been identified in previous studies as variables that reduce the effects of life stress on physical or psychological disturbance, and the relative importance of each in reducing the effects of life stress. 83 female undergraduates completed the Life Experiences Survey, the Levenson Locus of Control Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and self-report measures of social support and hardiness. The commitment and challenge dimensions of hardiness were found to be significantly correlated with social support, whereas the control dimension was not. When the interactions among life stress, social support, and hardiness were considered, only alienation from self moderated the effects of life stress. The possibility is proposed that studies that found social support to be a moderator of life stress may have indirectly measured hardiness. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a theory of cognitive adaptation to threatening events. It is argued that the adjustment process centers around 3 themes: A search for meaning in the experience, an attempt to regain mastery over the event in particular and over life more generally, and an effort to restore self-esteem through self-enhancing evaluations. These themes are discussed with reference to cancer patients' coping efforts. It is maintained that successful adjustment depends, in a large part, on the ability to sustain and modify illusions that buffer not only against present threats but also against possible future setbacks. (84 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A total of 72 women, who had been victims of rape an average of 8 years prior to the study, responded to questionnaires covering the following areas: demographics, assault characteristics, postrape behaviors, coping strategies, and current level of functioning. Even after many years, rape continued to be a serious trauma for these women, resulting in fairly high levels of symptoms across a wide range of problem areas. Individual differences in severity of symptoms were related to age, socioeconomic status, time since rape, force used during the rape, and prior history of sexual assault. Also related to current level of functioning were whether or not rapes were reported to the police and the amount of time women took before confiding in another person. Both approach and avoidant coping strategies were observed to be negatively related to recovery.
Personal coping and social supports are presented as resources for parents of handicapped children. These closely linked concepts are viewed as increasingly of interest to practitioners and investigators who recognize that such parents encounter extraordinary stress. An overview of the difficulties faced by parents of handicapped children is followed by a review of several studies on coping among such parents. The authors describe a structured group approach to teach parents of handicapped children to use personal coping and social supports.
Clinicians have gained considerable knowledge about psychopathology and treatment but this knowledge is poorly systematized and hard to transmit. One way to organize clinical knowledge is to circumscribe a limited area and describe within it the interactions between personality dispositions, states of disorder, and treatment techniques.
This report models such an approach by limiting disorder to stress response syndromes, personality to obsessional and hysterical neurotic styles, and treatment to focal dynamic psychotherapy. Within this domain, an information processing approach to working through conflicted ideas and feeling is developed. The result is a series of assertions about observable behavior and nuances of technique. Since these assertions are localized conceptually, they can be checked, revised, refuted, compared, or extended into other disorders, dispositions, and treatments.
Interest in the community adjustment of psychiatric patients has led to the development of rating techniques for its evaluation. Selection of an appropriate scale for the task should include a review of its item content, anchor points, coverage, method of obtaining information, informant, psychometric properties, precision, cost, scoring, and instructional material.While no scale is without limitations, this report describes 15 currently available scales that meet many of the important criteria for assessing social adjustment and are sufficiently developed to be useful in evaluative research. This review also contains a list of pertinent references to the scales and a guide to the literature on behavioral rating scales.
Although specific victimizations may differ, there appear to be common psychological responses across a wide variety of victims. It is proposed that victims' psychological distress is largely due to the shattering of basic assumptions held about themselves and their world. Three assumptions that change as a result of victimization are: 1) the belief in personal invulnerability; 2) the perception of the world as meaningful; and 3) the view of the self as positive. Coping with victimization is presented as a process that involves rebuilding one's assumptive world. Introductions to the papers that follow in this issue are incorporated into a discussion of specific coping strategies adopted by victims.
The traumatizing effect of rape and other forms of sexual assault on the victim has been documented in a variety of recent studies. The diversity of these studies with respect to their samples, data collcction methods, and measurement procedures makes it difficult to specify with precision (I) the effect of rape on adult vs. child victims, and (2) the cffect of rape vs. incestuous assault on child victims. The purpose of this research was to develop and apply a standardized assault impact assessment to a sample of victims admitted to a rape crisis treatment center. Three comparison groups compose the focus of this study: adult rape victims, child rape victims, and child incest victims. This article deals with the levels of trauma stemming from sexual assault in these groups and the implications of these findings for sexual assault treatment centers.
This article focuses on self-blame in victims of violence. Various types of victim self-blame are delineated (e.g., blame for causing the violence, blame for not being able to modify the violence and blame for tolerating the violence) and speculations are offered as to how each of these might be related to the affective state and coping ability of victims. Additional distinctions are made between the acts of: 1) blaming oneself for being a cause vs simply being an occasion for the violence and 2) blaming one's abuse on personal characteristics about which one feels positively vs characteristics about which one feels negatively. The implications of these distinctions for an understanding of the victimization process are discussed.
A theory of victims' responses to their victimization, termed Selective Evaluation, is proposed. It is maintained that the perception that one is a victim and the belief that others perceive one as a victim are aversive. Victims react to this aversive state by selectively evaluating themselves and their situation in ways that are self-enhancing. Five mechanisms of selective evaluation that minimize victimization are proposed and discussed: making social comparisons with less fortunate others (i.e., downward comparison); selectively focusing on attributes that make one appear advantaged; creating hypothetical, worse worlds; construing benefit from the victimizing event; and manufacturing normative standards of adjustment that make one's own adjustment appear exceptional. The theory is integrated with the existing literature on victimization, and possible functions of selective evaluation are discussed.
Technological catastrophes, defined as mishaps involving breakdown in human-made systems, appear to differ in the nature of threats that they pose. Coping with chronic stress associated with these events was examined by considering response to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. Using the Ways of Coping Inventory (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980), use of emotional regulation, problem-oriented coping, and the assumption of responsibility or blame for problems associated with living near the damaged plant were considered. Patterns of response at TMI were compared to those of a control group, consisting of people living near an undamaged nuclear plant more than 100 miles from TMI. Stress was assessed by making simultaneous measurements of symptom reporting, task performance, and urinary catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). Findings suggested that both emotionally-focused coping and self-blame were associated with less stress than were problem-focused coping and denial. Further, emotional regulation and assumption of responsibility for encountered difficulty were related to one another and to perceived control as well. This suggested that a control-oriented coping style, in which the perception of control is actively created or maintained, can be effective in reducing distress associated with technological catastrophes.
The papers in this issue reflect an exciting new direction in social psychology that has been emerging for the past decade. Since the 1960's, social psychologists have devoted a great deal of attention to understanding reactions to outcomes that are stressful or uncontrollable. Until recently, the majority of these studies were conducted in laboratory settings. Subjects have been exposed to a variety of aversive outcomes such as electric shocks, noise bursts, or failure at problem-solving tasks. Some of these studies were designed to determine whether certain factors, such as predictability or control, minimize a person's subjective distress when an aversive event is experienced (see Thompson 1981, for a review). Others have focused on the aftereffects of stress–that is, whether people continue to show deficits in their performance and motivation once the stress has terminated (see, e.g., Glass & Singer, 1972; Hiroto & Seligman, 1975).
This article focuses on what happened to the survivors of one of the most unbelievable horrors of the modern age, the Holocaust. My interest in this topic was motivated by the fact that I am one such survivor. This study presents evidence that survivors endured their ordeal and fared better in their subsequent lives than has been indicated by much of the psychoanalytic and psychological literature previously published. It suggests that the survivors were supported during the horror of their incarceration by inner resources cultivated during earlier childhood experiences in their family environment. Remarkably, many then-young adults were not only able to endure the horror of the Holocaust, but also subsequently to function adequately in a world that was very different from the one they knew when they were young. Furthermore, my study indicates that those who survived the Holocaust had the capacity to consider the world around them as positive and nurturing in spite of the suffering they had experienced. Finally, this analysis also sheds light on some factors enabling survivors to undergo a significant transformation of their identity by having at their disposal a reservoir of inner psychic strength. Techniques of accommodating included the creative use of fantasy, recollecting experiences of warmth and love, and identifying the self with a group. Perhaps a study of such creative adversity will assist victims of other kinds of trauma.
A critical feature of many undesirable life events is that they often shatter the victim's perception of living in an orderly, meaningful world. Many authors have suggested that following such outcomes, the search for meaning is a common and adaptive process. This paper explores the validity of that claim by considering data from a recent study of 77 adult women who were victimized as children: survivors of father-daughter incest. In the process, several central questions regarding the search for meaning are addressed. How important is such a search years after a crisis? Over time, are people able to make sense of their aversive life experiences? What are the mechanisms by which individuals find meaning in their negative outcomes? Does finding meaning in one's victimization facilitate long term adjustment to the event? Finally, what are the implications of an inability to find meaning in life's misfortunes?
Developed a 20-item measure of negative network orientation and assessed its validity and reliability, using 297 female undergraduates and 37 female community adults. The self-report instrument showed good internal consistency and excellent stability in the community sample, but not in the student samples. It is further reported that the measure showed good validity with respect to a range of social support criterion measures, somewhat good validity with respect to personal characteristics, and somewhat poor validity with respect to coping and self-disclosure criteria. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a health-oriented group intervention model for sexual assault victims that posits that the aftermath of the assault can be resolved and that reactions to the assault are normal reactions to a life crisis. In the model, 2 female clinicians colead a group of 6 to 8 women in a similar stage of rape-trauma resolution for 12 weekly 1.5- to 2-hr sessions. In addition to individual topics, group meetings deal with the themes of self-esteem, trust, power and control, guilt, mourning and loss, and anger. Postgroup assessments indicate that all group members derived benefits from participation including raised self-esteem, increased assertiveness, and improved personal relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that neither the psychodynamic nor the conditioned response (CR) theory is sufficient to explain the persistence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Although the traumatic event (e.g., warfare, natural disaster) can be seen as a unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS), spontaneous flashbacks do not fit well with the notion of stimulus generalization. PTSD has also been shown to develop in previously mentally healthy persons. Emotional network theory, as proposed by P. J. Lang (1985), is illustrated in a recollection of a combat experience, wherein certain propositions act as emotional stimuli from memory to be connected with emotional response and meaning propositions. Assessment, prevention, and treatment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on an examination of trauma studies, etiological factors of potential posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are proposed. From a premilitary time frame, a positive family history of psychiatric disorder, particularly alcoholism, appears to play a role under low combat-exposure conditions. Under high-combat conditions, a positive family history of mental illness seems less of a risk factor. From the military time frame, combat trauma exposure emerges as the single most influential factor. Postmilitary factors of note include the nature of the homecoming environment and available social support during the first 6 mo after military discharge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Characterizes the various sources and forms of support that people use either before or in lieu of attending professional services, focusing on support from kith and kin, support from community caregivers, and mutual aid from peers. How these direct ties mediate people's access to other supportive peer relationships is highlighted, and it is suggested that social workers should organize support groups and workshops both to assess and strengthen the role of network support in protecting and promoting mental health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
social support has been used widely to refer to the mechanisms by which interpersonal relationships presumably protect people from the deleterious effects of stress
social support and cancer, types of support, sources of support, strategies in the measurement of support
the use of standardized scales to measure social support (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses emerging issues in the study of the effects of disaster on children, noting that research has established that both adults and children use denial as an initial method of coping with a major disaster. Parental reactions to disaster are important to the sense of psychological well-being experienced by children: If parents exhibit symptoms, the symptomatology is transferred to the child and expressed in similar fashion. In the absence of parents, the importance of significant human caring relationships subsequent to disaster is fundamental to the child's ability to cope with trauma. Immediately observable effects of disaster in children include fear of death, separation, and further trauma; misidentification of perpetrators and/or hallucinations; absent vegetative nervous effects; monotonous, compulsive play; chronic anxiety; and somatic disturbances. Researchers to date suggest that further studies of children's reactions to trauma include a standardized disaster questionnaire, a standardized mental status examination, a child history with educational and IQ data, established child behavioral and anxiety scales, and psychiatric diagnoses. A format for an interview with a disaster-stressed child is recommended. Common problems that clinicians may experience in studying or treating disaster-stressed children are also noted. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
draw upon extant theories of human development to create a "holistic look at how the Vietnam war affected the veterans' reentry into the mainstream of society . . . " / addresses such questions posed by Vietnam veterans as "Why can't I feel more at home now?" "Why do I feel depressed even though I've survived?" / concludes . . . that Vietnam veterans who entered the military, served and fought in Vietnam, and were released into a hostile American society were severely handicapped in terms of either ego-retrogression (associated with severe estrangement and identity diffusion that may manifest in mistrust and self-doubt) or psychosocial acceleration (premature, precocious ego development that may manifest in, for example, acute anxiety and periodic self-estrangement), or all these patterns (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)