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Distinctions Between Social Support Concepts, Measures, and Models

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Manuel Barrera at Arizona State University
Manuel Barrera
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Barrera, Manuel, Jr, Distinctions Between Social Support Concepts, Measures,
and Models , American Journal of Community Psychology, 14:4 (1986:Aug.)
p.413
... Social support is a neutral concept. It is not always supportive or effective and sometimes is null and even harmful (Barrera, 1986;Turner and Turner, 2013). Furthermore, this assumption reserves the theoretical utility of social support only for health consequences and ignores its non-health consequences. ...
... In terms of its directions, it is receiving (flowing from network members or alters to individuals or egos), providing (flowing from ego to alters), or exchanging (flowing reciprocally between ego and alters) (House, 1981;Wellman, 1981). In terms of its subjectivity or objectivity, it is perceived versus objective (actual, received, or enacted) (Caplan, 1979;Barrera, 1986). Received support can be further typologized on two dimensions. ...
... Received support can be further typologized on two dimensions. In terms of its solicitation, it is solicited (sought and obtained) versus unsolicited (obtained without seeking) (Barrera, 1986;Eckenrode and Wethington, 1990). In terms of its visibility, it is visible or explicit versus invisible or unnoticed (Bolger et al., 2000;Thoits, 2011). ...
Social Support
Chapter
  • Oct 2023
We begin this chapter by clarifying the definition and typology of social support. We then turn to its distinction from other network-based concepts, theorize their relationships with each other through a pair of competing theories (social resource versus social cost), and summarize empirical findings (Lin, 1983, 1986a, 2001; Song, 2020; Song and Pettis, 2020; Song et al., 2021). We further explain its double-edged function using this pair of theories, identify its diverse roles for health, and, for the purpose of generalizability and representativeness, selectively review studies of nationally representative data of the general population, unless noted otherwise. We conclude with future research directions. Conceptualization of Social Support: Definition and Typology Social support
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... Social support is a neutral concept. It is not always supportive or effective and sometimes is null and even harmful (Barrera, 1986;Turner and Turner, 2013). Furthermore, this assumption reserves the theoretical utility of social support only for health consequences and ignores its non-health consequences. ...
... In terms of its directions, it is receiving (flowing from network members or alters to individuals or egos), providing (flowing from ego to alters), or exchanging (flowing reciprocally between ego and alters) (House, 1981;Wellman, 1981). In terms of its subjectivity or objectivity, it is perceived versus objective (actual, received, or enacted) (Caplan, 1979;Barrera, 1986). Received support can be further typologized on two dimensions. ...
... Received support can be further typologized on two dimensions. In terms of its solicitation, it is solicited (sought and obtained) versus unsolicited (obtained without seeking) (Barrera, 1986;Eckenrode and Wethington, 1990). In terms of its visibility, it is visible or explicit versus invisible or unnoticed (Bolger et al., 2000;Thoits, 2011). ...
Social Support
Chapter
  • Oct 2023
We begin this chapter by clarifying the definition and typology of social support. We then turn to its distinction from other network-based concepts, theorize their relationships with each other through a pair of competing theories (social resource versus social cost), and summarize empirical findings (Lin, 1983, 1986a, 2001; Song, 2020; Song and Pettis, 2020; Song et al., 2021). We further explain its double-edged function using this pair of theories, identify its diverse roles for health, and, for the purpose of generalizability and representativeness, selectively review studies of nationally representative data of the general population, unless noted otherwise. We conclude with future research directions.
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... Perceived social support, crucial in psychological help-seeking research, involves an individual's belief in the availability and evaluation of social support (Barrera, 1986). Given the ongoing physical and mental development of college students, their perception of social support plays a crucial role. ...
The relationship between mental health literacy and professional psychological help-seeking behavior among Chinese college students: mediating roles of perceived social support and psychological help-seeking stigma
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
Introduction Mental health literacy is viewed as a significant factor that may facilitate an individual’s pursuit of professional psychological assistance. However, it is important to explore further influencing factors that might underlie this association. This study, employing the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), aims to examine the relationship between mental health literacy and the behavior of seeking professional psychological help, with a focus on the potential mediating roles of perceived stigma and social support in this context. Methods We surveyed 911 college students in seven regions of China (406 males and 505 females, aged between 19 and 25 years old; Mage = 19.65, SD = 1.41) utilizing self-report measures, including the Mental Health Literacy Questionnaire, Professional Psychological Help-Seeking Behavior Scale, Professional Psychological Help-Seeking Stigma Scale, and Perceived Social Support Scale. A chain mediation model was developed to analyze the interconnections between mental health literacy, stigma related to seeking psychological help, perceived social support, and professional psychological help-seeking behaviors. Results The mediation effect analysis indicates that: (1) mental health literacy significantly positively correlates with professional psychological help-seeking behaviors; (2) both perceived social support and professional psychological help-seeking stigma significantly mediate the relationship between mental health literacy and professional psychological help-seeking behavior; (3) perceived social support and the stigma associated with seeking professional psychological help play a chained mediating effect between mental health literacy and the behavior of seeking professional psychological help. Discussion This study found that mental health literacy indirectly facilitates professional psychological help-seeking behaviors by enhancing the perception of social support and reducing the stigma associated with seeking such help. These findings help in understanding how improving mental health literacy and perceived social support while reducing stigma can increase the likelihood of individuals seeking professional psychological assistance. The results are significant for enhancing the utilization of mental health services and implementing mental health education programs in universities.
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... Sehingga, religiusitas juga akan bersifat relatif dalam setiap diri individu (Lenski, Smith, & Jamison, 1963 (Eagle & Hybels, 2018;Lakey & Cronin, 2008;Liang, Krause, & Bennett, 2001). Sementara sejumlah penelitian yang menelaah hubungan antara dukungan sosial yang diterima dengan kesejahteraan psikologis partisipan menunjukkan relasi inkonsisten dan lemah (Barrera, 1986;Son, Lin, & George, 2008;Uchino, 2009 (Russell, Cutrona, Rose, Yurko, 1984 Analisis sebelumnya juga dapat didukung oleh karakteristik para dewasa muda, yang mana mayoritas dari mereka akan cenderung fokus terhadap diri sendiri (Arnett, Zukauskiene, & Sugimura, 2014). Sehingga, Hadyan (2018) berasumsi bahwa faktor ini menghalangi para dewasa muda miskin untuk berusaha mencari informasi melalui orang-orang di sekitarnya. ...
Distres Psikologis
Book
  • Jun 2024
Melihat bahwa terdapat banyak faktor yang dapat memengaruhi kehidupan dewasa muda, menjadi suatu perhatian bagi penulis untuk memaparkan lebih jauh apa saja dampaknya terhadap kesehatan mental dan sejumlah upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk menanggulangi persoalan tersebut. Khususnya, buku ini membahas mengenai faktor-faktor yang dapat membantu individu di rentang usia dewasa muda yang berasal dari kelompok SES rendah untuk mengatasi distres psikologis.
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... According to the paradigm of deteriorating SS, surroundings, and stressors such as family dysfunction and peer rejection might result in a decline in social support expectancies and interpersonal conflict. Due to impaired parental functioning, the left-behind population with inadequate social support may develop an IA [31]. Davis proposed a cognitive-behavioral model for IA, dividing influencing factors into distal necessary conditions and proximal sufficient conditions. ...
The association between anxiety and internet addiction among left-behind secondary school students: the moderating effect of social support and family types
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
  • BMC PSYCHIATRY
Background The left-behind children (LBC), children and adolescents aged 0–18 whose parents have migrated for economic purposes for extended periods exceeding three months, present a unique social concern. These children remain in their place of household registration, often under the guardianship of relatives, while receiving compulsory education. LBC with growing Internet addiction (IA) have made it urgent to take a close look at the mechanisms and effective interventions for them. Anxiety has been proven to be correlated with IA in adolescents; however, the mechanisms of addiction in this population are less well-fully grasped. Based on the current theories and empirical results, the study examined whether and how social support (SS) and family types moderated the associations between anxiety and IA among left-behind secondary students. Methods Stratified cluster sampling survey. A questionnaire was administered to 5290 secondary school children (2553 classified as left-behind) to explore the relationships between anxiety, IA, left-behind types, family types, and social support. This cross-sectional study employed a stratified cluster sampling survey of students in the ethnic areas of southeast Chongqing. The study sought to appraise the relationships between anxiety and IA in different types of left-behind children and to assess the potential moderating effect of SS on the relationship among the population and its family types differences. Results The relationship between anxiety and IA was moderated significantly by social support and family types. Notably, the impact of social support on the moderating effect between IA and anxiety varied among students from both family types. For students from families where both parents had migrated, social support weakened the association between IA and anxiety. Conversely, for students from single-parent families where the parent had migrated, social support seemed to strengthen the relationships between these two issues. Conclusions The moderating effects of SS on the relationship between anxiety and IA differs based on family type among various groups of left-behind secondary students. Gaining insights into the IA mechanisms can guide the development of targeted intervention strategies aimed at minimizing IA among diverse groups of left-behind students.
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A Scoping Review of Instruments Used in Measuring Social Support among Refugees in Resettlement
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to systematically review current research on the application of existing social support scales in research with refugees in resettlement, assess their quality, and identify gaps in measurement to enhance research and practice. A scoping review was conducted on the extant literature published until March 2023. A team of researchers conducted search, sorting, and data extraction processes following best practices for scale development and validation. Of the 1185 studies collected from the search process, 41 articles were retained in the final analysis, from which 17 distinct social support instruments used in research with resettled refugees were identified. An assessment of all 17 instruments showed the presence of one or more limitations associated with construct, criterion, convergent, and/or discriminant validity. Test of reliability was assessed in all studies, with a range of 0.80 to 0.90. Our findings show that most of the research evaluating social support among resettled refugees is conducted without measurement instruments adequately validated in the resettlement context. This analysis highlights the need for rigorously developed social support scales that reflect the lived experiences, needs, and priorities of resettled refugees.
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Lifelong traumatic events, social support, and health-related quality of life among older adults
Article
  • Jun 2024
  • PSYCHOGERIATRICS
Background The present study aimed to investigate the relation between lifelong exposure to traumatic life events, social support, and health‐related quality of life (QOL) in a sample of older people. Method A sample of 172 participants (mean age = 68.81, SD = 7.15; 68.6% female and 31.4% male) was involved in this study. The participants completed scales measuring lifelong exposure to traumatic events, social support, and health‐related QOL. Results The results showed that lifelong exposure to traumatic events was negatively related to physical and mental health‐related QOL. Moreover, social support moderated the relation between traumatic life events exposure and mental health‐related QOL. Discussion Geriatric services could identify and implement adequate measures to provide social support and to improve different dimensions of QOL among older adults.
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HUMAN AGENCY AND PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT AS PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE AMONG GRADE 11 STUDENTS
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
The main thrust of this study was to determine whether human agency and perceived social support significantly predict academic performance among Grade 11 students in Science. It utilized the quantitative, non-experimental design using correlational method of research. The respondents were 289 Grade 11 students in secondary schools of San Isidro District in the Division of Davao del Norte. A stratified random sampling was used to identify the respondents. Three sets of research instruments were used in this study, one was a researcher-made instrument to determine the level of academic performance among Grade 11 students, one was adopted to determine the level of human agency, and the other one was adapted instrument for the level of perceived social support. Statistics tools applied were mean, Pearson r, and regression analysis. Findings suggested that the level of human agency and perceived social support of students were high which implies that they were manifested most of the time. Moreover, the academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science were moderately proficient. On the other hand, there was a significant relationship between human agency and academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. Identically, there was also a significant relationship between perceived social support and academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. Lastly, human agency significantly predicted the academic performance of grade 11 students in Science, however, perceived social support did not significantly predict academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. It is recommended that further research exploring the variables of human agency, perceived social support, and academic performance in Science be conducted to substantiate the findings. Likewise, it is encouraged that extensive and comprehensive studies be carried out to discover other determinants of students' human agency and social support to increase their academic performance in the field of Science education.
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HUMAN AGENCY AND PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT AS PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE AMONG GRADE 11 STUDENTS
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
ABSTRACT The main thrust of this study was to determine whether human agency and perceived social support significantly predict academic performance among Grade 11 students in Science. It utilized the quantitative, non-experimental design using correlational method of research. The respondents were 289 Grade 11 students in secondary schools of San Isidro District in the Division of Davao del Norte. A stratified random sampling was used to identify the respondents. Three sets of research instruments were used in this study, one was a researcher-made instrument to determine the level of academic performance among Grade 11 students, one was adopted to determine the level of human agency, and the other one was adapted instrument for the level of perceived social support. Statistics tools applied were mean, Pearson r, and regression analysis. Findings suggested that the level of human agency and perceived social support of students were high which implies that they were manifested most of the time. Moreover, the academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science were moderately proficient. On the other hand, there was a significant relationship between human agency and academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. Identically, there was also a significant relationship between perceived social support and academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. Lastly, human agency significantly predicted the academic performance of grade 11 students in Science, however, perceived social support did not significantly predict academic performance of Grade 11 students in Science. It is recommended that further research exploring the variables of human agency, perceived social support, and academic performance in Science be conducted to substantiate the findings. Likewise, it is encouraged that extensive and comprehensive studies be carried out to discover other determinants of students’ human agency and social support to increase their academic performance in the field of Science education. Keywords: science education, human agency, perceived social support, academic performance, quantitative, correlational, regression analysis, grade 11 students, Davao del Norte, Philippines.
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Assessing social support: The Social Support Questionnaire
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1983
Describes the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ) and 4 empirical studies employing it. The SSQ yields scores for (a) perceived number of social supports and (b) satisfaction with social support that is available. Three studies (N = 1,224 college students) dealt with the SSQ's psychometric properties, its correlations with measures of personality and adjustment, and the relation of the SSQ to positive and negative life changes. The 4th study (40 Ss) was an investigation of the relation between social support and persistence in working on a complex, frustrating task. The research reported suggests that the SSQ is a reliable instrument and that social support is (a) more strongly related to positive than negative life changes, (b) more related in a negative direction to psychological discomfort among women than men, and (c) an asset in enabling a person to persist at a task under frustrating conditions. Clinical implications are discussed. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
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The structure of social support: A Conceptual and empirical analysis
Article
  • Apr 1983
  • J COMMUNITY PSYCHOL
The growth of research on social support has led to a comparable proliferation in the ways it is conceptualized and operationalized. The overall purpose of the present paper was to bring some clarity to this concept by critically examining how it has been presented in the literature and by proposing both rationally and empirically derived typologies for organizing social support functions. From a review of prominent discussions of support functions, a rational typology was proposed that included six categories: Material Aid, Behavioral Assistance, Intimate Interaction, Feedback, and Positive Social Interaction. To empirically examine the structure of social support, a factor analysis was conducted on items from a scale of socially supportive behaviors. The four factors that subsequently emerged were labeled Directive Guidance, Non‐directive Support, Positive Social Interaction, and Tangible Assistance. Application of these findings to the assessment of support and future research on support/well‐being relationships were discussed.
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Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: a nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents
Article
  • Feb 1979
  • AM J EPIDEMIOL
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most Isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
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Barriers to Work Stress: I. Social Support
Chapter
  • Jan 1985
In the last decade, the concept of “social support” has become increasingly prominent in both scientific and applied or policy-related discussions of stress and health. By the mid-1970s in the United States, social support was the topic of invited addresses to the American Public Health Association and Psychosomatic Society by two of our most distinguished social epidemiologists, the late John Cassel (5) and Sidney Cobb (6) respectively. The very first recommendation of the 1978 report of our President’s Commission on Mental Health (28, p. 15) was that: “A major effort be developed in the area of personal and community supports which will: (a) recognize and strengthen the natural network to which people belong and on which they depend; …”.
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Social Support and Children of Divorce
Chapter
  • Jan 1985
This paper examines childrens’ social support in the years immediately succeeding the dissolution of their parents’ marriage. The situation of parental divorce is a frequent one in our society, one that will be experienced by approximately one third of all children before they reach their eighteenth birthday (Glick, 1979). The negative consequences of this situation for children have been demonstrated to include extreme immediate distress, anxiety and aggression problems, school difficulties and impaired cognitive and sex role development (Hetherington, 1979; Kurdek, 1981).
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