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Forest structure and regeneration along the altitudinal gradient in the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India
Abstract
Forest structure and regeneration were studied along the altitudinal gradient in the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary of Uttarakhand
Himalaya in India. Stratified random sampling of tree species was done by placing minimum 15 quadrats of 10 × 10 m at each
aspect and altitude. The results reveal that along the altitudinal gradient there were three types of forest communities in
the Sanctuary viz., chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), oakchir pine (Quercus leucotrichophora and Pinus roxburghii) and oak (Quercus floribunda and Quercus leucotrichophora). Rhododendron arboreum, Cornus macrophylla and Lyonia ovalifolia were main associates of these forest communities. The oak forests had larger shrub population as compared to chir pine. Myrsine africana was the most dominant shrub across the altitudinal gradient, whereas few shrub species were restricted to a certain altitudinal
range. The regeneration of chir pine was best at lower altitude on south and east aspects, which indicates that it mostly
regenerates on warm and dry slopes. In general, the regeneration potential in most of the tree species declines with the altitude.
The density of saplings and seedlings also represented the dominant species at each altitudinal range, which indicates the
cyclic regeneration of forests in the Sanctuary area.
... Similarly, studies on different aspects of biodiversity have been carried out in the BWLS of Himalaya viz. natural resource utilization (Majila and Kala, 2010), ecosystem functions (Majila et al., 2005), forest conservation (Rawat et al., 2013), community-based ecotourism (Bhalla et al., 2017), floristic analysis (Khan and Arya, 2017) and human-wildlife conflicts (Kala and Kothari, 2013). Recently, studies on the ecology and behavior of insects have been carried out by Ghosh et al. (2011Ghosh et al. ( , 2018, Arya et al. (2016a, b), Arya et al. (2017), Tamta (2017), Arya et al. (2018a, b), Arya et al. (2019) and in different locations of the BWLS. ...
... are present between 2100 m to 2400 m altitudinal range in the sanctuary (Majila and Kala, 2010). In the more recent years, Rawat et al. (2013) reported a total of 147 plant species in BWLS of which 90 species were herbs, 20 were shrubs and 27 were trees. ...
... Secondary data on recorded faunal species of mammals, birds and insects was obtained from the available published literature (Ilyas, 1998;Ilyas, 1999;Khan et al., 2000;Sultana and Khan, 2000;Khan, 2001, 2004;Islam and Rahmani, 2004;Ilyas and Khan, 2005;Majila and Kala, 2010;ZSI, 2010;Singh and Khushwah, 2011;Ghosh et al., 2011;Kala and Majila, 2013;Kala and Kothari, 2013;Rawat et al., 2013;Mohan and Sondhi, 2014;Uttarakhand Forest Department, 2014;Bhalla et al., 2015;Mohan and Sondhi, 2015;Arya et al., 2016a, b;BirdLife International, 2021;Bhalla et al., 2017;Khan and Arya, 2017;Mohan and Sondhi, 2017;Arya et al., 2017;Tamta, 2017;Ghosh et al., 2018;Arya et al., 2018a, b;Arya et al., 2019;Shahsbuddin et al., 2017;Bhalla et al., 2020 andLepage, 2021). The species in the checklist were catalogued alphabetically into orders, families, genera and all the species were listed with their accepted names as such with correct spellings. ...
The present checklist on faunal composition is a compilation of published records on faunal diversity of mammals, Aves and insects mainly between the years 1998-2021 from the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary in State Uttarakhand, India. The sanctuary is known for its wide range of mammals, birds and insect species. The list comprised 16 species of mammals belonging to five orders under nine families, 173 species of birds belonging to 12 orders under 45 families and 121 species of insects belonging to eight orders under 36 families. It is intended that the checklist would help in obtaining a holistic view of faunal diversity, mainly mammals, birds and insects so that their status could be monitored and maintained at various levels in the sanctuary. The sanctuary is low profiled in terms of biodiversity conservation and scientific management, and still unexplored or under-explored in relation to the faunal diversity. Therefore, the findings reported in the present study promisingly emphasize the ongoing threats to the biological diversity of the Binsar wildlife sanctuary of Uttarakhand (Western Himalaya), India which needs an immediate attention in order to conserve the residing faunal species.
... These representative landscapes harbor rich diversity of both faunal and floral component of biodiversity, thus act as a reservoir of much local biodiversity element (Dhar et al. 1997. WLS have always been the major source of natural resources like fuel, fodder, medicinal plants, edible fruits (Samant et al. 2006;Majila and Kala 2010;Singh and Rawat 2011) and gene pool of threatened species (Rana and Samant 2010) in west Himalaya. The biological resources make indirect contributions to the welfare and stability of the local environment (Khumbongmayum et al. 2006). ...
... Though, studies on different aspects of biodiversity have been carried out in WLS of Himalaya viz. natural resource utilization Samant et al. 2006;Majila and Kala 2010), ecosystem functions (Majila et al. 2005), management and development (Samant et al. 1998), threat assessment (Pant andSamant 2008;Rana and Samant 2010), ethonobiological enumerations (Singh and Rawat 2011) and floristic analysis (Lal and Samant 2010;Samant et al. 1995) but a systematic approach on the population structure and regeneration pattern of forest communities in WLS with respect to their long term existence, is still lacking. Under the provision of protected areas, the need for understanding the structure and regeneration pattern in forests have been already emphasized to mitigate the ongoing challenges like overexploitation, deforestation etc., emerged along with the present changing climate and socio-economic scenario. ...
... There was a gradual decrease in species richness and density with increase in girth class in lower and middle belt. Such trends have been reported earlier by Majila and Kala (2010) in the study area. The increased density in girth class 61 cm -90 cm in upper belt could be attributed to the presence of high number of mature individuals of Q. leucotricophora and Q. floribunda. ...
Forest vegetation of a protected area (Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary) in Kumaun region (west Himalaya) was analysed for structure, composition and representativeness across three different altitudinal belts, lower (1,600-1,800 m a.s.l.), middle (1,900-2,100 m a.s.l.) and upper (2,200-2,400 m a.s.l.) during 2009-2011 using standard phytosociological methods. Four aspects (east, west, north and south) in each altitudinal belt were chosen for sampling to depict maximum representation of vegetation in the sanctuary. Population structure and regeneration behaviour was analysed seasonally for two years to show the establishment and growth of tree species. A total of 147 plant species were recorded from the entire region of which 27 tree species were selected for detailed study. Highest number was recorded at upper (18 species), and lowest at lower altitudinal belt (15 species). The relative proportion of species richness showed higher contribution of tree layer at each altitudinal belt. The population structure, based on the number of individuals, revealed a greater proportion of seedling layer at each altitudinal belt. The relative proportion of seedlings increases significantly along altitudinal belts (p < 0.05) while opposite trends were observed in sapling and tree layers. The density of sapling and seedling species varied non-significantly across seasons (p > 0.05). The density values decreased in summer and increased during rainy season. As far as the regeneration status is concerned, middle and upper altitudinal belts showed maximum number of species with fair regeneration as compared to lower altitudinal belt. Overall density diameter distribution of tree species showed highest species density and richness in the smallest girth class and decreased in the succeeding girth classes. This study suggests that patterns of regeneration behaviour would determine future structural and compositional changes in the forest communities. It is suggested that the compositional changes vis-A -vis role of 'New' and 'Not regenerating' species need priority attention while initiating conservation activities in the sanctuary. This study calls for exploring other less explored Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Himalaya and across the world, to achieve overall biodiversity status in these protected areas and thus to justify their role in conserving biodiversity in the region.
... Forests are enormously complex systems of highly heterogeneous plant communities that harbour biodiversity and maintain the ecological balance of any given area (Richards 1996;Majila and Kala 2010). Being the dynamic entities of nature, changes take place in their composition and structure with time and space. ...
... Being the dynamic entities of nature, changes take place in their composition and structure with time and space. Forest structure and composition reflect their sustainability and resilience to anthropogenic pressures, including the status of current as well as past and future conditions of the forest stand, which are affected by various anthropogenic pressures and the changes in biotic and abiotic components over a period of time (Armesto and Pickett 1985;McNeely 1994;Karanth et al. 2006;Somanathan and Borges 2000;Majila and Kala 2010). Though changes in forest structure and composition over time are a natural phenomenon (Clement and Junqueira 2010), at present, the explosion of human population and subsequent changes in environment have accelerated the rate of changes in forest structure and composition (Kala and Dubey 2012). ...
A critical first step in establishing biosphere reserves—under the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO—is to generate baseline information for future courses of action. The present study aims to assess the structure and composition of forests—along with anthropogenic pressures mounting on these forests in the buffer zone of one such biosphere reserves—the Pachmarhi biosphere reserve of India. The quadrat method was employed for sampling vegetation, and information on anthropogenic pressures was collected by conducting interviews with local people and forest officials and collecting it from secondary sources. A total of 39 tree species were sampled in 82 quadrats; of these 26 tree species were in standing stage, 25 in sapling, and 35 in seedling. Chloroxylon swietenia emerged as the most dominant tree species having highest importance value index, followed by Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, and Hardwickia binata. Nine tree species and their saplings, including Sterculia urens and Terminalia arjuna, were exploited so badly that they were only found in the seedlings stage. The unavailability of standing trees of 12 important tree species including Aegle marmelos and Phyllanthus emblica indicates the intensity and gravity of anthropogenic pressures on these important tree species. If the present anthropogenic pressure continues, which has inhibited the regeneration of several tree species, then substantial negative ecological and societal consequences can be expected.
... The pure oak and mixed oak forests (Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus floribunda) are present between 2,100 and 2,400 m. Other dominant tree species include Lyonia ovalifolia, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica esculenta and Alnus nepalensis (Majila et al. 2005, Majila and Kala 2010, Kala and Majila 2013. Farming and animal husbandry are the main economic activities of the people living in and around the sanctuary. ...
... Common leopards are major predators in the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary. (Photo courtesy A. Edgaonkar) Predation by leopards • Kala and Kothari (Gyps himalayensis), lammergeiers (Gypaetus barbatus), and yellow-billed magpies (Cissa flavirostris;Khan et al. 2000, Majila andKala 2010). ...
We investigate livestock predation by the common leopard (Panthera pardus) and emerging conflicts between this species, local people, and wildlife authorities at the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalayan region of India. We scrutinized secondary data that were collected by wildlife authorities; we also conducted informal interviews of villagers living within sanctuary, and wildlife staff to understand various human–leopard conflicts. Leopard density was approximately 0.33/km2 in the sanctuary. Leopards killed 1,763 domestic animals, about 90% of which were cattle, during a 14-year period. Within the sanctuary, leopards killed 1 person and injured 9 others. This high depredation rate may be due to many factors, including
low density of wild prey species in the sanctuary. The high level of livestock depredation by leopards in and around the sanctuary has caused severe conflicts.
... In their role as protectors of carbon stock, the sanctuary's trees stand as challenging defenders against the encroaching impacts of climate change. Wildlife sanctuaries, as biodiversity hotspots, contribute significantly to critical ecosystem services like soil formation, hydrological cycle regulation, and carbon storage (Majila and Kala, 2010;Thakur et al., 2021;Bisht et al., 2023). Carbon sequestration is a crucial service providing by forest ecosystems, playing a pivotal role in mitigating global climate change. ...
Carbon stock distribution within protected areas is of paramount importance for exact carbon budgeting and the development of effective forest management strategies. This study conducted comprehensive field assessments with the primary objective of quantifying tree biomass and carbon stocks, as well as assessing structural attributes of forest stands. These assessments involved the meticulous collection of ground-based data encompassing various structural attributes, including circumference at breast height (CBH), stem height, basal area, stem density, frequency, and girth class by utilizing a simple random sampling methodology. The results of this study revealed substantial variations in all tree structural attributes across different forest stands along altitudinal gradients. Notably, species richness, tree density, and species diversity exhibited an upward trend with increasing altitude. The maximum tree species richness (25) and tree density (1068 ± 102.2 individuals ha.
... Many workers have described altitudinal variation in vegetation in western Himalayas. Saxena et al. (1985), Adhikari et al. (1992), Sharma et al. (2009) and Majila and Kala (2010) have reported that vegetation types differ with change in altitude. A few studies specifically related to plant species diversity, quantitative analysis, species richness their population density and dispersion pattern for the Himalayan tract have been conducted by Nath et al. (2000), Singh and Rawat (2000), Pande et al. (2001Pande et al. ( & 2002, Singh and Kaushal (2006), Dash et al. (2009), Tynsong andTiwari (2011) and Shameem et al. (2011). ...
Species diversity along altitudinal and latitudinal gradient differs in different tree layers at different scales. Thirteen community groups characterized by different dominants in the tree layer were encountered within an altitudinal range of 580 m asl to 3500 m asl and above in Sewa catchment of Bani region, district Kathua, Jammu and Kashmir. The sub-tropical and temperate elements of vegetation reveal predominance of closed canopy forests, wherein the sub-tropical tree species outnumber the temperate tree flora. The pattern of plant diversity as observed by the values of species richness and diversity indices show a decreasing trend from lower to higher altitudes. The study suggests that distribution and species richness are largely regulated by physiography (altitude, latitude, slope, aspect etc.) and climatic factors.
... Globally reported pine-oak associations used in the present study. The bark thickness values given for the species in parentheses for each species are based on Troup, 1921;Champion and Seth, 1968;Ralhan et al., 1985;Rana et al., 1989;Biondi et al., 1992;Loshali and Singh, 1992;Matlack et al., 1993;Abrams et al., 1995;Cain and Shelton, 1995;Cain, 1996;Compton et al., 1998;Fule and Covington, 1998;Kolb and Stone, 2000;Park, 2001;Sultan et al., 2001;Gracia et al., 2002;Kala, 2004;Zavala and Zea, 2004;Wakeel et al., 2005;Kumar et al., 2016;Inclan et al., 2007;Perez-Suarez et al., 2009;Sen and Gok, 2009;Clark et al., 2010;Copenheaver et al., 2010;Gurarni et al., 2010;Majila and Kala, 2010;Sharma and Singh, 2010;Slazak et al., 2010;Joshi and Bhatt, 2011;Turkmen and Duzenli, 2011;Chaturvedi et al., 2012;Perez-Suarez et al., 2012;Bieng et al., 2013;Perot et al., 2013;George et al., 2014;Perez-Suarez et al., 2014;Khan et al., 2015;Castillo et al., 2016;Gill-tena et al., 2016;Shahabuddin et al., 2017;Singh et al., 2016;Bonal et al., 2017;Lal et al., 2017;Bargali et al., 2018;Barton and Poulos, 2018;Meng et al., 2018;Kumar and Kumari, 2019;Woziwoda et al., 2019). ...
Pines (Pinus, with 120 species) and oaks (Quercus, with at least 400 species), the two principal forest forming genera of the Northern Hemisphere occur in fire affected landscapes over a large geographical area from 120°W to 150°E long, and from 10° to 60°N lat. We compiled studies of 116 such sites of which 75 sites had data of bark thickness. Taking a meta-analysis approach, here we have compared the absolute and relative bark thickness (bark thickness per unit stem diameter) of oak species sharing mixed stands to generalize adaptational significance of bark in relation to fire. For the meta-analysis we considered only natural forests with adequate evidences of fire history. We gave importance to relative bark thickness, which is less sensitive to tree size than absolute thickness while comparing species. At 100 cm girth the average absolute bark thickness was significantly higher for Diploxylon pines (3.65 cm) than for oaks (2.2 cm) and Haploxylon pines (1.65 cm). On an average, the relative bark thickness was higher for the fire adapted Diploxylon pines (6.3%) than for Quercus species, (4.4%). The resource allocation efficiency was higher in pine species than for oak species, emphasizing the importance of bark characters in their persistence and range expansion. The difference between species of two principal forest genera in relative bark thickness and hence success in fire affected landscapes across a wide geographical range strongly testifies its adaptational significance to fire.
... In Himalayas, apart from aspect and degree of slope, altitude is also known to play an important role in formation of various forest communities and diversity of woody species in such communities (Majila and Kala, 2010;Pant and Samant, 2012). The heterogeneity in slope-aspect and elevation within a landform show a significant relationship with habitat heterogeneity (Aguilar-Santelises and del Castillo, 2013). ...
The objective of the present study was to understand the patterns in plant species diversity along the altitudinal gradient in Dhauladhar mountain range of the Indian Himalayas. Nested plot method was employed for sampling trees, shrubs and herbs along the elevations from sub-tropical forests to sub-alpine forests, and Shannon-Weiner diversity index was used for calculation of plant species diversity. A total of 10 forest communities were identified, of which the highest number of forest communities and woody species diversity were found in the temperate forests. Though, there are multiple ecological factors and their combinations which determine the distribution and diversity of plant species in an ecosystem, the present study reveals that elevation is one of the major abiotic factors in the Himalayan mountains, which determines the establishment and distribution of various forest communities and species diversity. Along an altitudinal gradient there was a hump-shaped curve in the species diversity of woody plant species whereas the species diversity of herbaceous species increased with elevations from sub-tropical to sub-alpine forests. This fact needs to be employed while making policies and planning for the sustainability of forests along the altitudinal gradients in the mountains.
... Forests are an enormously complex system with highly heterogeneous plant communities that harbor high biodiversity and help to maintain ecosystem balance (Richards 1996;Majila and Kala 2010;Kala 2015). Forests constitute the largest terrestrial ecosystem with multiple coexisting life forms. ...
Tropical forests are complex systems with heterogenous community assemblages often threatened under anthropogenic disturbances and grazing. We studied the change in plant community composition and structure under a disturbance gradient in the tropical dry deciduous forest of the corridor area between Nagzira-Navegaon Tiger reserve of central India. We tested the hypothesis that the plant community will change along the proximity gradient from the human settlement depending on the anthropogenic stress. We sampled 183 nested quadrat plots to collect data on species abundance and various disturbance parameters. Density, diversity, and Importance Value Index were calculated and multivariate analysis was done to assess the changes in species assemblage along the disturbance gradients. We found 76% overall dissimilarity between the plant communities in the three distance classes perpetrated by the difference in mean abundance of species like Tectona grandis, Terminalia sp, and Largerstroemia parviflora. The anthropogenic factors influence the density and diversity of tree species and regeneration classes. We found the abundance of regeneration class increased along the distance from the villages. The study intensifies the need for proper management and conservative approach to preserve the diversity of the forest patches for its structural and functional contiguity as a corridor in the central India's highly susceptible and intricate corridor framework.
... Nutrient use efficiency, especially of nitrogen (N), is by far the highest, and foliage N concentration is the lowest, among the important tree species of the Himalaya (Singh and Singh 1992). Warm, dry southern and eastern aspects are preferred for regeneration (Majila and Kala 2010). ...
Background
Subtropical coniferous forests of the lesser Himalaya provide critical ecosystem services but fire regimes have received limited scientific attention. We reconstructed fire regimes using tree-ring methods in a chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii Sarg.) forest of Uttarakhand, India. We cross-dated tree-ring samples with fire scars from 36 trees at three sites near rural villages between 1535 and 1848 m elevation.
Results
Fires were highly frequent (mean fire intervals all <6 yr) but of low severity, so most mature trees of this thick-barked species survived numerous burns. Fire scars occurred primarily in the dormant period to the middle of early wood formation in tree-rings, consistent with fire season records. Despite the high fire frequency, fires were mostly asynchronous among the three sites, indicating a bottom-up pattern of local ignitions. We observed that resin tapping of the pines interacted with surface fire by allowing fire to burn into the wood of some tapped trees and weaken their structural integrity to the point of breakage.
Conclusions
Ongoing frequent surface fire regimes linked to human land use are prominent disturbance factors in chir pine forests. Given that these forests support substantial human populations and form part of the watershed for many more people, the effects of anthropogenic fire and interactions with resin-tapping merit further investigation at landscape to regional scales. We suggest developing a research network in Himalayan forests as well as more broadly across southeast Asian pine forests to track interacting disturbances and their ecological and social implications.
... Apart from their therapeutic properties, these medicinal plant species maintain the health of an ecosystem as each species has a specific role in the functioning of an ecosystem 3 . The altitudinal and climatic variations make the Himalayan ecosystem unique for availability and distribution of various species 4 . However, the historical dependency of various communities on different forest types across the Himalayan region, especially on medicinal plants, has influenced the density of plant species if not the range of their distribution 5,6 . ...
We studied the patterns in distribution, population density and uses of medicinal plant species in Dhauladhar mountain range of Himachal Pradesh in Indian Himalayas. The study area was stratified into three zones on the basis of forest types and altitudes. In each zone, quadrats were laid down for sampling of plant species, and the local people were interviewed for gathering information on medicinal uses of plants. A total of 184 plant species were encountered in the sampling plots, of which 86% had medicinal uses. Among woody plant species, the use of bark was highest, whereas in herbaceous species the use of leaf and root was highest for treatment of over 32 groups of diseases. In terms of density, Pin us roxburghii was the most dominant tree species in subtropical forests, which declined in temperate regions and was absent in subalpine forests. Rhododendron arboreum was the most dominant tree species in temperate region whereas in subalpine forests it was replaced by Abies pindrow, in terms of density. Berberis asiatica and Vitex negundo were the most dominant shrubs in subtropical forests besides Lantana camera, whereas Berberis lycium dominated the temperate and Juniperus indica dominated the subalpine forests. The heavy infestation of Lantana camera in sub-tropical forests has degraded the habitats of native medicinal plant species. Spearman's correlation indicates positive correlation between local uses and density of respective medicinal plant species (P < 0.05). The results are further discussed in light of medicinal plants conservation in this part of the Indian Himalayas.
... Influence of tree species composition and density on forest recruitment patterns are seldom studied in the tropical forests of India (Swamy et al., 2000;Anitha et al., 2010;Majila and Kala 2010;Borah and Garkoti 2011;Selvan 2014). Though vegetation studies in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have considered most of the habitat types, yet, the diversity and composition of karstland vegetation remain undescribed https://doi.org/10. ...
Karst-land vegetation was never before documented from India. Baratang limestone karst area, in tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen forests of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, is the biggest and most dense cave complex with more than 175 underground caverns. We surveyed the limestone karst area of Baratang Island to understand vegetation diversity, composition and recruitment pattern. We encountered 90 tree species in the study area. Our result indicated dissimilarity in species diversity (F = 320.06; p < 0.001) and composition (P = 0.001; A = 0.031) among the trees and recruitment classes, where the diversity increased with the age of the vegetation classes (trees > saplings > seedlings). Tree diversity showed a positive correlation with the diversity of saplings and seedlings (Spearman’s correlation coefficient: saplings = 0. 25; p=0.011; seedling =0.31; p=0.002). We found that the dominant and co-dominant species in the karstic landscapes depicts exclusive vegetation patterns than the non-karstic areas. A better understanding of forest dynamics might prove a useful tool in the research of the fast-changing, sensitive karst ecosystems. Therefore, we strongly recommend further studies about karst-land vegetation in India.
... The calculated similarity index was almost similar to that recorded by Khan et al., 1987 disturbed and protected subtropical forest of north-east India, Meghalaya. Furthermore, Majila et al., (2010) reported 100% similarity between west and north aspect of middle altitude, and least similarity between east aspect of lower altitude and south aspects of higher altitude in Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary. ...
Natural Resource Mangement is key for livelihoods
... Apart from their therapeutic properties, these medicinal plant species maintain the health of an ecosystem as each species has a specific role in the functioning of an ecosystem 3 . The altitudinal and climatic variations make the Himalayan ecosystem unique for availability and distribution of various species 4 . However, the historical dependency of various communities on different forest types across the Himalayan region, especially on medicinal plants, has influenced the density of plant species if not the range of their distribution 5,6 . ...
We studied the patterns in distribution, population density and uses of medicinal plant species in Dhauladhar mountain range of Himachal Pradesh in Indian Himalayas. The study area was stratified into three zones on the basis of forest types and altitudes. In each zone, quadrats were laid down for sampling of plant species, and the local people were interviewed for gathering information on medicinal uses of plants. A total of 184 plant species were encountered in the sampling plots, of which 86% had medicinal uses. Among woody plant species, the use of bark was highest, whereas in herbaceous species the use of leaf and root was highest for treatment of over 32 groups of diseases. In term s of density, Pinus roxburghii
was the most dominant tree species in subtropical forests, which declined in temperate regions and was absent in subalpine forests. Rhododendron arboreum was the most dominant tree species in temperate region whereas in subalpine forests it was replaced by Abies pindrow, in terms of density. Berberis asiatica and Vitex negundo were the most dominant shrubs in sub-tropical forests besides Lantana camera, whereas Beberis lycium dominated the temperate and Juniperus indica dominated the subalpine forests. The heavy infestation of Lantana camera in sub-tropical forests has degraded the habitats of native medicinal plant species. Spearman’s correlation indicates positive correlation between local uses and density of respective medicinal plant species (P<0.05). The results are further discussed in light of medicinal plants conservation in this part of the Indian Himalayas.
... Further, five sample plots of 0.1 ha (31.62 m × 31.62 m), each were randomly laid out on surveyed ridge tops within each altitudinal range to analyse the tree composition (11 elevational stands × 5 sample plots each = 55 sample plots). Within each 0.1 ha plot, 5 m × 5 m sized quadrats (11 elevational stands × 5 sample plots each × 8 quadrats each = 440 quadrats) were laid out randomly to analyse the tree saplings (as per Majila and Kala, 2010) and 1 m × 1 m sized quadrats (11 elevational stands × 5 sample plots each × 16 quadrats each = 880 quadrats) for tree seedlings (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950;Phillips, 1959). Circumference at breast height (cbh at 1.37 m from the ground) was taken and converted to diameter for the determination of basal cover for both trees and saplings. ...
The present study was conducted along the elevational gradient in ridge forests of Bhagirathi catchment area of Garhwal Himalaya. The purpose of the study was to understand the growth behaviour of tree species at different altitudes in terms of dominance–diversity, regeneration dynamics, biomass and carbon storage in forests of Bhagirathi catchment area. Plot design, with main plot size of 0.1 ha, was used to analyse quantitatively and qualitatively the tree, sapling and seedling vegetation. The maximum mean tree density (708 ± 153 trees ha–1) was recorded in Abies spectabilis–Quercus semecarpifolia forest association (between 2800 and 3100 m asl), while minimum (425 ± 32 trees ha–1) in Q. semecarpifolia–Cedrus deodara forest association (between 3100 and 3400 m asl). The total basal cover values ranged between 28.80 ± 5.27 m² ha–1 (below 700 m asl) to 99.69 ± 29.64 m² ha–1 (above 3400 m asl). The highest Shannon index value (0.83 ± 0.14) was observed in Anogeissus latifolia–Mallotus philippensis forest association whereas, lowest (0.26 ± 0.09) in Q. semecarpifolia–C. deodara forest association. The maximum similarity (85.23 ± 5.04%) was noticed in Quercus floribunda–Rhododendron arboreum forest association while, minimum (59.32 ± 5.18%) in A. latifolia–M. philippensis association. Similarly the species richness, Simpson index, Shannon index, seedling density, total basal cover and above ground biomass density showed positive–significant elevation–wise variation in various growth phases (i.e., tree, sapling and seedling). The total biomass density values oscillated from 189.38 ± 14.35 Mg ha–1 (between 1600 and 1900 m asl) to 520.72 ± 114.57 Mg ha–1 (between 3100 and 3400 m asl). Consequently, the total carbon density at various elevational ranges varied from 85.22 ± 6.46 Mg C ha–1 to 234.32 ± 51.56 Mg C ha–1 for the corresponding elevations. The Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) clearly indicated the prevalence of distinct habitats and resultant associations of tree species in various ridge forests whereas, on the other hand the Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) has shown a complex interrelationship amongst species clustering, mountain ranges and climatic/environmental variables. The study revealed that the Pinus roxburghii was invariably affecting the habitats of mixed broad–leaved forests at lower altitudes, whereas Cedrus deodara was noticed to encroach continuously the higher elevational habitats. The study has also indicated that the old growth coniferous and broad leaved forests of higher altitudes of Garhwal Himalaya (like A. pindrow, A. spectabilis, A. acuminatum, B. utilis, C. deodara, Q. semecarpifolia and R. arboreum) have more carbon storage potential and hence recommended for carbon management through afforestation at higher altitudes of Himalaya.
... The geographic location of Binsar is 29° 39′ N-29° 44′ N latitudes and 79° 41′ E-79° 49′ E longitudes and covers an area about 47 km², with a core area of about 4km 2 ( Figure 1 The charismatic wildlife species inhabiting Binsar is the Leopard (Panthera pardus) and is the top predator here. Other predators reported by Khan et al. (2000) and Majila and Kala (2010) include jungle cats (Felis chaus), major ungulate species include gorals (Nemorhaedus goral), barking deer (Muntiacus muntijak), serows (Capricornis sumatrensis), and wild boar (Sus scrofa), other mammal species in the sanctuary are common langurs (Presbytus entellus), rhesus macaques (monkey; Macaca mulatta), Himalayan black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus), and jackals (Canis aureus). The sanctuary also harbors 166 species of birds (Uttarakhand Forest Department, 2014), including black francolins (Francolinus francolinus), koklass pheasants (Pucrasia macrolopha), kaleej pheasants (Lophura leucomelana), hill partridges (Arborophilla torqueola), great barbets (Megalaima virens), hawk eagles (Spizaetus nipalensis), Himalayan griffons (Gyps himalayensis), lammergeiers (Gypaetus barbatus), and yellow-billed magpies (Cissa flavirostris). ...
Travelling to relatively pristine or natural areas is rapidly growing among visitors worldwide, which not only stimulates impacts on landscape and its wildlife but affects the visitors' experience-as well. Considering sound associated with anthropogenic activities as an impact causing indicator, the present study reports and discusses the result of monitoring sound levels in Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary, an ecotourism destination situated in mid of Kumaon Himalayas. The equivalent sound pressure level (Leq) was determined both in presence and absence of visitors, at key locations within high usage tourism sites of different zones of Binsar. The results indicated that the ambient noise level remains within the prescribed standard limit being stable around 50 dB in the absence of visitors, which increases up to 70dB in the presence of visitors. Using L N statistics five sites reported to exceed 50 dB of sound level for 10% of the recorded time. The outcome suggests non-violation of standard limits within sanctuary; however, it necessitates control of visitor activities by sanctuary management at locations where animal habitats exist, considering increasing visitation.
... Besides, hunting of wildlife for multiple uses is a common practice in the tribal communities and other forest dwellers of Chhattisgarh. The forest and wildlife is threatened by destruction of habitats and hunting (Gaston 1983;Dent and Wright 2009;Majila and Kala 2010). In addition to this, the advent of modern forces and changes in socio-economic patterns of forest dwellers has increased the pressures on the forests. ...
The advent of modern forces and the changes in socioeconomic patterns of forest dwellers have increased the pressures on the
forests. In order to mitigate such pressures and also to protect the forests and wildlife the model of protected areas networks
has shifted and enhanced such pressures in the unprotected natural forests due to several reasons. Being a low profile category
of protected status and continuous human settlements, the present study highlights the case of dry deciduous forests of Sarguja
district of Chhattisgarh state of India. The major objectives of this study were to quantify the status of forests and wildlife
and also to determine the extent of anthropogenic disturbances faced by the dry deciduous forests of central India. Transect
and silent drive count methods were used for sampling wildlife and quadrat method was used for sampling vegetation. Besides,
the local uses of various forest produces were also studied in view of understanding the people dependency on forests. The
forest vegetation, in the study area, was pre-dominated by Shorea robusta, which had Madhuca indica, Diospyrus melanoxylon and Buchnania lanzan as the major companion species. The forest had either the high girth class mature tree species or the saplings. The low vegetation
cover and density were due to the high anthropogenic pressures mainly in the form of heavy livestock grazing and collection
of ethnobotanically important species. The study though reveals that the area is not rich in wildlife and the forest is fragmented,
the area still supports some important species, which include many rare and endangered plants and animals. The findings of
this study have been discussed in view of the management and conservation of the forest and wildlife in the dry deciduous
forests.
... Yarlung is dominated by Rhododendron sp. with highest IVI (44.7) and density 127 individuals ha -1 . However, the IVI of the dominant species of the three study stands are lower than that reported byMajila & Kala (2010) from temperate forest of Uttarakhand Himalaya. He studied the four geographical aspects in the forest viz., east, west, north and south and found the IVI of the dominant species as 94.73, 65.64, 111.14 and 107.09 respectively. ...
Species diversity and community structure of a Rhododendron forest along an altitudinal gradient was studied through quadrat method and all important community parameters were worked out using standard procedures. A total of 72 species representing 58 genera belonging to 35 families were recorded from the three study stands at different altitudes. The species richness index of tree and shrub species was highest in Hanuman Camp (mid altitude) while, for herb it was highest in Shegong (lower altitude). The richness index of tree species shows a positive relation while, the shrub and herb species have a negative relation with the altitudinal gradient. Hanuman Camp has highest tree species richness, tree density (individual ha -1) and basal area (m 2 ha –1) with Rhododendron grande as the dominant tree species. Rhododendron kenderickii and Rhododendron sp. (seems to be a new species and nomenclature process is under process) dominates Shegong and Yarlung (Upper altitude) respectively. The α diversity of shrub and herb species was found to be much higher in Shegong compared to the other two study stands. The Shannon-Weiner diversity index of tree and shrub species shows a positive relation with increasing altitude while, herb species have a negative relation with altitude. The Simpson's dominance index for tree was recorded highest in Shegong (0.08) while, it is similar (0.07) in both Hanuman Camp and Yarlung. On the other hand, dominance index of shrub species have negative and the herb species have positive relation with the increasing altitude. The high similarity was found between Shegong and Hanuman Camp. Further, it was found that most of the species exhibits clump or contagious distribution in all study stands. The present study suggested that the variation in species diversity and community structure of the Rhododendron forest in the three study stand is mainly regulated by the altitude which may be due to the difference in microclimate and edaphic factors.
We assessed tree species diversity and regeneration status in the Binsar wildlife sanctuary, Uttarakhand. Six major forest sites were selected for sampling ranging from 1600-2400m asl in north and south aspects. In each forest stand a 100 x 100m plot was laid and trees, saplings and seedlings were recorded following standard ecological methods.The overall tree density ranged from 663 to 1066 individuals ha-1 among the identified forest communities and total basal area from 40.24-71.20 m2 ha-1. Good regeneration was observed in higher altitudinal community.
Elevation plays a critical role in influencing vegetation pattern in Himalayan mountain ecosystems. The present study deals diversity pattern of woody vegetation (tree and shrub layers) along the elevation gradients of a less explored ecozone, i.e. Sainj Wildlife Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh, Western Himalaya, India). The entire vegetation range of the sanctuary (~ 1800 to 4200 m amsl) was divided into five elevation classes, viz. A1 (1800–2200 m), A2 (2201–2600 m), A3 (2601–3000 m), A4 (3001–3400 m) and A5 (> 3400 m) as study sites following stratified random sampling method. A total of 125 tree quadrats (size 400 m2) and 250 shrub quadrats (size 25 m2) were laid in the area in all to collect phytosociological data. A total of 93 woody species including 36 trees and 57 shrubs were recorded from the sampling area. Among five sites, the tree species richness varied from 3 to 23, tree density 7 to 356 ind. ha− 1 and tree basal cover 0.48 to 76.01 m2 ha− 1, whereas, shrub species richness ranged 11–25, shrub density 5.2–10.94 ind./25 m2 and shrub basal cover 19.19–36.40 cm2/25 m2 respectively. The species richness and density of woody species decrease with increase in elevation. This study reports a linear relationship between elevation and woody species richness with richness peak at lowest elevation class (A1, 1800–2200 m). The present study has filled the knowledge gap on the woody vegetation dynamics along the elevation gradients at local scale from the western part of Indian Himalayan Region which may help the forest departments, NGOs, policymakers and botanists in better understanding Himalayan forest dynamics and in designing strategies for conservational efforts especially for the woody species in this part and other similar zones of Western Himalaya.
Forest is a complex system, consisting of distinct forest communities, and status of any forest can be recognized by analysing its vegetation. For vegetation analysis phytosociological analysis is the best approach. The present study was carried out at 8 different sites of Ramgarh region using different phytosociological parameters. The results of this study revealed, on the basis of IVI, that five major vegetation types viz. Pinus roxburghii, Quercus leucotrichophora, mixed broad leaved, Quercus floribunda and Rhododendron arboreum were dominating this region. The distribution of most of the tree species was random and there was no species having good regeneration status at any site of the region. It was also observed that the anthropogenic disturbance is changing the species richness and diversity of the region. Thus, the conservation and management of these sites are important for the sustainability of forests in the region.
The present study has been undertaken along an altitudinal gradient (950-3500m a.s.l.) in Dudu Forest Range of Udhampur Forest Division, Jammu & Kashmir, India to understand the composition, structure and diversity of tree species along an elevation gradient in the area. Ten forest types characterised by different dominant tree species with subtropical and temperate elements of vegetation have been recognised in the area.Overall average values of diversity indices such as Margalef’s Index (MI); Menhinik Index (MeI); Shannon-Weiner Index (H’) and Simpson Index (D) have been observed to be 1.70, 0.85, 1.66 and 0.61, respectively. The study suggested that distribution and species richness are largely regulated by physiographic and climatic factors along the gradient.
The concept of Biosphere Reserves (BRs) is to deal with one of the most important questions of reconciling the conservation of biological diversity and consequently promoting economic and social development and maintenance of associated cultural values. This study focuses on identification of the research strength and gaps in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), Uttarakhand, India with a point of view of global Biosphere Reserve concept (Seville Strategy for 21st century) for how the BR could be reoriented to meets the requirement of a new generation BR. Out of 676 research publications chosen for the compilation, synthesis and review from Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), NDBR showed remarkable contribution (43%) as compared to other six HBRs. Moreover, analysis of 283 research publications on different aspects of biodiversity in NDBR, revealed its strength in terms of biodiversity and scope of research. The review of two decades (1990-2010) available literature showed that NDBR contributes to the needs of society as a whole, by showing a way to a more sustainable future. Outcomes of this study have proven NDBR as a successful candidate among old tradition BRs as it accomplishes major goals set for the new generation BRs (Seville Strategy for 21st century).
Soils within forests not static but rather are dynamic in space and time, and they play key
roles in plant growth and species’ distributions within the forest. The present study examined variations
in soil physicochemical properties in space and time and their impacts on the growth of 3
Rhododendron species in a temperate forest of the eastern Himalayas. Soil samples collected from
different soil depths were analyzed on a seasonal basis for 2 consecutive years from 3 different
study sites along an elevational gradient. To study the impacts of soil properties on growth, 3 Rhododendron
species were selected: R. kendrickii, R. grande, and R. mechukae. The growth of these
3 species was studied through random tagging at each study site. Seasonal growth in height and
collar diameter was recorded at 4-mo intervals for a period of 2 yr. Correlation analyses were conducted
to understand the impacts of soil parameters on rhododendron growth. Soil physicochemical
properties showed significant variations with depth, season, and elevation. The growth in height
of R. kendrickii and R. grande showed positive correlations with pH, while that of R. mechukae
exhibited a negative correlation. On the other hand, pH exhibited positive correlations with growth
in collar diameter for all selected rhododendrons. Moreover, growth in height and collar diameter
of all selected rhododendrons showed negative correlations with the soil moisture content, organic
carbon, and total nitrogen. Available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium exhibited positive
correlations with growth of both height and collar diameter of all selected Rhododendron species.
There was seasonal variability in nutrient availability at different elevations. The soil was more
acidic at higher elevations, and organic matter accumulation affected the availability of various
nutrients required by the plants. Further, the growth of the selected Rhododendron species was affected
by the nutrient availability at different study sites.
The standard textbook of Vegetation Ecology. A reprint (2002) is available from The Blackburn Press, Caldwell, New Jersey.
Data from a hilly forest study site at Batang Ule, Sumatra, are organized into 30 100-m × 10-m subplots lying perpendicular to the line of maximal topographic gradient, from the valley to the plateau/ridge. The following methodological question is addressed: what species diversity measures are best used in order to reveal the ecologically distinct regions in the site. The main tool used to answer this question is the α-diversity curve ( H α ). Graphical examination of tree and species densities, and α-diversity curves identifies an anomalous species diversity behaviour of the ‘ridge above the slope’ subplots which may have implications on land-facet class definitions. Factor analysis of the α-diversity curves indicates that the diversity space is two-dimensional: i.e. two diversity measures are sufficient to characterize the site; the species density ( H 0 ), and the Berger-Parker index ( H ∞ ). In the
two-dimensional diversity-space three distinct species diversity groups are found which relate to the topographic gradient at the Batang Ule site. The results are compared with those for a flat homogeneous site at Pasirmayang, Sumatra. The implications of the results on land-classifications in species-diversity mapping and conservation strategy are discussed.
Biodiversity provides to humankind enormous direct economic benefits, an array of indirect essential services through natural ecosystems, and plays a prominent role in modulating ecosystem function and stability. Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed on the earth, and could comprise 5 to more than 50 million species. The current rates of species extinction are 1000-10,000 times higher than the background rate of 10-7 species/species year inferred from fossil record. Today we seem to be losing two to five species per hour from tropical forests alone. This amounts to a loss of 16 m populations per year or 1800 populations per hour. The anticipated magnitude of species loss has drawn worldwide attention, fueling attempts to rapidly assess and conserve biodiversity. Key processes of speciation, endemism, coexistence, extinction, and differential vulnerability of taxa and habitats are not adequately understood. Accuracy of estimates of the total number of resident species and current rates of extinction remains undetermined, and the impact of species deletions on ecosystem function and stability is still a subject of debate among ecologists. In its own right, the study of biodiversity is assuming the status of an interdisciplinary science with a growing body of concepts, testable hypotheses, exacting methodologies, and internalization of aspects of human sociology.
Aim In eastern Nepal, forests occupy an elevation gradient of 4000 m with bioclimatic zones from near tropical to alpine. Understorey plants and trees were censused to measure species density and identify patterns of ecological change. By sampling in a manner robust against spurious mid‐domain effects, I aim to identify biologically valid controls on species density.
Location The study area consists of land below 4250 m elevation between 27.1 and 27.8° N latitude, 86.5 and 88.0° E longitude on the southern slopes of the Himalaya Range in eastern Nepal. Sampling sites are limited to intact, natural forest with relatively little human impact.
Methods Team members counted species of understorey plants and trees ≥ 10 cm d.b.h. in 0.04 ha plots throughout the study area. In addition, basal area, leafing phenology and species composition were determined for the trees in each plot. Estimates of regional species density were compiled for successive 250 m elevation bands from 250 to 4250 m elevation. Species density trends were identified and compared with the expectations of O'Brien's [ Journal of Biogeography 25 (1998) 379–398] climate‐based water–energy dynamics model.
Results Stand basal area, tree leafing phenology and taxonomic composition (angiosperm vs. gymnosperm) show non‐random change with elevation. Understorey plant and tree species density both have a humped, unimodal trend with more species near the bottom of the gradient and fewest at the top. These trends are consistent with expected effects of the climatically active water and energy variables. After curve‐fitting, significant spatial structure in the residuals suggests that tree communities within the 1750–2250 m elevation range do not realize their climatic potential species richness.
Main conclusions Neither mid‐domain effects nor biologically valid boundary effects like dispersal limitation explain the plant species density trends observed. Trends do fit a model in which species density is controlled by the same ‘active’ climatic variables that predict species richness on continental scales. Patterns of leafing phenology on the elevation gradient provide further support for the hypothesis of environmental control of species density. The productivity–diversity linkage that exists on continental scales may also apply on the smaller scale of a Himalayan elevation gradient. Human activity and possible competitive exclusion by Castanopsis tribuloides are the two best explanations for the observed decline in tree species density at 1750–2250 m elevation. Burning, lopping for fodder and livestock grazing might account for the decline, but this study does not assess the relative importance of these activities. The elevation richest for understorey plant and tree species (500–1500 m) also has the most severe reduction in forest cover. Local farmers deserve credit for sustaining plant biodiversity in forest enclaves, but further loss of forest at these elevations should be discouraged.
Aim Species richness and endemic richness vary along elevation gradients, but not necessarily in the same way. This study tests if the maxima in gamma diversity for flowering plants and the endemic subset of these plants are coherent or not.
Location The study was conducted in Nepal, between 1000 and 5000 m a.s.l.
Methods We used published data on distribution and elevational ranges of the Nepalese flora to interpolate presence between maximum and minimum elevations. Correlation, regression and graphical analyses were used to evaluate the diversity pattern between 1000 and 5000 m a.s.l.
Results The interval of maximum species endemic to Nepal or the Himalayas (3800–4200 m) is above the interval of maximum richness (1500–2500 m). The exact location of maximum species density is uncertain and its accuracy depends on ecologically sound estimates of area in the elevation zones. There is no positive statistically significant correlation between log-area and richness (total or endemic). Total richness is positively correlated with log-area-adjusted, i.e. estimated area adjusted for the degree of topographic heterogeneity. The proportion of endemic species increases steadily from low to high elevations. The peak in endemism (c. 4000 m) corresponds to the start of a rapid decrease in species richness above 4000 m. This may relate to the last glacial maximum (equilibrium line at c. 4000 m) that penetrated down to 2500–3000 m. This dynamic hard boundary may have caused an increase in the extinction rate above 4000 m, and enhanced the probability of isolation and facilitated speciation of neoendemics, especially among genera with a high proportion of polyploids.
Main conclusions The results reject the idea of corresponding maxima in endemic species and species richness in the lowlands tentatively deduced from Stevens’ elevational Rapoport effect. They confirm predictions based on hard boundary theory, but hard-boundaries should be viewed as dynamic rather than static when broad-scale biogeographical patterns with a historical component are being interpreted.
This paper reports on a detailed phytosociological analysis of forests in the NW catchment of the Gola River in Kumaun Himalaya, 2919–2927N and 7932–7942E. Fourteen sites and 56 stands at elevations ranging from 1200 to 2523 m and covering the following five forest types were investigated: Pinus roxburghii, mixed, Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. lanuginosa, and Q. floribunda. The basal cover of the forests differed according to slope position and aspect. The three oak forests had more basal cover than the other two, and Q. lanuginosa had the most. The performance of individual tree and shrub species and the number of saplings and seedlings differed according to slope position and aspect. The mixed forest had the greatest tree diversity, and among the others diversity increased with increasing basal cover. The diversity of trees, saplings, and herb layer was greatest on aspects with intermediate temperature and moisture conditions; whereas that of shrubs and seedlings increased towards the cooler (and wetter) and warmer (and drier) exposures. There was a positive relation between the diversity of shrubs plus seedlings and trees plus saplings in P. roxburghii and mixed forests; whereas this relationship was inverse in the three oak forests. In general, the dominance-diversity curves for the tree layer followed a geometric series conforming to the niche pre-emption situation in communities of low diversity. Among the forests, the regeneration was best in Q. lanuginosa and worst in Q. leucotrichophora.
The present study was conducted around the Almora town involving 12 forest sites on south, north and west slopes along an
altitudinal gradient of 1600–2000 m.Pinus roxburghii Sarg. was the dominant species at lower altitude andQuercus leucotrichophora A. Camus. at higher altitude. Except for the dominant species, most of the species are contagiously distributed. Data of
community coefficients indicate that the forests of lower elevations are most dissimilar compared to those at higher elevation.
However, the community of same elevations are most similar to each other. Regeneration status was good in the experimental
forest sites. However, regeneration ofQuercus leucotrichophora was better on the north and west aspects and ofPinus roxburghii on south aspect.
This review deals with the forest vegetation of the Himalaya with emphasis on: paleoecological, phytogeographical, and phytosociological
aspects of vegetation; structural and functional features of forest ecosystem; and relationship between man and forests.
The Himalayan mountains are the youngest, and among the most unstable. The rainfall pattern is determined by the summer monsoon
which deposits a considerable amount of rain (often above 2500 mm annually) on the outer ranges. The amount of annual rainfall
decreases from east to west, but the contribution of the winter season to the total precipitation increases. Mountains of
these dimensions separate the monsoon climate of south Asia from the cold and dry climate of central Asia. In general, a rise
of 270 m in elevation corresponds to a fall of 1°C in the mean annual temperature up to 1500 m, above which the fall is relatively
rapid.
Large scale surface removals and cyclic climatic changes influenced the course of vegetational changes through geological
time. The Himalayan ranges, which started developing in the beginning of the Cenozoic, earlier supported tropical wet evergreen
forests throughout the entire area (presently confined to the eastern part). The Miocene orogeny caused drastic changes in
the vegetation, so much so that the existing flora was almost entirely replaced by the modern flora. Almost all the dominant
forest species of the Pleistocene continue to maintain their dominant status to the present. Presently the Himalayan ranges
encompass Austro-Polynesian, Malayo-Burman, Sino-Tibetan, Euro-Mediterranean, and African elements. While the Euro-Mediterranean
affinities are well represented in the western Himalayan region (west of 77°E long.), the Chinese and Malesian affinities
are evident in the eastern region (east of 84°E long.). However, the proportion of endemic taxa is substantial in the entire
region.
A representation of formation types in relation to climatic factors, viz., rainfall and temperature, indicates that boundaries
between the types are not sharp. Formation types often integrate continuously, showing broad overlaps. Climate does not entirely
determine the formation type, and the influence of soil, fire, etc., is also substantial. The ombrophilous broad leaf forests
located in the submontane belt (< 1000 m) of the eastern region are comparable to the typical tropical rain forests. On the
other extreme, communities above 3000 m elevation are similar to sub-alpine and alpine types. From favorable to less favorable
environments, as observed with decreasing moisture from east to west, or with decreasing temperature from low to high elevations,
the forests become increasingly open, shortstatured and simpler, with little vertical stratification. Ordination of forest
stands distributed within 300–2500 m elevations of the central Himalaya, by and large indicates a continuity of communities,
with scattered centers of species importance values in the ordination field. Within the above elevational transect, sal (Shorea robusta) and oak (Quercus spp.) forests may be designated as the climax communities, respectively, of warmer and cooler climates. The flora of a part
of the central Himalayan region is categorized as therohemigeophytic and that of a part of the western Himalayan region as
geochamaephytic.
An analysis of population structure over large areas in the central Himalaya, based on density-diameter distribution of trees,
suggests that oldgrowth forests are being replaced by even-aged successional forests, dominated by a few species, such asPinus roxburghii. Paucity of seedlings of climax species, namelyShorea robusta andQuercus spp. over large areas is evident.
The Himalayan catchments are subsurface-flow systems and, therefore, are particularly susceptible to landslips and landslides.
Loss of water and soil in terms of overflow is insignificant.
Studies on recovery processes of forest ecosystems damaged due to shifting cultivation or landslides indicate that the ecosystems
can recover quite rapidly, at least in elevations below 2500 m. For example, on a damaged forest site, seedlings of climax
species (Quercus leucotrichophora) appeared only 21 years after the landslide.
In the central Himalaya, the biomass of a majority of forests (163-787 t ha−1) falls within the range (200-600 t ha−1) given for many mature forests of the world, and the net primary productivity (found in the range of 11.0–27.4 t ha−1 yr−1) is comparable with the range of 20–30 t ha−1 yr−1 given for highly productive communities of favorable environments. In most of the forests of this region, the litter fall
values (2.1-3.8 t C ha−1 yr−1) are higher than the mean reported for warm temperate forests (2.7 t C ha−1 yr−1). Of the total litter, the tree leaves account for 54–82% in the Himalayan forests.
The rate of decomposition of leaves in some broadleaf species of submontane belt (0.253-0.274% day−1) are comparable with those reported for some tropical rain forest species. Because of the paucity of microorganisms and microarthropods
in the forest litter and soil, high initial C:N ratio and high initial lignin content in leaves, the rate of leaf litter decomposition
inPinus roxburghii is markedly slower than in other species of the central Himalaya. The fungal species composition of the leaf litterof Pinus roxburghii is also distinct from those of other species.
A greater proportion of nutrients is accumulated in the biomass component of the Himalayan forests than in the temperate forests.
Although litter fall is the major route through which nutrients return from biomass to the soil pool, a substantial proportion
of the total return is in the form of throughfall and stemflow. Among the dominant species of the central Himalaya, retranslocation
of nutrients from the senescing leaves was markedly greater inPinus roxburghii than inQuercus spp. andShorea robusta. Consequently, the C:N ratio of leaf litter is markedly higher inPinus roxburghii than in the other species. Immobilization of nutrients by the decomposers of the litter with high C:N ratio is one of the
principal strategies through whichPinus roxburghii invades other forests and holds the site against possible reinvasion by oaks.
Observations on the seasonality of various ecosystem functions suggest that Himalayan ecosystems are geared to take maximum
advantages of the monsoon period (rainy season).
Most of the human population depends on shifting-agriculture in the eastern region and on settled agriculture in the central
and western regions. Either of these is essentially a forest-dependent cultivation. Each unit of agronomic energy produced
in the settled agriculture entails about seven units of energy from forests. Consequently, forests with reasonable crown cover
account for insignificant percentage of the land. Tea plantations and felling of trees for timber, paper pulp, etc., are some
of the major commercial activities which adversely affected the Himalayan forests.
Cette revue concerne la végétation forestière de l’Himalaya. Elle précise l’information concernant la paléoécologie, la phytogéographie,
la phytosociologie, le structure et le fonctionnement des écosystèmes et le rapport entre l’homme et la forêt.
Les montagnes de l’Himalaya sont les plus jeunes et parmi les plus instables. La pluviométrie dépend surtout de la mousson
d’été et les chaînes extérieures sont bien arrosées (>2500 mm par an). Les précipitations annuelles décroissent de l’Est vers
l’Ouest tandis que la composante hivernale augmente. Ces montagnes séparent les climats de mousson de l’Asie du Sud des climats
froids et secs de l’Asie Centrale.
L’érosion du sol sur une grand étendue et des changemenets cycliques du climat ont déterminé des changements dans le couvert
végétal tout au long des temps géologiques. Les chaînes Himalayennes qui ont commencés leur soulèvement au commencement du
coenozoïque étaient entièrement couvertes d’une forêt ombrophile tropicale. (Ce type se trouve encore de nos jours dans la
partie orientale de l’Himalaya.) L’orogénie miocène provoqua de tels changements dans la végétation que la flore de cette
époque a été entièrement remplacée par la flore moderne. Les espèces forestières dominantes du pleistocène gardent leur importance
dans les forêts actuelles.
Des éléments floraux Austro-Polynésiens, Malais-Birmans, Sino-Tibetains, Euro-Méditerranéens et Africains sont actuellement
présents sur les montagnes himalayennes. Tandis que les affinités Euro-Mediterranéennes sont bien représentées dans l’Himalaya
occidental (à l’Ouest du 77° Est), les affinités Chinoises et Malaises sont évidentes dans la partie orientale (à l’Est de
84°E). Cependant la proportion des éléments endémiques est importante dans toute la région.
La relation entre les types de formations et les facteurs climatiques (pluviosité, température) indique que les limites entre
les types sont approximatives. D’ailleurs, le climat lui même ne détermine pas exclusivement les types et les effets du sol,
du feu, etc., peuvent être importantes. Les forêts feuillues ombrophiles localisées dans l’étage sous-montagnard (< 1000 m)
de la région orientale sont comparables aux forêts ombrophiles tropicales typiques. A l’opposé les communautés qui se trouvent
au-dessus de 3000 m d’altitude sont comparables aux types subalpins et alpins. En allant des conditions favorables vers le
moins favorables soit par exemple d’Est en Ouest le long de l’axe de diminution des précipitations soit en suivant les gradient
altitudinal de baisse des températures les forêts deviennent de plus en plus ouvertes, basses et structurellement simples
avec peu de stratification verticale. L’ordination des peuplements forestières situés entre 300–2500 m dans l’Himalaya central
indique une continuité des communautés avec des centres de valeurs d’importance des espèces dispersés dans le champ d’ordination.
Dans ce transect altitudinal, les forêts à sal (Shorea robusta) et à chêne (Quercus spp.) peuvent être désignés comme des communautés climax pour les climats chaud et froid respectivement.
Le spectre biologique basé sur les formes biologiques de Raunkiaer est du type Théro-Hémi-Géophytique dans l’Himalaya central
tandis que celui de l’Himalaya occidental est du type Géo-Chamaephytique.
L’analyse de la structure du peuplement couvrant une superficie assez importante dans l’Himalaya central basé sur la répartition
des arbres par densité-diamètre suggère que les anciennes forêts sont en train d’être remplacées par des forêts équiennes
de succession, dominées par un petit nombre d’espèces, tel quePinus roxburghii. La mauvaise régénération des espèces climax, à savoir le sal (Shorea robusta) et le chêne (Quercus) sur une aire assez vaste est un fait bien établi.
Les bassins versants de l’Himalaya sont du type à l’écoulement hypodermique et sont donc sensibles aux glissements de terrain.
La perte d’eau et de sol en terme d’épanchement est peu important.
L’étude de la reconstitution des écosystèmes forestiers dégradés par les cultures itinérantes ou par les glissements de terrain
montre que les écosystèmes endommagés peuvent se reconstituer assez rapidement au moins en dessous de 2500 m.
Par exemple, sur un site forestière dégradée, les plantules de l’espèce climax (Quercus leucotrichophora) sont réapparues seulement 21 ans après le glissement du terrain.
Dans l’Himalaya central, la biomasse de la majorité des forêts (163783 t ha−1) tombe dans la classe de la plupart des forêts du monde (200600 t ha−1) et la productivité nette primaire (11.0-27.4 t ha−1 an−1) est comparable à celle des meilleures forêts (20-30 t ha−1 an−1) soumises à des conditions favorables. Les valeurs de la chute de litière des forêts de cette région (2.1-3.8 t C ha−1 an−1) sont plus élevées que la moyenne de celles des forêts tempérées chaudes (2.7 t C ha−1 an−1). La contribution des feuilles d’arbre à la litière totale est entre 54 et 82 pourcent dans les forêts Himalayennes.
Le taux de décomposition des feuilles chez certains feuillus de l’étage sous-montagnard (0.253–0.274% par jour) est comparable
à celui de certaines espèces de la forêt ombrophile. C’est à cause d’une pauvreté de la litière forestière et du sol en microorganismes
et des microarthropodes, du rapport initial élevé C:N et du pourcentage initial élevé en lignine des feuilles, que le taux
de décomposition des aiguilles dePinus roxburghii est significativement plus lent que chez les autres espèces de l’Himalaya central. D’ailleurs la composition de la flore
fongique de la litière des aiguilles dePinus roxburghii est bien différente de celles des autres espèces.
Une plus grande proportion d’éléments biogéochimiques est accumulée dans la composante biomasse des forêts Himalayennes par
rapport aux forêts tempérés.
Bien que la chute du litière constitue la voie principale par laquelle les éléments de la biomass retournent au sol, une fraction
assez importante est restituée sous formes de pluviolessivats et d’écoulements sur le tronc.
Parmi les espèces dominantes d l’Himalaya central, la redistribution des éléments des feuilles senescentes est plus important
chezPinus roxburghii que chezShorea ouQuercus. Par conséquent, le rapport C:N de la litière de feuille est plus élevé chez le pin que chez les autres espèces. L’immobilisation
des éléments par les décomposeurs de la litière à rapport C:N élevé est une des stratégies principales par laquellePinus roxburghii envahit les autres forêts et évite la reconquête par les autres espèces.
L’étude saisonnière des divers fonctionnements de l’écosystème met en évidence des liens étroits avec la régime des pluies
de mousson.
La majorité de la population humaine pratique la culture itinérante dans la région orientale et l’agriculture sédentaire dans
les parties central et occidentale. Ces deux types d’agriculture sont très liés à la forêt. Chaque unité d’énergie agronomique
produite en agriculture sédentaire demande sept unités d’énergie des forêts. Par conséquent, les forêts peu ouvertes à canopées
assez fermées n’occupent plus qu’un pourcentage négligeable de ces régions. Les plantations de thé et l’exploitation forestière
(bois d’oeuvre, pâte à papier, etc.) sont parmi les activités qui ont contribué à dégrader les forêts de l’Himalaya.
Altitudinal forest and climate changes from warm, dry valley bottom (1250m a.s.l.) to cool, humid ridge top (3550m a.s.l.) along the typical dry valley slopes of the Bhutan Himalaya were studied. Annual mean temperature decreased upslope with a lapse rate of 0.62°C·100m−1 from 18.2°C at the valley bottom to 4.3°C at the ridge top. On the contrary volumetric soil moisture content increased from 14.7 to 75.0%. This inverse relationship is the major determinant factor for the distribution of different forest types along the altitudinal gradient. Based on the quantitative vegetation data from 15 plots arranged ca. 200m in altitude interval (1520–3370m a.s.l.), a total of 83 tree species belonging to 35 families were recorded. Three major formation types of lower and upper coniferous forests, and a mid-altitude evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forest were contrasted. Including two transitional types, five forest zones were categorized based on cluster analysis, and each zone can be characterized by the dominants and their phytogeographical traits, viz. (1) west Himalayan warm, dry pine (1520–1760m a.s.l.), (2) wide ranging east-west Himalayan mixed broad-leaved (1860–2540m a.s.l.), (3) humid east Himalayan evergreen broad-leaved (2640–2820m a.s.l.), (4) cool, humid east Himalayan conifer (2950–3210m a.s.l.), and (5) wide ranging cold, humid conifer (3305–3370m a.s.l.). Structurally, total basal area (biomass) increased from 15.2m2ha−1 in the pine forest (1520m) to 101.7m2ha−1, in the conifer forest (3370m a.s.l.). Similarly, soil organic carbon increased from 2.7 to 11.3% and nitrogen from 0.2 to 1.9% indicating dry, poor nutrient fragile ecosystem at the dry valley bottom. We concluded that low soil moisture content (<20%) limits downslope extension of broad-leaved species below 1650m a.s.l. while coldest month’s mean temperature of −1°C restricted the upslope extension of evergreen broad-leaved species above 3000m a.s.l. Along the dry valley slopes, the transition from dry pine forest in the valley bottom, to a mixture of dry west Himalayan evergreen and deciduous east Himalayan broad-leaved, and to humid evergreen oak–laurel forests feature a unique pattern of forest type distribution.
Forest inventory data were collected in 1998-2000 from fifteen I ha permanent plots along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India. A total of 4033 stems, 49 species, 44 genera and 24 families of adult trees (greater than or equal to30 cm CBH), occurred in the 15 ha of forest area. The study indicated that the dry tropical forest is characterised by a patchy distribution of species and individuals with mixed species composition, and the sites are represented by different combinations of the dominants and co-dominant species. A PCA ordination indicated that the variation in species composition of the sites is explained by the variation in soil nitrogen as well as the degree of disturbance. About half the analysed species showed changing nature in dispersion along the disturbance gradient. The distribution of Boswellia serrata, Holarrhena antidysenterica and Lannea coromandelica changed from clumped to uniform and the distribution of Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula and Elaeodendron glaucum changed from uniform to clumped as the degree of disturbance increased. The mean stem density was highest (419 stems ha(-1)) at the least disturbed site and lowest (35 stems ha(-1)) at the highly disturbed site, and for basal area, the highest value (13.78 m(2) ha(-1)) was for the second least disturbed forest site and the lowest value (1.30 m(2) ha(-1)) was for the most disturbed site. The total number of stems, indices of species richness, evenness and a-diversity decreased with disturbance. A strong influence of number of species per individual on P-diversity suggests that for resisting change in floristics due to disturbance, a site must have low species-individual ratio. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A total of 200 variable-area plots covering 20 3 ha containing 4000 trees with a basal area of 921 4 m2 were assessed over a combined elevational range of 410-2180 m in the moist forests of three Tanzanian Eastern Arc mountains: West Usambara, Nguru and Udzungwa. Plot data were ordinated on the basis of species presence/absence, frequency and basal area Axis 1 of ordinations based on species presence/absence are correlated with elevation Axis 1 of the frequency-weighted ordination was correlated with elevation in the Nguru and Udzungwa mountains, but plots from the West Usambara showed a rainfall-related discontinuity Axis 1 of the West Usambara basal area-weighted ordination showed evidence of long-term dynamics of Ocotea usambarensis and in the Udzungwa mountains was determined by presence of Parinari excelsa Plot diversity was not correlated with elevation or latitude, but was lower in disturbed, low rainfall or more seasonal forest. Stem density was positively correlated with elevation and was greater on ridge tops than valley sides and valley bottoms
A system of dimension analysis of woody plants, applied to stand data for the Brookhaven forest, Long Island, permits its characterization. The forest is a woodland of small oaks and pine with an open canopy, of 88% tree coverage and a leaf area ratio of 3.4, admitting sufficient light (13% of incident sunlight) to support a well-developed stratum of low, vacciniaceous shrubs (78% coverage). Net annual production of the community is 856 g/m2 above ground, about 1195 g/m2 above and below ground, hence in the range of other small tree forests of moderately limiting environments; biomass is low, being 6560 g/m2 above ground and 10190 g/m2 above and below ground. Efficiency of net production (relative to incident sunlight energy in the visible spectrum) is 0.91; efficiency of gross production is about 2.22%. The forest is distinctive in its low biomass accumulation ratio (7.7) and massive oak roots, older than the shoots they now bear. Both characteristics are aspects of fire adaptation: the dominant oaks resprout from root systems that survive fires, and the low biomass accumulation ratio reflects the youth (about 45 years) of the present community in the cycle of fire and regrowth.
Tree-species diversity was measured in 61 Oklahoma upland forest stands. Most stands were dominated by Quercus stellata and Quercus marilandica, but the stands with the greatest diversity were those dominated by other species. There was an inverse relation of dominance concentration (Simpson and McNaughton indexes) to species diversity and the Shannon-Wiener index. The Shannon-Wiener index was positively related to stand basal area and inversely related to stand density. Diversity decreased and concentration of dominance increased along the precipitation gradient from seat to west. Species diversity of Oklahoma forests is generally low to medium compared to southern Appalachian forests.
Patterns in litter fall and litter decomposition were studied along an altitudinal gradient in the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary of central Himalaya. The study area was stratified into three broad altitudinal zones: lower (1600–1900 m), mid (1900–2100 m), and higher (2100–2400 m), based on the occurrence of major forest types (e.g. chir pine, chir oak and oak). Three plots of 100 × 100 m were selected in each altitudinal zone and the amount of litter was measured by placing five litter traps of 1 × 1 m randomly on the forest floor at each site. Litter decomposition was studied using the nylon bags technique. The results reveal that production of litter decreases with elevation in the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary. At lower elevations, the litter is primarily composed of chir pine needles and woody litter, and is highest in June and lowest in January. There was a similar trend in litter production at mid elevations, whereas at higher elevations, the maximum litter fall was recorded in May. There are variations in decomposition rates, and the most rapid dry weight loss begins with the onset of the rainy season and continues into the post-monsoon period up to November. The rate of decomposition in the study area is lower than in other central Himalayan forests due to the location, which forms a transition zone between temperate and sub-tropical forest.
The various indigenous uses and structure of chir pine forests were studied in Uttaranchal state of the Indian Republic. A questionnaire survey was conducted in 50 villages of Uttaranchal to gather information on the indigenous uses of chir pine. For the study of community composition and structure of chir pine forest, at least 15 quadrats of 10 x 10 m were selected randomly across various localities, and the number of individuals, along with other dominant tree and shrub species, were enumerated in each quadrat. About 10 indigenous uses of chir pine were prominent in Uttaranchal. Besides resin, an important non-wood product, different parts of chir pine, such as cones, trunk, stems, wood, leaves and bark, were used by the local people. Chir pine is a subject of the folklore and mythology of indigenous cultures in Uttaranchal. Chir pine forest formed three major communities in Uttaranchal viz., sal-pine (Shorea robusta-Pinus roxburghii), pine pure stands and oak-pine (Quercus leucho-trichophora-Pinus roxburghii). These communities sustained various multiple-use trees and shrubs along with various edible mushrooms (eg. Agaricus campestris, Morchella esculenta and Sparassis crispa). The results of this study are discussed in the light of chir pine conservation and management policies.
Numerical relations of species express the importance of competition in community function and evolution.
We studied the vegetation distribution in eight landscape types distinguished along an altitudinal gradient in the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India. The point-intercept method was used for vegetation sampling. Six plant communities were distinguished by cluster analysis. Of these 6 communities, three communities were dominated by shrub species. Table lands are the landscape type with the highest species diversity followed by undulating areas and river beds. Most plant species were restricted to one landscape type.
Eighteen plant associations characteristic of the Northern Guinea savanna in N. Nigeria are described from Zaria Province.
The dominance of the species in each association is assessed on the Domin scale.
The inter-relationships between the associations are discussed with reference to the geomorphological features of the area and the availability of water. There is a clear distinction between the northern and southern parts of the area and the possibility of defining an upper and lower Northern Guinea zone is considered.
Eight forest types varying in disturbance frequencies were identified along an elevational gradient in Uttaranchal, central Himalaya. Low elevation forests were close to human habitation and had high disturbance frequency, while high elevation forests were situated far from the human habitation and had low disturbance. The dominant tree species at low elevation were Pinus roxburghii and Quercus leucotrichophora, while Q. floribunda and Q. semecarpifolia dominated the high elevation forests. Pyracantha crenulata was the shrub present in all the forests except in Q. semecarpifolia forest and Anaphalis contorta, a herb species, was present in all the forests. Disturbance decreased the dominance of single species and increased the plant biodiversity by mixing species of different successional status. Species richness and diversity for all the vegetation layers were higher in low elevation–high disturbance forests. Mean tree density decreased from high to moderate and increased in low disturbance. The shrub density decreased from high to low disturbance while the reverse occured for herbs. High proportion of early successional species in disturbed forests indicated that disturbance induces succession. The mean number of young individuals increasing from high to low disturbance indicates that disturbance adversely affects regeneration. But, however, the high number of young individuals of Coriaria nepalensis, a small non-leguminous nitrogen fixing tree, in disturbed forests shows that the forest is regenerating. This species could be helpful in the re-establishment of original vegetation through triggering the regeneration of these forests. High elevation–low disturbed forests separated from low elevation–high disturbed forests. Forest type and elevation may have more influence on tree richness while shrub and herb richness may be more sensitive to disturbance and forest types.
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Quantitative metrics of horizontal and vertical structural attributes in eastside old-growth ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa P. and C. Lawson var. ponderosa) forests were measured to guide the design of restoration prescriptions. The age, size structure, and the spatial patterns were investigated in old-growth ponderosa pine forests at three protected study areas east of the crest of the Cascade Range: Metolius Research Natural Area and Pringle Butte Research Natural Area in central Oregon and Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest in northern California. The three study areas represented sites characterized by deep accumulations of pumice from Cascade volcanism. All stems ≥15 cm in height (minimum height of an established seedling) were mapped and measured on a total of 27 1-ha plots. The distribution of trees within each individual plot was investigated by second-order spatial analysis with Ripley’s K(d) function, and then evaluated across each study area with functional data analysis. Coarse woody debris was sampled by using the strip-plot method to determine log density, mean log size, volume, and cover. The oldest trees were 618 years at Metolius, 613 years at Pringle Butte, and 330 years at Blacks Mountain. Stands were multi-aged, with as many as 16 cohorts at Metolius and 22 cohorts at Pringle Butte. Density of live old-growth ponderosa pine in the upper canopy ranged from 34 to 94 trees ha−1 at Metolius, 35 to 79 trees ha−1 at Pringle Butte, and 15 to 73 trees ha−1 at Blacks Mountain; the differences between study areas were not significant, resulting in an overall mean density of 50 ± 3.5 live old-growth trees ha−1. Mean diameters of these old-growth trees did not differ among the three study areas; the overall mean was 60.0 ± 1.55 cm dbh. Large dead ponderosa pines (overall mean diameter 61.7 ± 4.33 cm) were a common feature at all three study areas; the overall mean density was 9.0 ± 0.97 trees ha−1. Ripley’s K(d) analysis of spatial point patterns using upper canopy trees revealed significant departure from randomness in 24 of the 27 plots. Functional data analysis of the spatial relationship of all sample plots by study area revealed two strong patterns. At scales of 1.2 ≤ d ≤ 2.6 m at Metolius and 1.6 ≤ d ≤ 8.4 m at Blacks Mountain, the deviation from random was not significant, suggesting the distribution of old-growth trees was random. More important, significant positive deviation from complete spatial randomness at larger scales at Metolius and Blacks Mountain suggested a clumped distribution. Maximum radii of the clumps were about 22.5 m in diameter at Metolius and about 24 m in diameter at Blacks Mountain. In contrast, old-growth trees at Pringle Butte were randomly distributed. Density of logs at Metolius and Pringle Butte was 47.0 ± 5.28 logs ha−1, their mean large-end diameter was 37.6 ± 2.41 cm, the mean length of each log was 4.2 ± 0.09 m, the cumulative length of all logs averaged 512.9 ± 78.12 m, the total volume averaged 62.3 ± 6.30 m3 ha−1, and the cover averaged 1.7 ± 0.08%. A majority of the logs were in an advanced stage of decomposition, suggesting that they were in place for considerable time. These results are discussed in the context of reference conditions for restoration of ecosystem health and ecological integrity in eastside ponderosa pine forests.
Most plant communities consist of several or many species which compete for light, water, and nutrients. Species in a given community may be ranked by their relative success in competition; productivity seems to be the best measure of their success or importance in the community. Curves of decreasing productivity connect the few most important species (the dominants) with a larger number of species of intermediate importance (whose number primarily determines the community's diversity or richness in species) and a smaller number of rare species. These curves are of varied forms and are believed to express different patterns of competition and niche differentiation in communities. It is probably true of plants, as of animals, that no two species in a stable community occupy the same niche. Evolution of niche differentiation makes possible the occurrence together of many plant species which are partial, rather than direct, competitors. Species tend to evolve also toward habitat differentiation, toward scattering of their centers of maximum population density in relation to environmental gradients, so that few species are competing with one another in their population centers. Evolution of both niche and habitat differentiation permits many species to exist together in communities as partial competitors, with distributions broadly and continuously overlapping, forming the landscape's many intergrading communities.
Producc tion and Diversity of an Oak–Pine Forest at Brook Haven
- R H Whittaker
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The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities, Madison, WI: Univ. of Wisconsin Press The Interrelations of Cerr tain Analytic and Synthetic Phytosociological Characters
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A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India
- H G Champion
- S K Seth
Climatic Conditions and Flowering Season in Outer Himalayas at
- R K Gupta
- R.K. Gupta
Biomass Structure and Primary Productivity of Oak-Pine Forest of Kumaun Himalaya
- B S Majila
- Phytosociology
Phytosociology and a Productivity of Siahi Devi Forest of West Almora Division
- S K Singh
A Study on the Phytosociology and State of Regeneration of Oak Forest at Nainital
- N Uprety
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Regeneration of Oak Forest at Nainital, Ph.D.Thesis, Nain
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Analysis of Forest Vegetation at Siahi Devi Hills of West Almora Division in Kumaun Himalaya
- B S Rana
- K R Verma
- N Pandey
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in Kumaun Himalaya, Ind. Forester, 1985, vol. 111, no. 9,
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The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities
- J T Curtis
- J.T. Curtis
Studies on Biomass, Phytosociology and a Productivity of Siahi Devi Forest of West Almora Division, Kumaun Himalaya
- S K Singh
Singh, S.K., Studies on Biomass, Phytosociology and a
Productivity of Siahi Devi Forest of West Almora Division,
Kumaun Himalaya, PhD. Thesis, Nainital, India: Kumaun
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An Integrated Ecological Study of Eastern Himalaya with Emphasis on Natural Resources
- J S Singh
- S P Singh
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of Eastern Himalaya with Emphasis on Natural Resources:
Project Report, Nainital, India: Kumaun University Press,
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