The History and Geography of Human Gene

Full text

The History and Geography of
Human Genes
ABRIDGED PAPER.BACK EDITION
L. LUCA CAVALLI-SFORZA
PAOLO _IENOZZI
ALBERTO PIAZZA
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
PRINCETON, NEW /ERSEY
DOI 02173

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T.Haman pcpu!a:iongene:ics----His:oD.2.Human _,o'_u_ic,n
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Tie :_'_er.:_us,,"ranon:sa map cf:_:*'or'.4 shov,i_g four major e'._nio
r_ncns. Afnc_r,s ar_._e _o_.,A_s.'raiiansre& and CaucasiansT'een.
_'4on_c)o_d_sho_.:hegr_a_e_;",an_:ior,r_t_mmgsomesimilarises _i;h
Europe.ansonone sideitligh: bro_._,_ee_ish tinge inm_dleSi_,_-na'_
wi_.hA_sn'aiianson th_ other Capinkish Colorinpar..sof America andon the
Wlly10I:). "r_c ext.-_:si\.¢_-"adifn_sdL._to adiT1ixr'azcsbeI'_vee_A_ncans_nd
CaucasoidsinNoah Africa. an_ b_,"*ecnCa_casci_.sandMongoloids m
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DOI02]74

50 -50
bu_iea:n E.:rcx cf :_e fr':q._'z::i,
le'c_of ._ F-508 ¢_s:',: fi_ros _ -r...-
'tar& ,_:at;_e',0 olhe."_ulao:s _,.'.
_-_Z/_/' Earc_2_ cc_sc,-,:um,cx ::.s: c
;"fibrcss: rrod':ed frcm De,::¢
a::c :he.fore ""_ ammo ac d_ _s vet .... _.u.,,t, reaching .Many of the po!ymo_hisms ....... reBLs::.':,ce
a'::r::x:mat_'.x.... 70Q of ai'. kno',_n mutants dete,,-n..L':.Jncmalar:a and other diseases may be -_.<'_..... °:':young
,;'_ _;s_ _ "t_ distribution iv. Eurcoe is shcv.n in fiE'Jre _ut the £reat maiont', of sob mo_'ic a:'e '_'_, tea'. ',;.e
"_ 14.:0 The frequen,:v at bi_h of rh-disease itself_s ha_e studied insec:icns 2.10 and _ 1_, _-e fczr, d
less '_,ei',kzo'_n, but is fount, on the a_era_,' in 1 of near!'. -;' continents and .herefore ."r.us: ha,e a."te_:::ec
20C'0 ct"a_: bills inE_rope It va:':es _- ' '' .,.,,e,,,.na< from :hespread of am.h. Oniv a fe_ are knc'_,n a: :::e
count--:to countr:, _ut the frequenc? era genetic disease DNA]e'.el, and it is impossib:e to sav. v..,_,o.'........... _.."'_--._,
is ::ct ai,,.a,,s, easy to estimate a,._ura,e:;....... ent mutations are hidden behind the sameaEe:e. "Dee
"V'e_' "-con" data indicate that the relativefrequencv of lO0 RFLPs studied in sectJcn " ' hole',or,are li],.e:',"
:he common allelefcr c'.s:ic fibrosis (', F-508) is espe- to have had a uniquemutational origin, ar._ the!_,:ea:
cial!',' high in a re!art;el':small sampleof Basques (see major.ty of them are found in all continents excea:
fi__2.1,.;.10,. The=__,'oo_"h_c_._.,.,.spread of the frequent allele the Americas v, hich ha,,e not yet been stadied for
is c,uive similar to the fimt synthetic map for Europe and these polymorphisms). T'here arereasons tc think :ha:
therefcx:o Ihat of the Mesolithic (pro-Neolithic) Euro- most human polymorphisms are much older than the
pean gone pool. The conclusion would be that the mos:date of spread from Africa. Theoreficall,,. in theab-
con:tmon cystic fibrosis al]elein Europeis older than the senceof selection,the average age of poi',mo_hisms
spread of agricuJture and must have been especially fre- is comparable to that of the species. An estimateof the
quent among Mesoli_ics. while most other alleles come average timeof appearance of the mutant allele of eiaI-
from the MiddleEastor originated in Europe after the tetic human RFLPs is 700,000 years (Mountain et al
Neolithicdiffusion, unpuhl.).
2.15.ABRIEF SUMMARY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
The analysis of phylogenetic trees has used many interpretation rests on the assumption that evoluticrlau
different sets of data: nuclear polymorphisms tested by rates are reasonably constant. Some further comfort is
electrophoresis or immunological techniques, restriction derived from the consideration that the rates involved
fragment polymorphisms ofnuclear genes, and mite- in the evolution ofpolymorphisms of nuclear genes and
chondrial DNA. All methods show a somewhat greater those of mtDNA are different; the first are determined
difference between Africans and non-Africans than be- mostly by differences in gene frequencies separating t'.*,o
tween other human groups, and offer some informatiorpopu]ations, and the second by numbers of mutations
on dates supporting the interpretation that the origin of separating two individuals. The dates to which they lead
modem humans was in Africa,from which an expan- for the bifurcation of Africans and non-Africans ax
sion to the rest of the world started about 100 kya. The different, being of the order of 100 kya and 200 kya
DOI 02175

GE",ET;C H[$'7OR'_ 3F ",*,ORLD POP'..La,'7;©x5 i_$
-espe::ti'.el? Oi:en !he ,*.<.s :n v.hich these de:as were currer,:t',' a blank from an archaeological point of _ie'..,,
_btair:ed. :h{s d_f.'erenae should be expected, v,.!th the "A,ehope C_a'.no,a, d_sco',,e,",es wiF, ii'.um_na:e :t A: the
_econdbeing greater :hart the first by a." amour:: that has moment, the in,: cations are tha_at the end of the b!a..C<
_,otbeen de,e..-"miv,ec.bur perhaps might be es::mated on pe:'iod mode:T,h-mm_s emerge" with a ne'_ stone tech-
me basisoftheore: ca[ conside_dons. AZina'..the_is nologF and stm._eda radiat:on that took them to Eu-
_asic agreement be:'._een :he trees ob¢ained with mtDNA rope,Australia and New Guinea. and Ame,.':.ca. %,'he'J_er
:rod w:th nuclear,marker¢, the latter gi',ing ,'T.u:h mot_ the', partiall':mixed with or totail) supplanted e_iier
entail.It is '*c.v:h reme.,mber.ng mat zav:':g :-e mito- inhabitants--for example, Neande."thals in Eurepe and
.:'hondnaI ancestor "E_e" has gene,'a:ed the false be>el a_haic H sapiens in East Asia--is difdcuIt to sta'e pro.
that there ',,,as a time ',a,hen :here >,as on!> one woman cise!y onthe basis of present knowledge.
alive. Linguistic andcultural diversity increased consT,[¢u-
On the question ef .:!ace oforigin, the archaeoIogicaI ously after that time. and the major linguistic fa-":'.dlies
fieldisdivided. Anumberofp£eoan'.t_"opologistsbe!ieve probably began less than 50 kva. Most of them are be-
:hat modem _umans originated in Africa. from '.,,hich they tween 25 and 5k>' old. Genetic dating of ling,aistic faro,i-
spread to the rest of the world beginning about lO0 k?a. ties can only be approximate, but it agrees with ideas _'x-
-UP.isis in agreement v.ith the geneticdata.A faiKy largepressed by a few linguists. Moreover. the archaeologica.
number of anti",ropoiog!sts rese_'e their opinion. Another recordshows increasing diversification, probably pa.-alle[
group belie'.es :hat t_e e,clution of Homo sa;,'eas, and v,ith tha¢ of Ianguage.
perhaps eve:: its predecessorH,erec,'asproceeded in par- An unsoi'.ed problem is determining the routeby'
allel all a,,er :heOld X,Vor]d._d :here v,as no expansion which the East ,,,.as reached. Differences betv, een East
from Africa. The mi:ocho,,:.dr:£ 2a:a are. at :his point, the Asia and Scu:heast Asia make it reasonab',e to hypothe-
most useful it: heiF:ng ,'ore'eel :,'.is.h)'Fo:_esis. given :hat size that there might ha_e beer:, tv,o routes, can th,.rough
the or.gin of extant t>?.es of Asian mtD?'-A :s more re:on-.: Central Asia and one through South Asia. "Vet3,little.
:ha,":,this hypothesis v, auidimp'.y, if any'. evidenceof them exis:stoday (dg 2.'.5.;) The
h is no,. >el pcssib',e, hov, e,.er, to exc'.udecomplete!> occupation ofAustralia and Nov, Guinea ,.,,as the mgor
a parz:a_ pm'-:_ai?a::oaofarchaic H.saF/e,,:.sfrom :heO_d success s:o D ofthe southern rou,'e, but ite_e::aaHv led
',X,br!d. ",'e',_ data and me:hods of ana<,.s:s may help in to an e,,o'.utionar', cul-de-sac, as the sepa.r"auonbe:v.een
this direction. What is '.eD dif_cut: :oconceive _s a par- Oceania and So,,.::heast Asia increased with the using c5
ailel exciazion over sure a vast expanse of land. given the sea !e'.els in thetimes after :he last glaciation It ',,.as
the limited generic exchange:hat could ha',e occurred only v,ith the development of new nautical skills, 5_,?, ..-
in earlier ::rues ,'Th.e,:at'act:) of the human genus to ex- 6000 >ears ago. by South-East Asian populations ',,,he
pand rapid}- o_era i_'ge fraction ofthe Ear:,h's sur,ace is_,ere also good farmers, that thePacific routes v,ere in-
more in tune '.,.ith :he .tea of specific expanMons from a creasing'.,, used In the last 3CK)0-3500 years, the expan-
nucie'_" area of origin. Su_.h expansions must have been siGn that generated the colonize:ion of Polynesia began.
dete,.":nined b.', some impo=ant ad',antage, biologieaI or most probablyoriginating in a nuclear area in Southeast
cuhuml. It is not difficuh:o acceptthe idea that the Asia.
expansion of modem humans musl hare been strongly There are two weaknesses in the present a=:a!>sis,
influenced by "he possession of greater skills in commu- which will certainly require future work. One of themis
nication by !anguage. This increased ability to commu- the very short branch linking Caucasoids and. in partic-
nieateis likely to have been extremely' useful in favoring ular. Europeans to the phylogenetic tree. One hypothesis
exploration and tra,,el to unknown lands. Other technical is that they might have originated from an admixvare
improvements may have favored a trend to expansion, between their southwestern and northeastern neighbors.
Ahhough modem humans have now been found to have Africans and Mongoloids, betweenwhich Europeans
lived outside of Africa (in the Middle East) by about I00 are sandwiched. One cannot completely exclude other
kya, humans of this time in both Africa and the Middle hypotheses. Pani¢ularly serious is the possible bias re-
East were biologically very,similar to modem humans suiting from the fact that almost all known genetic poly-
but culturally much lessdeveloped than at the time the morphisms ha,,e been detected in Europeans. It will be
real expansion began, perhaps 50 or 60 ky later. Many important to remove this bias. especially in future data
things may have happened in the meantime, in terms of collections. Another area of doubt is the relationship be-
cultural maturation and, perhaps,forward and backward tween New Guineans ÷ Australians, Southeast Asians
movements between Africa and West Asia. Neanderthals and Northeast Asians. Our results have not settled this
are found it, the Middle East after the earliest local ap- question unequivocally, It seems likely that the uncer-
pearance of modem humans in the same areas, and it has tainty arises becavse Southeast Asia is poorly known and
been suggested that they may have gained, or regained, may be heterogeneous, v,ith somepopulations having an
lost ground in that period. The time between 100 and 50 important genetic component in common with northern
kya {or, perhaps more exactly, between 90 and 60 kya) is Mongoloids and others with people from Oceania. The
DOI 02 l.'vo

56 CH._=TER
l_g. 2.15.1 Poss=ie :'_;s:or:znd rc<:t._sof exp:,ns;cnc,f mc,:em humans:n :no last ',G'0k>.
hetemgenei',> ma? be in Far't,due to ancient admixtures, extends in this dir=ctic:_ and exT]a:ns -_5% of the tcta]
and :he a"ro_ of no,'n.hem Mongoloids pointing Soulh inhumanvariation, showing oni.,, moderate._f an,,. ',n_.u-
figure 2.15 lexpressthesecons_deraticns. There are also once of climatic factors at the le', el of "he nun',ear ]ene_
some undeniable physicai simiiari:ies between north- in;estigated, but a greater influence en genetic factors in-
e_ and sc_:he:m.. Mongoloids !ea_:ng one to _onder volved in the adaptation of body build and bodii.', sur"face
whether the) ha',e more in common than sho_n b? the characteristics. ',,,hich notoriously respond to £ima_e. A
trees of sections 2..3 and 2.4. In other words, a full','di- dichotomy is thus obser",ed bet'_een genetic data and
chotomous tree may be unsatisfacto_ in this part of the observations based on the physical constitution, _hich
world,but moreabundant and better evidence would be is detectable also on modem and fossil bones. "E":,isex-
necessary for developing this explanation furtherplains the discrepancy between the evolutiona_.' histories
The passage from Asia to America was later than that re¢onstruc;ed from dataon genes and on skulls (or. in
tc ?',usu-aiiaor Europe. perhaps because itfirst required a general, anthmpometric data).
genetic and cuhurai adaptation to the more rigid climates On!y in the last 10 ky, perhaps under increasing pcpu-
of Northeast Asia. Genetic data, however, seem to agree lation pressure and climatic changes, did humans de-
with an early arrival, perhaps around 30 kya; possible vetop new food technologies, culminating in se,,eral
uncertaintiesare discussed further in chapter 6. different agricultural developments. These innovations
Throughout the Paleolithic, population numbers re- caused the beginning of more rapid population growth,
mained small, leaving greater chance for random go- and in some cases of local expansions, which extended
netic drift to produce considerable diversification. Pop- toecologically similar areas, allowing the exploitaticn of
ulation size of a continental orsubcontinental area at domesticated plantsand animalsdeveloped in the thr_e
the beginning of expansion may have been on the order major nuclear areas of agriculture. The consequent in-
of 50,000--I00,000 individuals. In ,,he late Paleolithic, creases of population densities began a progressive treez-
much of human action was in Asia, and the occupation ing of drift effects. Farmers' expansions, followed by
of the rest of the world proceeded from this continent, those of nomadicpastoralists, contributed in an imper-
Given the greater limitations on life in thenorth,Asia cant ,,_ay to changing the patlems of gone geography.
was like a relatively narrow, large landmass developed In _pire of this, opportunities still remained for the sur-
more in longitude than latitude. Because genetic diver-viral of much local diversity, especially in refugia, few
gence was subject more to random than selective forces, of which have been well examined.
much of the gradient of the human gone pool goesfrom A majorconclusion is that linguistic and genetic: e_o-
west toeast. The first principal component therefore lution are closely relatcd. In this chapter we have seen
DO[02177

GE",ET_C HI<TCRY. OF ',_'CRLD PO_'__' -'-. _"_'_- 13"
this _la'honsh:_ a: .... g'.oba! _e'.e . bu'. se,,emJ m',,est>
.-_ati°r:son sp::i.'!,c re_<,:'nsor peepe 'h_',._ v,e _xam° ....b..,. jru,-.ans
in the following_zhamerS,ha',,e_..,...,_''°" si.'-r,il",r results. The '_'
main mason for :he re!a:ionship is tha"the e','oluticn of
both '_'_nd cr. the same histonc and o ,_.-_'
tcrs. _,','_have see,",:,":,.::discrepandes _'eno: impossi- [ A,'_ j I _c_'A"'_'s
ble. gisen _at oe_esc'_n.,be pa.'-::a.?- " or .re,,,"- al.,r,cst
completely mr.iacec under certain condL':c.rs, and Ian- 4, s
g,_agescana:sobe_placed.LangLage _placememis } E_rc_ea_.}sc,..:.as: imare. iikei,, to happe,"., werhaas, in, recent :",istory',and somA.sar,sAs_a,A,.s_a.as;a!
there mm ,,_eI!-knovvnexar'r.?ies of it. One c_ aiso ex- Itxlo-Eurogeanst"-"Ma,nla'_e.,%:anO
press the necessity of a relationship betv,,een get,eric and 6 B So_._eastA.s.a
Imguisdcevo','.'tion (and, morn generally, certain b'pesL_m Asia'L_so,.,Gu,re_
of cuhu:"al e,,olutaon of which the e',olution of language *mer+mc_ans aus_-a_La
is a key example), considenng the simi!aru,:of the re'.-
ca,ant mecha::isms of t_nsmission, Genes are cie_-I?s
..... :o
,,a,,sm,._dfromas.rents childmn:intraditionalsoci-
eties, especia',!y ;n t:',e absence of sc,,oo,s .....ura, trans- _ t
mission runfer:unately a poorly' in'.esfiga_ed sue_ect; see, _,sL a.
hov.e_er, Ca',ai!i-Sf._a andFete'manJ%i; He,a..,t _d
Ca;alli-Sfcr'za 1985; aiso takes placemosL.,, from p_- = 2
ents to children, as does, resumab!_ '_'o -_0|
p..... ,_,,ansmission -_
o_;L%..=._ o,,_a., from .£enera:;°n to gene,'-at!or, T',,,o pEeno,"r,- :_
ena t:"ansmitted m basicaily the same ",as':am.bound to
be stmng!y cor're',a:ed, z;,-,, , ,
•i%S_, v.e
In our origins', paper (Ca, alli-Sfo,-zaeta!. ' _ ' o s _o _s 20 =_ ac
t L_resse4 ,',hes:.":.:':-_convJc:_on that '- 5,1_ _ _ m ,as: ,ha ,,to Gene_c¢istance(,, :00)
been a :.croatasset ',"a',., consider'ab',v, heloed, modem hu- Ht. 2.1_.2 Aacordin_.!o Foiev.[!991'. ,h---,.... :s 2 s:.'_.,%.
marts in '.heir -_-_ ,_: :_a: .., ,..:.,on. and it also me,,ha_e limited m:a_ons_:pbe:weenhuman generic va.-:a:;o,':at'#,; :'g'. :-
O,"p,.',_.,t._")- "'_ ac,m_xture' with other forms of humans that tic......._.mups,sko,ain= :ha: _enes and l:"__'..,a_esme', ,.'.el
v.ere iess de',e!o_ed lin_uisficali',The !i:_'uisfic infen- di_er!e ins_mi',arv,a?s. I,"genetic di',ers_c?fc,.nd in eaa:"
.... ofthe successtve major groupings{:oF!of _',m._ _',aman
•IV,_.populafionsis plo_=edagains=Ine numberof]arg,.dges
OntVof the. e.,,c'.,.n_,s <L_e_e....... 1989) is con-
_-a',ersia! (Fa',k 1975). Ne,,enhe'.ess, the extreme com-spoken b?:hose groups, a strong !it:earrole:ons,',;,s
;]exitys?',ared b':all existing human languages seems ob,a:ne_ ,bouomL
hkely :o be a product of a final step in linguistic e','olu-
:ion v,hich peaked in a.m.h, and _,as spread by them to its retrieval has rarel? been organized in an .,, ....... a.,,
the whole world An interesting relationship has been ob- and the da:a base a;'ailable is the resu!t of thousands of
served by Foley _,i991). Using the .t:enetic tree (Cavalli- mow or less haphazard collections and a,,a:,ses_'. of blccd
Sforza etaI. I985: and information on the numbers of samples. An essential requirement of a sound analysis is
languages per fami;.', given by'Ruhlen(1987), he has that a large number of genes be thoroughly' studied ;-
shown that there is a verystrong linear relation (r= parallel on all populations of interest. Today,then have
0.91) between genetic distance between two groups sep- been substantial advances in the techniques of analysis,
at,ratedby anodeof the genetic treeand the number of unfortunately accompanied by nontrivial cost increases
hnguages spokenby the two groups together (see fig, The number of populations that can enlighten us on the
2.15,2) Although this evidence is indirect, and the cor- past hi.stoD'of humanity is shrinking continuously.Only
relation coefficient is biased upwards because the nodes perhaps one or two decades remain in which we still
of thetree _ no_ independent, it adds tothe persua- have access to these populations. From the point of vie',,,
sion that linguistic evolution goes hand-in-hand with the of genetic history, we are an endangered species, and
spread of modem humans, itis essentialtoavoid delay before taking the needs-
The analysis of thegeneticsof humanpopulations m- sary steps topreserve this imponamknowledge about
quires an enormous mass of information. Unfortunately, ourselves.
DO1 02178

II
A:',IERICA
52Cvegra.='h>ann :°"',::'cr_ment 6.9 PY:)!of.eneucan'qFs:sof Amerce
f2P_,:s_cr?: _:_?_';or :f -_mer_ca6,10Ph._ Oeee,':e::.: an.:;>._:scf :sO', d,,:: :tries
6"_"Beg:rn.=-as of agriculture6,11 Corn?at:son of gene:;zs _.::hi{ng..:s::c.s::'d
6A.De_eic_mer': ;n Noah4me_ca _ee£r_Fh?
65. Development _r,CenL_: a,meric.a 6._2 Cecg,',._hicma_s c,fs:-Z.egenes
6.6.Development fn Seu'h Amer(,:a 6.i3 S)m_etc mapscf America
6". Ph,,sicalan',hropciog} 6,1_, Summa,mof :heger'e',:cL:stcr: of-k.mer:c2
6_. Lin_guistics
4, 1. CJEDGR.-XPHY AND E.N',]RCN?qENT
"Ia'_e.Ameff.::.L Noah and So:aft:, fo.-m i6%and ',2qCordilleras!r:h_ ,_est react': a',t::udes cf 6:9= := The',
cf t_e Ea._.':'s surface,respec:he::., and :he!r cumuiau_e ext,'rid fro::_ Aiaska :o Mexico a_d i_ :he reg.!Or,af :zeta"
a.-ea iss;ig:-.:_:,less :hen :hat of :he lar£es: continent, maximum _.i&h. near the fcn:e:,'-, para',',e!, the} c,:cur:,
Asia. '_.:'.:ci-c.cmFr:_-e,.:gq of the Ea:':h's surface. But about c.ne-:hffd of the su_ace of :he :on:men:
today's :otai pc_u'.aticn of the Americas is onl', about The rest of NoT& America is re'.afi,.e!.,, fiat: :i',_c.on::::
"-,'% _inc.:uc.ir_.r.enabcxgines) of the inhere:ants of :he shield ix the midd',ais 1400 fee: (..1aTm) h£h. oR :r.e a,-
,acrid. less :ha:: a quar.er that ofAsia (',_hi:h is 60%_ erage, but it descends in altitude beth !n :be zo_h ::.,art:
,._t-he :i=e of fis¢o,.er.,., ih,_ popu]atJon !e_e] wascom- HudsonBa_ and !n the south and sourheasL :o:_ar:2 2re
pa,-a:i_e!:, muck 'ower. but is not precise!) known. At lowlands and :be Great Lakes reg.!on. The no_.em 7a:_,s
r_a: time. imFor':an: population densities existed only in of the lob.lands haxe bee.",marker b} moraines ac.cxmu-
Me:_i:o and !n the northern and centre! Andes. Three luted in four major 2,-iacial ad,,ances: the southern 7a,_
major demographic changes took place after disco',,eD' romaine,_ ice free and ',,,as toe'.cod b'. mort, of ._.kic_
(.McE_ed? and Jones 1978). The native population de- the Mississippi is the most impo_ant
c,,'_ased practically e'.eD'where and is no,,,.'about 5% of Because :he continent spans :atitudes from 65: to a
the tote: population (muchless in North America): it few degrees above the equator, climate and '.e_e:a:_cn
also undepo,ent considerable admixture in many areas, are ver?, di'.erse. The Arctic is mostly acold desex.
'andthe mestizopopulation may be almost 20%.White whh only tv,o monthsin_hich temperatures exceed ,:he
immigrants and their descendants became the absolute freezing point. Below the Arctic, in southern Canada, :he
majorit',' of :_',epopulation in North America (the United climate is temperate and cooI with frosty winters, sho_
States and Canada) and in the southern panof South springs, and moderately humid and warmsummers. 1No
America. African slaves were imported for work onthe continental United States has cold to mild winters, de-
plantations starting in 1650 and grew in numbers in most pending on latitude,and hot summers with ample rain-
cases,especially in Brazil. Descendants of slaves now fall. The western United States isvery dry except on :he
represent 15%-20% of the American population glob- coast, which enjoys, especially in its sou:horn Ivan. a
ally, an estimate made very, imprecise by the extensive Mediterranean climate. Central America has little vane-
hybridization that took place. As usual, weconfine our tion in temperature with the seasons and has a told eli-
attention to the native populations living in the Americas mate with abundant precipitation,except in central an:as.
before 1492, and begm by d_scribing the environment, which canbe very, dry.
Two-thirds of North America was once forested. :he
North America. Two chains of mountains of re D' un- type of trees depending on temperature and humid ty.
equal altitude run along the eastern and western coasts The rest of the continent is drier, a,.th grassland or desem
of North America: the Appalachians in the east have In the Great Plainsof North America. ,allgrass Fr'air,es
been considerably t_attened by erosion, whereas the formed the habitat of the bison (often calied buffa!o) for
DOI 02179

-_",_Ea._,7_-_ 3o3
many .mi?.e,':.ni.:Trc;':-'a! sa',a_nasare founC ai_os" o,':i, basi_, is excelle=: for agriculture U;arzea"/_:a',,'se k
in parts of Co:ira! Ame=ca::b,e r.o_he,_, area, _o_,e_er. ;._ _oodeg ?eari? when theri',ers are high',,b_: i_ r.c:
is mos:t? dese.-,, ,*hereas trcpizal forest is ex',ensi_e in cor_tinuo_st,v s:bmerge_, so that it is na,ura_iyfen_ize:.
',he sout,_'e_ _-v,,,,,......._ The -'_-. of vegetation i',i'ast:-ates eve_ year. but the rest ("te,"ra firme") lends itse'.f iess t3
the climate a.':,de:_i,z,g_ca', co,",d:_ions (.fig 6 I '.' agriculture, Where ',he precipitation is not so hea;y, the
tempe,.atu_s are higher and the seasons change, gene'-
3o,_;8 Amerces, To some extent.South Amemca is a:mg tropical savannas common tothe Orinoco basin,
a mirror image of Noah America, Here _oo _e west-just nonhwes_ of the Amazon in the Brazilian plateau.
e,"n mountains border the Pacific andreach as:ounding Farther south is dr). forest: and still more to the south
heig_',ts; the_ go from the extreme norxh to the ex-lies the basin of another great aver, the Parana. Major
treme somi", and are widerin t>e middle Old. flattened grassland areas are the Pampas of northern Argentina:
highlands occur in the east {n nonhe,'-n Guiana and in far'_,hersouth lies the Patagonia desex.
southern Brazil. Between these highlands is a very. wide The Andes '.'a_' in climate and flora, dependingon al-
to',_,land, the Amazon basin. The Amazon basin occupies titude and local conditions, from tropical forest tograsses
all the northeasternpart of the continent and is covered and plan_s of small and medium height ("paramos"), to
bytropical rain forest, having very abundant precipita- steppe ("puna") that reach the snow line. The extreme
tion and {itt!e change in rain or temperature throughout south, at a latitude of 56_, has glaciers and mountains,
theyear. A retative_y small fraction, about 10% of the and a frigi_ climate.
DOI 02180
6.2. PREHISTORY: OCCUPATION OF AMERICA
The prehisror)of Ame_ca is shorter than that of any There is essential agreement on the idea that the
other cominem, and its beginnings are more obscure peopling of Americas took place with the passage of
despite enormous interest among scientists who have nomadic Siberian hunters from Northeast Asia to Alaska
contributed to the research. Thus, there i$ considerable (Fagan 1987). Other hypotheses have posited extraordi-
uncertaintyregarding the origins of native Americans nary journeys--for instance,from Africa to America or
and. as isoften the case. uncenaint? generates discus- from America to Polynesia--but the',are not supposed
sion to the poin_ of passion, by hard evidence (Bellwood 1979). One problem, ho',,,-

e'.er, iS that amoT',g the ollest Sites _hose that are less "_ne :topical forest had a SORA, e'_nat smai',er extens;e:_.
in dispute _'r_: cer'tainl_ not em:rei,, accepte '4] are in espec!aE> in Sc_t_ Ame:qca
South Amer<a Moreo',en there are on',', a few Siberian ,",n ice-free corts,dor is be',ie',el to ha',eex:s:e/he-
simsthatma':ha,e been inhabited b', pione"rs _ho tv, een the eastern edge of the Rockies and :he ,m-
later occu?ie d .x;c_h America U,'e'.bestab',ished Siberian menseghciers occupying thecent_', and eas:e.'-n ?:z_s
sites are mere recent than the oldest ,_mefican s]tesi of Car.a/a, but the environmental cond_tbns'_,ere an-
wh:ch are fe'a and difficult to date. C-:e oldest .American doabte_l', fair;,, frigid in the comdor. Perhaps mere :m-
._tes are not accerted _?scme archaeologists, whom o<h- ponantl?', at the presumed timeof the crossing, the =:a_:
ors accuse of ma:ntaming _n_asonab!v high standards hne w.,s bu..er, due to water being retained in the pc]:.r
(Bray' tgSBl. Briefly stated, there is strong disagreement ice. Th;s exposed the continental shelf along thecca!:.
between arckaeoiogists v,hc be!ie',ethat _e earliest on- causing the :emporzr? disappearanceof theBenng s:rat
c"'y :nee No,":,:':America u,as 30-55 kya (therehaveeven A wideand fiat]and bridge, Be,"!ngm, replaced thest."-,:t
_en claims cf e_!ier sites), and :_osewho are prepared cot.nee:rag Asia and America. and is believed :c ha,e
to accept, cn the basis of present e',idence a first date existed between 25 and 15 k,,a. It is not cemFie:_i ?
of entry of 15 kya. We brier', re',iew here some of theclear _ha: theconditions for !ife were on Be=ng:_: t
major finds that are gene._ily accepted and indicate the was prc'cably a largely treeless land v,ith grasses. :',,._-f
maaor controversies, birch, and sh_bs, a mosaic of steppe and cur:din It
There :s su_':stantiai agreement on :he :ack of evidence '.,.as ccld and d:'T _ith strong _inter winds Ne',e.-&e-
of archaic Ho,,:o sapze_:scr earlier t?pes in America. less, there were mammoth, bison, horse, antebpe, a= _
AI! '...:de.; anne?ted American site gates fe?Iew the dis- sr:'..a'.!er animals (Fagan 1987; Schv.eger ]990 Ce_a:ni',
aF_earanc.e of Neander, nab :r. E',rooe and !n No_heas: the land bridge fa:ored passage between thecenfi<er,:s
Asia. and thereare no finds supper:rag :hemigration to ",x,:ho,.,t it, the passage _ocld ha',ehad :o ha',e be_n
America :f h:ma_n :,,pes preceding ana:cmicail? modem madeb', beat, but direct archaeological e',idenc_e cf ?as-
humans ',a.m h.). sage b', water is difficultto find and. m this case, has
The ins: glaciation occurred 20-12 k.,,a. _th a peak at not been discovered.
18 k>: tr.egeograFh ', and en',ironmen: of America and Condkionsthatpe,'-mitted crossing from. Asia :e
ner':he,"n Asia v,hen themig_t_on from Siberia to Amer- America by landexisted for some timeand ma,, ha,,e
ica is beiie'.el:o ha'.e taken place was differenl from fa;ored /he passage of different groups in differ_m pen-
today tn !ate glacial times (fig. 6.2.1!. glaciers occupied ors. someby land and some along the coast .']2_.ecima:e
almost hi! of Canada and =a."t of the no=h-central United in Berngia '-,,as probably ne'.er too at:racti'.e, a',t-._ugh
States. Tem_e:-ate and :retinal climates _ere found in perhaps no: ;ery different from that of theS:ber:zn re-
Nc:h Amer:ca ar much io_er la::tudes than at present, glens of origin, and it may ha'.e se."-,ed as an !ncem:;e
DOI 02181

A"!ERZ a, 305
_'_avso,.::he.'m., em Russian steppes nomh of the Black Sea amc:g "_-o
direction latter. :hebestk:'.ov.n Ii',ed at .X,lez!nch c: :r.e Dme_e-
Severa: Siberian sites,,4ha',e been . _.o' cou,_ homes of the 18-!4.kva(Fagar.J9S?) Someof theirtccs_.si...ci:%
..... ._,,, .,--,,.e,,c.ns. to the"microblaces" madeir.No,":hezs: Asia at that time
1 About20k',a.it.3,1M'[aand ".... _
• . A,,.,n.o,a. in southern _, Atthe cave situated nea=D?u_'_:a: a:so sFeZed
Siber:a ',see fi._ _ 2."_, :he_ ]bed mammotrand rein- Diuk:ai) near ;heAldar, RJ'.,e,':,an affluent of the Lena,
deerhun:e:'ss_m;.irtothemammcthh-nterso:::hewes:- a culturewas found that was dated at i'.:-12 k%ai By
14. kya, thiscuJtu_ had alreadyspread e',en fa.rther
nu,nh, up to the Arcu,:Ocean '_he."e a mammcth bur?.-
/ _ "k in_ around ',,,,'asfound at 71° iatit'_de inBerelekAThe
. _ N.,.._ discoverer be[ie,,es its beginning to be e_:,ier and tt3.ces
_-...,...a..._ ,._ R_ the originof these peo_!e to no.-.hernChina. The Diuk-
B *_ %;tai peopleused microblades but, unlike Ma'.'ta people
,,"- 'hi also made biracialtools (Fagan !987). Microbiades ",,,,ere
"h ",, \ L. s,_ I used for insettoolsand appearedin no_he.'m,China 30--
"LC-'> I 15k:'al,he:becamecommoninJapanander ,a>Ko-
(. 'c._ _.,,, rea in the later pinof this period.
"-,.. k _.1' _ ,= ._ /_-__-j 3 A third site is Ushki Lake in Kamchatka where the
,.._ o destdates,ounI4.000 e='.:
"-.-,,a., v__...--'--., _ "(_*",.,.] tures usedstone-tipped spea.rs, perhaFs bo',_s and a.n'.o',as
/,.a_,
....._ _'-_,/ o_-,:_(-J_'--/Ilim"!tiesofitso'an Abuda!ofahuskvda,'edtotlkvais
@_- _j,q _ the oldestnor_he__nd of a domesticateddog ar,c ma>" "w----,'J_t have been connected v,ith theuseof do_ sleds. Mar.,,
__ sitesfarther north on the Chuckchi peninsu:a I'see fig
":": ::"_' 6.2.2) seem to belong to thelate Ush.ki culture and s.hov.
a. Mal':a F_-:,a K _:_¢is-Caves some intermediac> with Alaskan sites (Dikov1988,
=_ A/omo,a ,3 P,_:ara_ L ,_,-:c,._.-K The earliest archaeological scena.no in North America
C D_k_:a " t_"-- M 3e-a Ca"':'ez
D Berele,," AKmaK N A"a"_,._a ir.c1',Jdes sites ir ce,.,,:ral Alaska (fig. 6.2.2)and o/h-
E.',.:s,'-k:_a,.e '.. O_aC::* ors in the continental United States (in the pa_s :hat
6"" . ., _ 6'''_
{la_S. ...-.
Ftg. ...a .k,":.:_aee;o_{catsi:ts m Paieo[iu':ic.SLber(aand '.,,ere not glaciated at the time) and Mexico ':o
Aia_.a Fag::. :;5-:g,_ko',',9S_ 62.3) Too', finds at Old Cro_ _ats in the nor'them
Fig. 6.2,3 Pc!do-Indiansites in .-,X.mer_ca
(Fagan 1987; Guidon 1987).
DOI02182

-106 CHAPTER 6
Yukon (Canada) near the A:as_,;an border are undcubt- i_=a.t[cn is :mpeffect. or 'zum=:_o,:===a,:c.z azc ,.st of
ed',y human, but thedate cf2Tkycla[med for them is i_picmen:s uncertain, T=e '.a=k cf ¢',;oe:-ce for e=r_y,
disputed because itcomes from animal bones, and there and retail', safisfac:cr'., sites in Nor'.."._.-._:'::a :s :ieari.'.
is n.o consensus that the.', were"modified" by h'.'mans, oneof the mo:i'.es for fi".e_sis'a:'ze :c =a.:er, ,.-:_ sties
A human a.,_ifact made of bone that had an olderdate an:odor to 14 k_a or J5 k?a ',ears in Centra'. =n.?.South
hasbeenregaledto13.9 k:.a. Ar,o,her site dose to Old America. Theides'.hat,_ere :stoc sho_ at-._':,'.:r,.al of
Cro_. Blue Fish Ca',e. has bones '*ith dates of ',5.5k?a time between occupation of Akska and that of South
and 12 kya. in addltion tc humor ar:ifacts, including mi- Ann:ca is nota major cbstac'.e, smce r.o:'=aC.: h...'ve:s
¢::oblades sin!Par_o Lhoseof'.._e Diuktai caves. A !ov..er ceJd wei] have co',ered disco=cosof man', :nc,..san=- ,:f
layer at E',.ae Fish has oroken bones do:ca &000-10.00'0miles in a period of !000 ',ears In fan,. :he`sr.cie .cur-
years no.flier, butsignsof human occupation are not as hey from the extreme noah :o theextreme scuff- m:gr:t
c!ear as forthe;ater k ve.,-s, ha_e taken about that long (Ma.nin 197_)Tne 7:obiems
M_y sites in Alaska have been dated to 12-10 kya: thatarise from accepting theh,.pothesis of,his ex:reme?y
they contain bifaces and/or microbiades _miniscen: of rapi_ displacement are of t'*o kinds: the hun:ors hal [:t-
:he Siberian cultures (Denali complex, Dry Creek. Ak- tie timetoadjustto new en;ironmems_f :_e',, mr., e_
mak). in summary', there isno e',icenceon ,*hich agree-so quicklyfrom noah to south across suck a `sine and
ment has been reached that Alaska was occupied b,,'hu- diverse comment, and the', must ha',e repreduc::d at a
roans5efc,re 1_ kva. high rate in order not to dilute " - ". :co much
.._emae, e$ 1,"1
in the cen::'-alUnitedStates. there was a major explo- the ,"acetov,.a_-d:he south. Approx:ma:e ca:cuia::cns ir'.chi-
sign of_chaeoicgi:_-'. finds marked b'.' projectile points care. hcwe_er, that theh?pcthes:s of ._pk_e', e:.':'en: is
nameeafter the C;o:zs site, `shoo::isdoled to the period not.anacc,eptable (Ca',alli-Sfor'za 19S,a:• 2'.!oriels of gu-
ll 5-i: _.,,,a. There are. hov,.e,.er, severalfinds older aerie consequences of ,his rap;d ad'.a.":ae arediscussed
than C;c',:s. Ace:ser, at:,,e analysis by Fagan (i987)in the last section of thechap:or The?re_:e.-n.,of ad=.::=-
lists a re'.,,F,,lacesthat are pre-C'.o'qs and in his ',iew morelion :o ne`s en',ironments must ha_e been s:rr.pl!fied by
sa::sfac:er', (see 1ocauonof sites in fig. 6.2.3):Fen Rock the availability of the sameprey (mammo,h mastodc::.
Ca'.e, Oregon-13.25 k.,,a; Wilson Butte Cave, Idaho-- and probably' others) throughout :he con,men, The :cea
13-l.a.5 k',a: Meado,acroft Roekshelten Pennsylvania-- that South America was occupied _fore :he non'h, ekher
more :ha- 12 k'.a (up to I6. 175 k,',a; Adovasio etal. from the Pacific or :he Atlantic Ocean. is more _f_c,:t
1982): Lhttle Salt Spr'=ng. Florida--I2 k',a. toaccept. Whatever trace of African genes are :'c..:nc2
Accord{rig :o MacNeish kig';'$1. Mexico has da_es among living people, it is muck merelikeiy :oha',e
grea_er :hun 30 kya associated ,a,ith chopping-chopper origina,ed from admixture `s'ith African sla,,es af',er the
:eels. fd!o'*ed by a phase 30-i5 k':a with bone toolsand sixteenth century'. The Pacific islands closes: to South
a unifacial industry,' (see criticism in Fagan 1987). Other America are quite far a`say and ,sere occupied on',,_ _er':
archaee',ogis:s also be_ie'.e da_es earlier than I5 kya for late. in the last t'.,,o thousand ','ears.
Mexico and South America (see aiso Lynch 1990). Here Thereis no problem with the essentials of the: C'.o-
,,vecite four major examples of early dates for South vis culture, which de,.eloped around 11,5 kya or: the
American sites. Great Plains of North America and :asted for about 500
ThePikimachay Ca'.es in Peru have a more reliable years. Itis marked by mammothand bison _utcher-
later occupation at la kya and at. eider one at 20 kya ing places, where bones of other animals are also coco-
considered less reliable, siGnally found. The mammoths were kil:ed with !;pears
Dates of i4,200:1150 at Alice B_r Sitein south- headed with projectiles that had chanactenstically P.uted
central Brazil are more reliable than thoseof earlier stonepoints and were given additional thrust 1::.,,using
too}s from a lower layer at the same site. dated to 20-...40 spear-throwers (known as atlafl). Thisculture takes its
kya. Pedro Furada in the nonheastem Brazilian plateau name from Clovis, oneof the imponant sites; it was s_p-
(Guidon 198"7)has yielded various layers with signs of t:mned by a scarce and scattered population. Its orig'n is
human _cupation, the oldest of _hich was dated 'to 32 uncertain: its end coincided with the disappearance of
kya. Monteverde (south-c_:ntral Chile) is an open seule- mammoths from the plains. Shortly thereafter, these an-
meat with excellent conservation.The people there were imals disappeared from all of America along ",,,ith se'.-
mammoth hunters living 12-14, kya. oral other large mammals that became extinct bev,,veen12
It is difficult for nonarehaeotogists to form a final and10 kya, including the mastodon (another elephant;,
opinion at this stage, but wide disagreement obviously the saber-toothed cat. the horse,several camels, giant
exists among specialists, It is understandable that there is sloths, and others (Grayson 1997). One large mammal
little tendency to rely on radiocarbon dates especially if that survived and was still flourishing on the Great Plains
the',' are unique, have high standard error, or come from untie a few hundred years ago is the bison.
samples that could have been contaminated witholder The disappea_nce of thebig mammals has re,:eived
matena[. Other often-cited objections are that the strut- different interpretations. Martin (L95'3) sugges'eothat it
DOI 02183

a..'<EE' S=. 30"
_as due:o o',erki!: :,'.at star:eft in h;o_n_,:'n._ca and of ,'he L'S_R, b'c: Sberian EsMmcs are beiie,.ed tc ha.e
was ccmfinL.e_,,n S.:'g:h America b'..hunters t::a: oc:u- :centered.A,si3 frc.mthe A,,._,,..._*^_.....,--_ ....o-,_.,_,_,"2: be_on--
pied the"'_o_e' _" .a_e_c_ :- pursuit ofchis .... Tqis side_d. ""_-_;,p ' ^ a.s:,zn
,_ I 2_-':',o is certain:,s:mphsuc.The oriz:nai Asia.", [ocat!ons o: ,h.e No-Done andhvpot_esis,,ho.,.e',er..._--_,.... _ "
Pleistscene c,erk.:: :at..........beer: ad',a:'.ced as .- exp[ana- Esk!mo-q:e.:{ :_ not .... pe,.,}''o ciear b,_'.a=eperhaFs
tion for rz_',,,su-,i::ar on:in:LiOns that '. _ _-_.... era, archaeo,o_:cal mc:u,,-e.,a,.n.p,_e:., a: abo,-t easter to f:t in:c the ,::'o_ _ "
this time L,_ m,_,,:_,_"p_._._,_"_....."°','.'r t_:....,,ou_,_'_'-'- -..,,e.m_.-'"-" that of Paleo-lr',d:ans. for v,l".om the ........... , of me
....... -" ' ;tF..e,',mat time of oR_'in _'_ '_""
ing ca,., ',,,',e b'-- a pat.a, cause, k seems ' t,o.-L. ,.?a) is like!? to be ,,._tn us some-
the _"_2_ of,:i:ma:: ':r :he _ostzlacia: -,_ a ,_,__n.,c.,so.a.,, what !oneer It is possi_b that Na-Dene and Esk:mc,-
stmne_,,,,,..act;"'-,by causing" ?rofounC e.Mo.=._c.,_",o "_a,.er'auons. A!ects hac"corn,man origins {nAs:a.
Evidence that it affe:ted the fauna c_mes from the oh- Dikov (1988) has suggestec that the late Us>k! cui-
ser',at_on Ihal [argo extinctions of birds also oc:ur'red at tune, dated 10-;2 kya and located or'. the eastern :oust
the same time,_l':,ereas stool! mammals survived and of the Kamchatka _eninsula sho'.,,s _;'-, ,"'_: _- ,'
changed the:r range.Moving to other, more acceptab]e tunes of Alaska and British Columbia an!may ha,_e
en,,urcnments ,,,,as,:e._ain:', a mode cf adaptation to eli- contributed to :he Eskimo or the No-Done populations
marie chan_e.= Gm_sDn. 987) that ',,.as not equally, o,,e",,,.,, or both.Diko,aJsodiscovered a culture on the sou:,".-
to large actual: The bison, hov.e,,er, couic sur,p,e be- easter'n C, ,.,M.h, peninsula at Puturak Pass. m ca:so
cause ;: ,,,.as not _-',._u.,,.'_'_b_ its di_esti',e _,,s:_,.'-,to eat prox_m_t',"" to the B,.nn_"¢'Sea, that has a _echnoic._',
only lhe :a'_ :'"_ss Cf .k_ anchor: ",,'-ai"--s but also the different from other Asian :u:',ures and s_miiar to ,w._.
shot': grass :_at ,"e_!acec_c!n po_tgiaciat times. After of the G..... "<,Flint station in the Brooks Range of
the disappezr"ance of :he mammoths, bison-huntizg be. nor.hem AiasK.a ]t is dated to £0,5..,9:150 yems age
came :he moor source of food an_ other :Dmmodities and also has s;mfiamies '.,,ith tF.e cu!ture of Ananguia
(bones, hides, etc ,. \Vea_ons ch:,n_ed somev,hat, an.d _o " _' ' , -' ,_ M=. 6.=.,,,a stool! island in the ,-X;euuans nearUmn±<
Re','.pr<ecule points ',,,ere ale',eloped from :he Clovis Island. The Anang,Ma culture is the aides: .<town in ff'.e
points T3ere ._as some slo'.',e',o:at:on in :he hum{aSAleutians {dated atRrkFal. Laugh!in {19.SC_sugg-..stecl
tech!'_ q'.;es t.;: 1" :h,e Pia:ns :he bison r.m.,, e_ ,he ca- that Eskimos and .Aleuts both come from Anang'a:a ancl
--,_' --'_ On!y the in:rodu:tioa ,_at the occupation of the Aleutian Islands ke_a- from
jcr sconce cf fooc :or ......e.......... =,.
of tr.e !'.orseand the gun aher the Spanis:_ :onquest in it, proceeding ClOthwestward and east,.,.ard from :he._.
the ,"-q'..-.s,_.e.n."- ", ten:u.'% __'enera:e4a dramatic chan_oe._ The earliest occupant,,, of the ",,,estem and eastern ends
The b_sc,a :r.er, cat-:re ',or':close to extin:uon and ',',asof the chain of islands ',s currentl',dated _o 3000 years
sa_ ....._" o_-tv.",, er_Te::_om in _o_'',_--men," reser",es at the afro,but the most in:crest{aft earl,, sites of :hose _sher-
begmn!ag of :n:s centur',men and sea-mart.real hunters ca.,be submerged. The
',','_',,a,.'_',.,,'-:_e first da!e of earn,, between 35 and !5 firstkno_n" ...."'" of occupation of Anan_'ula_has a]so been
kya. i:is ,:tear t_at there v.as more than one re{gnat!on, suggested (Lm.ghlin 1980) as :he date of separation of
The m_u:shc and biologica!e_idence is discussed in Aleuts and Eskimos. Fagan (1987) indicated mare con-
sections 68, and 6.9---6,i3 servadve:.v a date before _,000 ',,ears ago. While A!euts
The o!dest migr:ticn from Siberia '.,,'as tha_ of the remained on the is(ands that car"O their name and mostly
Paiec--Indians, to which the above discussmn refers, and maintained their primary skills in hunting sea mammaB,
led to the peop;ing of the entire continent. The_ may Eskimos de','eIopec transpo_ation skills across the Arctic
have been a series of migrational 'waves,not simply one, and hunted not only sea but also land mammals (musk ox
or there may even have been a continuous flow. The other and caribou). The Dorset culture (Jennings 1983) ranged
two migrations ',,,.ereboth later and. ied tothe occupation from the Nocthwestem Territory in Canada to the Hurl-
of more limited and well-defined areas in the north, son Bay, Labrador, Newfoundland. and Greenland by
Another m_gration, presumably a second one {15-10 1000 Be., on the average, but there are signs of earlier
k'ya) is named after the Na-Dene family of languages occupancy of these regions by a pro-Dorset cuhum.
spoken by these people. They settled in southern AlaskaThe difference in originof Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut
and on the northwestern coast of North America. perhaps remains to be clarified. The coast of the Pacific North-
only a little later than the Paleo-lndians, Much more re- west was colonized by.No-Done speakers,but the exact
cen:lL at the beginning of the present millennium,some time sequence is not clear. Queen Charlotte Island. off
Na-Denegroupsmigratedfarther south, the coastof British Columbia, wascontinuously inhab-
The third migration was that of the Eskimo-Aleut (ca. {ted between 7000 and 5000 years ago,but the area ca',
10 kya), who kept to their Arctic and sub-Arctic habi- have beenoccupied earlier, The populations of the noah-
tats, with the Aleuts occupying the Aleutian islands and west coast developed a special way of life, reaching high
the Eskimos occupying Alaska and the non,hem coast densities especiaIb' at the mouths of ri',ers ',,,.heresalmon
of North America,spreading later as far as Greenland. was easy tocatch. Their cultures at the time of European
There are still a few Eskimos in the extreme northeast contact alia', us to place them ann,n_*the world's most
DOI O2184

308 CHAPTER 6
suc=essf_.i :or'aoer< and the','*ere :he sub{ec: of class{eel of North ...Xmer_ca. _ _"`*#_- ' _ _.a
v..s ....... IS;:','_ and :_.a:
r'ese_":h :n c_;:ur'ai anttropoiog>, u-ibuted to Na-Dene-speakitg pet.: eThe :n;rc. ace:a-:.
The -_'e,._ :ease of Greenland _as so:fled b',.Vikin:_.s. 10 kva. cr later, led zo :he occaga::on :;f th,-,- &re:re......."_-,,
coming_from Nc_a'.' and Iceland in _he ninth or :enth con- by Esk:mes. Thethree-mig.-aticns "_','_•.... _ has >_o-..... .;:-.
tu_,a 2. '_u':_e Vikinz settlement !cst contact v,.'ithEu-.... posed hv Greenber{, et a! (1a'_,_._. • seea:sc ,.-:,eex:er-_-"
rope a..ncdisapz'eaed in the fifteenth cenzury.,.Perhaps in and Ruhien (!99"J. It is based on '.ie._--:__t:c._,enta',, a':c
the.: e:_":.'_ a-d :robab;; later _'o D-_o< '"
::me. a,,.r t.hesou.e: __ene:ic irfcrmaticn• as _,.e she?. seein 9",' res; .-ff ::::-_,
nG,"e..,an,.. _%._.,,,.. in ,.xn ;,.a_:,there_.assomede- chapter. A zroun of i_nP.uists {see. 6.8:, ',{..... , -
gree of adm!x:,are with people of EzrBpean origm, poses theinterpretation of Lingais;ic data r,,--',-,-se...... :,
In summa.-:, there is !itt]e age"co..men:about the ,Srst Greenberg (seeR:.a,h!en1987, 991. a_so Russ icj_;
occupation cf :he Americas; poss:bLe .lutes ,,,<"yfrom35",a,...... ,>: : ,.
:o 15kya. Thereis agreement that this first migrauon Other useful references are Kirk and Sza:h:--:_:-,
came from Siberia via Be,"in__ia and ",a,as fol!o_ed by' (1985), Aikens (1990),and R..... n 1990 , as `*eT. a_.
the rapid occupation of the',,.'hole continent b>' "'Paieo- chapter:; 5.. and 55 of the Cambr:dge Enc.,.ch.-?ed:a ::f
Italians," The next settlement,on the nonh`*estem coast .&,'chaeoiog';.'.
6.3. BE,5,>.'q:.NGS OF ?-,CR:CLLTURF_.
¢."
TT,.e,_, -To--on'_f human pcaula:ior:s ',,,as _e_' un- mar.me, resc,,arces and `*here a__nP.uUure,e_ez " :: -:_
equa', m :he various ,"legions of Amen:as• The Pc;dO- been ado:ted as a par:iai source of food. had c:-i, .::T.::e::
Indian :.:'r:ers occupied the cent:non: '_ith extr:.ordinar', de',e!ogment
r'apic2h>; there later ce',e:.oped local h,.:ntmztradi'icns Th,ebe_.innin,:,s of agriculture :n A........... Verza::_,
L_,at'._:ed for mii]enma in some ar.... \' "_'E'_" '_"'_
o'_< :houghi.",e,,iva'ei'.,,sho.htl,,lurer than those in the. ,a_.,e ....... in Ch::za
with mere or less continuous cultural .changes and poe- By the.,,ear 9000 s P, Middle Eastern agnc.",:z'e ,a_i
ple ,.,srlac ...... ,,s Th,e pos:-Pa]eo-Indlan pence is of',en airead,, a complex economic s,.stem ',:smg bc:h amrza;
c±I-"......:he,4rcSoic Ported or lo'or hun:inz-and-fora-<n£.._ _ arid plant domesticates that cou'.d be e'q._,,_;.,_to :e:::-t:)
period, regions '.,,ith a some`*hat similar eco',og':ini:ial _e',e:-
!2:;e :ransltion :o food mroducticn from theforag- opments in Mexico and thencr-:,:em and cez::a', A:2,:es
inn_ec-_ncm,.-that ...¢ ,_'_,.,.hunu,,=-_,:..,e..;__ and. near took place in anenxironmentand`*:thcom...,.a,..'o<...... ". nC:
• e 'a,aten the .,s.,n.'_.a oeconomy--is sometimes called the v.ide!.v represented outside the ori_.inai_area• Fe,* :fa::,,
Forrr,off',e Per'cal. it occurred at very different times and of the original crops had the petentia! of being easi!:, e'{-
in differen: '*a_s in :he,anous regions. In theperiods ported to a _,,ide area around Ihat of origin before:e:cg
preceding ag:'icuhure or in its early development,pop- more f_lly developed,unlike the Middle Eastern dcmes-
ulation density' increased somewhat, a stimulus to tech-ticatesof ',,,'heat. barley, sheep, gears, and ca::'.e. In ad-
nologicai ad',ance in food production. The development diti0n, agriculture in America began in areas hkecon:re',
of domesticated plants and animals and their adoption as Mexico and the western panof South America (mesfi.',
staplefood was al',a.avsa relatively stow process, espe- Ecuador and Peru), which were to some extent unique: or
cially in the Americas, for reasons that depend in panon isolated. The Mexican plateau enjoyed a temperate :.ii-
geography and in par:, onthenature of the domesticates mate not found in much drier northern Mexico nor in tee
themselves. Compared with Europe and East Asia, dif- tropical forest of the southern panof Central America.
fusion of a_m,,cuitureto neighboring regions was slower The Andes were another unique environment in "*hi:h
and more limited. Therefore, at the time of European extreme differences in altitude at a short distance pro-
contact, plants had been cultivatedfor almost 10 millen- vided a great variety of small niches, each suitable for
nia in areas likeMexico and the western panof South very different types of economic activities. In time. this
America, whereimportant empires with large popula- variety was cleverly used by what is called a "vemcat
tions had developed. In many other regions, however, pattern" of exploitation, namely by foraging, culti'.aung.
largenumber's of American natives were still hunter- or breeding very different plants and animals at different
gatherers. This was true in particular of the Nor'thwes_ altitudes, often very. closetogether, and exchanging these
coast North American Indians, the Na-Dene, and of produc_s by a complex network of trade and communi-
Californians; but in both regions relatively high popu- cations• Systems of seasonal migrations also ale',eloped.
lation densities had been reached at the time of contact similar but not entirely comparable to "transhumance" in
and.,complex societies t'ad developed, especially among the Old World. It took time, howe',or, before the social
the Na-Dene, The density and, according to some, so- and political conditions of these popu!at_or,s ,.,.ere s_ch
cial complexity of these hunter-gatherers were greater that the extraordinary' variety of a,,ailable en,,ironmm:S
than in other parts of North America that offered only could be turned into a source of `*eahh
DO102185

a.".I£ R"Z_,. 309
,",,'utileAme=cans de,,elo:ed _ _'re2' aural'dr of do-
mesticated pia:ts for a _aRe::, of uses ,, :c_.e.'-sg,,and .-,t
Heiser i977',. ...\_..... of ,hem. like maize, po:a:oes, and ._-., ,.,._'_',_ _\
tomatDes.',,,erae_po_ed :0 ,..uro_.eaher d!scove,"v
in the NewWorhf and acquired prima O :mpcnance as --, I_ _,
...... ,_._o_., hi (- \
stap:e toco m:,'t.e01¢, W,sr[d. Otne.......... z plants like
'--m(
m_.nJoc',,,'ereexpo.<eltOtropical Af.":ca and ,"zd[ca_f,,_-
te_dthetoca:.foodcustoms. Thefirst ''domesficatedp,ar.. '7 ,_jJ_;_"
in America may ha,e been thebo:fie ='-'-'_ (Lauh._ *i _>'_ _,1977), at le_t 9500 but p,bssibiy _1,00,0 )e_,"s ago, be- . ". // --M',-2
causeof its msefuiness as a water comtainer. Maize was ",_, ',_
domesticated from local plants in Mexico at Tehuacan %_'X.,'k_...,-:r"
and Tamaui[pas around 9500 years ago. but initially'-- T._,ra_....as _ _ _ "
forman>thousandsof>,ca,s-it.m,:neeasma!
component of _ediet. Originally, mmze cobs we_ one-Te%a:a't '/
tenth or less thesize of ,.modem co_s Cob size gre_ V h
with remarkable _ '=""" 't_e %_k.': r/
,._ ...... ', over., mt[iennia, pros'urn-.,
ably because of a_!fic:al selection exercise: conscious[,: .) .
or subc:nsc{cus',', b,, the breeders, v,ho -'_-,, have been _C : : c:E.:',
sys,ematicail.v choosin£ the best cobs for reproduction. ,
At t._e time of the Spanish conques: of Mexico,agri- , /"
cul';:_ ¢'_ "_ an im_o,':.ant pa_ of the food supply, < }
wh)ch v,a_ augmentedby' the productsof huntirg and
cathenng It_s morn or ]e--s arb_<._ni) assumed that
agncuZure became a major sourceof fool suppl',at a
"'c,'-::ica/"time a_out 4000 .',earsago At ,'ha:time. the F " j S,:÷ss!ea._ d:--es:;ca:cnC'pla':s at.: _'mas
},'iel2C'tmaize '..'.,assuf.=.c;ent tOsupport a sedentarypoD
ulation: ?or:era, made :ts first appea._r.cethen. much._ Nc't.-e- ':"': :t-aze :_,:t:va::-
,[a'.:'-_: me¢.f._..r_'_ar Ccrtazt
]ate" th:.n in Europe and Asia. and oleos: ceaainl', inde-
._n/enfi". Bear:s .*e.,-ea'.so domesticated ear!_, in Mex- F]g. 6.3.1 Dis:ribunor:of probable.P;acesof -,-".._.
too. _th the firs: e'_,,,_'-_v..s° 9vO0-i0..v.< years old; the,. e.omes:_:a:_cn,B,"a_.'.940,
are a good comp:emer.:to the maizediet because the.',
suppi,:esser'.ual amino ac;c.s a.t"-'<--,...... in maize. Squash and Peru Elsewhere. population de:sit', '..,.as s:i', Io_..
w_, soon added to maize and beans fo,,"'m.,in_,the Amer- althouo_=.,it had increased in the last m£11enniao,,er "_-,,,,
icanIndian triad of stupid fooda famous for being nu-",'eC:io,a densities characteristic of the initial period.
tritionail) ',,,ell balanced. Potatoes probabl', camefrom The high mobilitl, of the Paieo-Indians allo',,,ed them
Coombia (10 kya',. Cotton '.',as grown for use as atex- to occupy the whole continent rapid[,,, but later popu-
tile. Most of these crops could not grow in tropical en',i- lotion growth ,.,,'asslow until the iast two or three mib
mnments, such as the!or, lands of South.America. whe_ lennia and increased almost exclusively in areas where
instead manioc _'as firs: domesticated. Itlater spread to previousimportant agncukural development had oc-
other areasof tropical forestoutside thecontinent, curved. Thenumber of American aboriginals at the time
Few ammals v,ere domesticated; however, the use of of contact is very imprecisely known and varies greatly
dog meatfor food may' be 6000 ",'ears old. The turkey with the authors. Earl,, estimates by Kroeber (1939) and
is first found Jn Mexico from 300 B.C. ]n the central Mooney (1928)(whose estimates differ little from Kroe-
Andes considerable use was made of domestic camelids bet's) give a total of 1.2 million for all of North America,
(llamas. alpacas),which became increasingly common of which "the largest components (in thousands of indi-
in the fast 8000 >'ears for transportation and meat. Guinea viduals) come from California (260), Canada (190), the
pigs were domesticated in Colombia andPeru for meat Gulf States (115), andthe Plains (100). Later estimates
probably in the last 4000 ',ears. Figure 6.3.l shows the are higher, up to 5 million for the United States (Russel':
sites of earliest domestication inAmerica (Bray 1980). 1957) and 300,000 or more inCanada (Charbonneau
At thetime of European contact, American natives 1984). bleso-America was the most densely populated,
were still in the ston : age; the only widely used metals, with perhaps 6-25million people (McEvedy and Jones
gold and silver, had almost entirely orn.,mentai appli- 1978). For central Mexico, Cook and Borah (1971) sug-
cations. Some native copper was usedfor weapons and gested a population of almost 17 million in A.O 1532.
ornaments. Even so, at the time of contact, twomajor down to 6 million in ,vo 1548 and 1 million in 1608;
empires _ith large populations had de,eloped in Mexico but Zambardino (1980) corr_cmdthe 1548 estimateto
DOI 02186

-ii0 CK=?TER 6
36 mii'Acnin ?era. :he __q_"_'_....... '.}cera_ astir:areal 1.5 the a!ricaltu_l ._oou!atior:,to_arc_,.-'_%_-...._ areas T_
:r.i/on in !<-_........dc,v.n to 600 0CC,:n l_p ',Sanchez- `*ave of advance cf fa.,'zmer_court _'e=,.-:-or;'.' `*he-._.-.:
.A',bo,--,,cz_c-7, '.vhe_ cu,,_a..d cro_s had become "_,omeor so,Jrce -'
The ....... ;-,v of thesees,.ma,_.';""* should not be sun- food, and _here stror._ Fh_sica; homers '.ike ,.mcu-t._:r_,
prising C_'< 'co¢........ are dlf_cu]: even _,..,_,.-oa,'m_,:!.-' con- or desexs did not impede m--_',c- These :and:: or-,
dill:hi: a: :ze ::me-Fconouest t'ne'_were rare even in occur-r,ed -ol ;_ ;.•
,..... at. e.,, late ,,n Ar:-.,enca.a:ter :he F:_',._..a::',e
Europear,i'"e:'e ',,,asne:_her enough-,interest nor :ec.'.- Pe,nod and therefore after "030 )ears _ P It is '-r.clez:
nicat skies for ,:".-.:?:rigthem out in the aoioties, theoc- whether rapid inc.'eases of pcTu'.ation density in Atnor .
cupaticn ¢t _' -" _mained incomFle:e for a ion_otime. ice caused major demic exports{:as as the,, di_ in Eu-cre
In am.. case,.,-....., ,_".e e'.idence shc,,,s that population or Africa.Mexican a_r;cul:ure. '.,.asborn inhehioh_=......:_._
numbers dechne._ raTd!v after the cc,":quest, with the and exganded late to the non::. 2,,: ;t _snet clear F .-_
• ^_.,1
spread of epicemics brought bv the:onquerors =,,,. the 'a,asa dem_c component: the nor.hem Mexican dose:-.
desm:ct_cn cf the preexisting civi',izafions. Later cen- must ha',e acted as a buffer that slowed nor:h`*ar2 e\-
suses are d_erefore of little use. pansion_. Agneuhure probab]? sFread from .Mex!ce :o
Aboriginal population densities largel? retie:ted the the south, but theremay, `*dr. have been ret'ogr-ade fio,a
degree of '%_e!opment of agriculture and social ergo- The dexelopment that took place in Meso-Ame.'fica b <
nizafien, be:ng ;':igher '*here :he his:oO of agricultural much ircommon with that in the nor,hem Andes Da':es
de_e]cp'-er:: '.:,asolder An exceFtior, ,_as North a,mer- are probab!.v not knownin enough de=a_]toa]',o,,, s:u&
ica,where:he " _' ' t_'-
nonagncu,ara_ soc:et:es of .,_ "*est had of the spread tothe south. Lathrap ('.9"7',. nov,e',e-
re!at> e'.'.,h:gh densities because cf .... _- "1'ex,._:.tl,.,.a,,', fa',cr- has o..p,en tentafi,.edates and directions of expar.s;cn f.::r
able en'<rcr.ments ar:d ad'.anced sec!ocai'ural adaetz-. Central and South AmericaTE,,eAndean ,_po,._ of ec:_,q-
fleas.By eo.':.,rast, central and eastern, North America amy '_a_ suitable for the pa.':icuaar e..... n..,e....-" "_'_
hac or.'.,,a :he.,:: agricultunl his:or?' and had not tea:nee: Andes. and much of it remained :tontine2 to _t. nov.e., dr.
h:gh Censit!es at the ".:me of contact, manioc culti',ation. _hich had an eno..nm.cus!reFace ,::n
.-ks nO:de else\_:'.ere _se.:. 27. 4 7 _.2_. ff,e onset of tropicai agricuhure, may haxe origina'ed m theforest
_ _ '--_ _" of near .,-,a central .Andes. T}_,enararal ,.,.av of comm=n:,:a-azncu:ture a=c its successive d,e._.r.e., :s con- ..,.
side._b:e impedance from :he point of _ie',a,'of papule- tion in the South American plains v,as along r:xe:s, aT.,=
tion oe-e"a< in :hat the :_nsiuon from food collection to it is act sun',prising if s=read m th_s n_:','_ ne:,.,cr<. '.,.as
,c::u.at_c,. dens,t,, at.,., fast (La:hrop 1977"_
foe: prcdu,:::on usualb increased p .' _' : • -_
:has ge.neraZv, decreased :he effect of random genetic ...ksa direct consequence of _he econom:c .'_:s'.aQ ,a.e
or:::.'"Jr",=:-_"--.......a ",'-o* thepa,'tem of migration in man,., ha,,eoat:ined--mainlv, the;ate and limited expans:cn ::-
ways. ,a<a,", reducmz incdvidual m_,."ation by causin£ a_,,,.ul,ur,--and its h__h,,,loca'.ized deve!opment. Fop-
the pep£at:on re _come mere seder.:a.r'y. But migration ulation density remained lo'* in most areas, and Cue so-
wasa,v.a_s'- .,_,,e,"_')"- .,,;',ca..-;,,a-"_cultumi times becauseini- cial structure staved fraementarv, leadin_ to hi£h oen,";c
tic! agncui:'ure "*as of the shifting tFpe (moving to ne_ drift and. v.'ith it. high local variation. In the follo'.,.ing
fields as soil e.,-.;1, •
,e.,,,_.? was falling or for other reasons) and sections, the de',elopment o,' ',arious regions beforeand
in man,. _eas still remains a: this stage. Population sam- after agriculture is briefly outlined. Surveys of :hesub-
ration foiio`*:ng initial growth is expected to causecon- jectand references can be found in Jennings (1985) ar.d
Ia'ifuga'. migration tov,,ard new unexploited fields,when in chapter -.¢6of theCambridgeEncyclopedia of Arched-
theseare a;'a:!a_.ie, semng in a slow wave of advance of elegy.
6.4-. DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH AMERICA
Agricuiru:e arrived late in North America from Mex- becoming warmer and drier. Seven thousand years ago.
leo, and ne_er reached the western coastduring the pro- the cJimate was already similar to the modem one. But
contact penod.For a general overview of the pro- and even by 9000 years ago, there was some evidence of a
post-agricuhural development, it isconvenient to dis-beginning of local differentiation of cultures. A substan-
tinguish four large areas: the West,the Southwest, the tialdevelopment of the foraging population, accompa-
centralregion (the Plains). and the East, nied by a trend toward population increase, began onl?
1. The _esr includes for ourpurposes California, the about 3000 years ago but 500 years later in the in:ericr
Great Basin (Nevada and Utat,), and the Plateau (l.laho. (Aikens 1993). It was once believed that the social sys-
eastern Washington, and northeastern Oregon). Here, as tern was extremelysimple, especialIy in California, but
elsewhere. :_e more immediate descendants of thePaleo- this _iew is being corrected. Without increasing sol:'hist.
Indian hunters had to cope with an environment that was cation, they would not ha_e eventually reached relatively
DOI02187

high tier-q:? and Iota', w_a,m. The foraging peoples m and cot:on, made :emmics,and _;:h '.:-n_z'im" '*ere able
.,e e ._-_ s,.ma,,_ to colonize a ',as: area. Tine Honcka:'n. am _""o_ '_ b,'
the V,,'eqv.e,"eh:zhl,, se"entar',, and _ - w.'_-,"_"o ,',- ._e.......
exchan-_e and trade be:v.ee,'_ local popu!a:ions, ancest,'-a! to the P,"aoo and Pima. who stilt ,_ iF,:he
2. A-,ancu':u_ from Mexico m'o',ed first to its near- same genera! region. l'he case for cant:cub', c_fC'.::tam
est nei__hbor, theSou:h',;es'.. Defined o "- '
.eo_."a_.h.a_,, in from the Hokoiaam to the P;ma-P'_-a_:" > _ascnaai',
various ways, it usua'.[y includes .&":zona. New,Mex- strong•
leo. Colorado, and southern Utah h isa vet") dr') and Nor:n of the Hohokam, the Ancsaz:culture rna? have
almost desert area, ha,: :n the Archaic Period,_d sorne- de'.eiope_ d,,mctly from an ea.-he:Archaiccu!rux_.a:
time:; e_en dunng the Pc:do-Indian Period in :he easterr, lasted through the millennia (theOs,,a,..,, probabh with
moiety' of the Sou_',_est, _em developed cultures of the contributionof migrants..Maize, bezns, an," squ_h
foragers ,,hat lastedfor millennia, until the beginning of me v,,el]documented by ,,D. 600, at whic_ :i=-.ethe pcpu.
a secenta£:'-ho:':icuitural mode of lp,ing in the Formative lation, originalS? rather diffuse, began to coilec: in sn'.,ail
Period. "fT,e intraductian of some cultigens from Mex- separate settlements. Between .._ 900 a::,i1100, large
ico, like maize, may be as old as 3000 years BP or more: villages of Pueb!o-Lvpe appear at Chaco Can?on in north-
a safer date is 2500 e.P (Lipe 1983). The beginning of western New Mexico. There were cl,cles in v.hich Ira-go
a radicaiiy new culture (see fig. 6.4. 1) is seer. with the villages (Pueblos) were formed, then abandoned coiiec-
Hohoka,m c_kure in southern Arizona, s:a.r::ng about tivety when the population morea to other places, open
2000 years no", According to some, the Hohokam were to form iar__.erpueblos It is belie,.ed that the increase
migra_ts from norther-::,Mexico: toothers, the'. were lo- in village size made _t possible to engage in ir'ngation
cal mh....... L who v,em ...... cuhu:-a! ,'qesc-Amencan ,corks of _,mater magnitude. Conflicts _i:h :mmigr_.t-:
influence (Lipe I987_. The,,.._rev' _,,,a,..,.... beans, squash to the area like the-Apache and Navaio. ',,,ere earlier be-
lieved to have been responsibie forthe movemen'of
the pueblas, but it is now known that these Na-Dere
\, T",_'_ _ /speakers atoned in the a.ma after a_ 1200. ,Ma.nvnea
t.._. :_,, _ c( \ settlements were built and suddenb abandoned shoal,.
£'-7,¢C%
".--__'_-_ "M thereafter, at dates that are a:zumtel,, knov.n thanks tc
• ,.? "d} - "--.__.._ "_ the s:ud._ of dendroc_onolog.?, the sequence :f nngs m
,_ e _v"'"_ v-.. trees. The masons for movement are less c',ear. Amc,':g
/} L..2',., the cut'rent explanations for theabandonment o,¢r,._..,.:","o"....
is ,:.herecentdiscoveryof coodng and dryingof the local
\
climate around ao 1I00. leading thesepeople to sem.ch• for areas more suitable for a_icu[tum becausemore
)waterwas a',ailable. Thedescendants of the A:",asa:_
/are the modem Pueblo Indians (Hopi,Ztam. etc:
Lipe 1983).
Another culture, the Mogolion, sta_ed east of theHo-
hokam and at about the same time. reached its maximum
extension around AD. 900. It was e_entual!y absorbed
into the ,,vestem Pueblocukum under the influence of
the Anasazi. Other groups that developed a farming c;al-
ture in the area, and that are not easily identified with
modem descendants, include the Fmemont in Utah. the
most nonherogroup in the Southwest.
3. Unlike the Southwest, which is dry theEast enjoys
_'C_C considerablerainfall,whichfavoredthedevelopmentof
a rich flora and fauna. This area includes thevalleys of
00_'¢4,.two major rivers (the Mississippi and the Tennessee),
the Appalachian region, and extends farther northeast.
In the Paleo-lndian Period, the Clmis hunters were the
Fig, 6.4.1 Geo,,,,,,,,graphi¢tc_atior, of the major Noah American
a_ricuhuraigroups(from Whitehouse and Whitehouse 1975; dominant culture, followed by the Dalton culture, which
Griffin 19801.A. Fremont;B, Anasazi;C,Hohokam: clearly derives from theClovis, but is adapted toanov.
D,Mogollon:E. bhddle Missouri; F, Central plains:G, target, deer. In Paleo-lndian and Archaic times thepopu-
Southernplain_:H,Onrota;1. CaddoanMississippian:tation was pr )bably scarce and diffuse, madeup of small
J. Plaquemine:K, MiddleMississippian:L,For{Ancient;
M. AppalachianMississippian:N. Hurena: O,Im,quois; mobile bands with no capacity for food storage
P. Monongahela. 1. HoD: 2. Navaho; 3,Zuni, a.,Apache; The transition to a sedentary, lifewas spread over a
5, Piton:6. Papago. long period,and domestication of some nafi'.eplants,
DOI 02 188

3:: ..:- _-E:_ -
!ike sunf,:_-',_.erand amar:m.tY:,ma`' ha',epreceded :he m- _. -_et'._ee".:he --,oufih_es::rd :ReE:,<:are ::re P.:;':s.
trcduc:,,en of cukigens of Mexican cr:gm An :nno',a- ',_L_cna.f;er:hedisaFpea:nnceoftr, efores',arcu:d :n O(:-
',loP,is :he bu!:din8 of l_-ge mcunds as at Poverty Point. BP became a_ide grassland occu;ied almost s;nce :me
Lou!siama. `*i,,h dates ranging from ]700:o $70Bc beginn ng by' large herbbores,pa.'-:;cz:iar:,vbison The
(Jennings 1983). Th,e size of this mound (a diameter numbers of bison fluctuated o'.e: the mi]:e.",nia;there are
of '.2C'0m :ndica:es ,'hat a degree cf social complexir: also fl:.ctuations inthe de,':sit.,,of occupa:,ons ar:d :Re at-
had been .-e=ched teat made i: pcssib!e to build such chaee'.i:g{cal record probab!y for:he same reuse.,: .-_:H'e:i
monamentai works.SmaUer mounds. _suaY]y bu_ais.Gap. the archaeological comp!exes fol!c_ one a.".ol:-:er
are ;'ere cor:._mon. Domesticated sq-ash is known from ,,,,i:h few changes from I 1.000 :c 8000 years ag.:.: after
the a,,'ea, bu* couid net ha,,e fo.,rne_ an importam, paR, that rime, a o!Lmalechange may' have set in. At Mr:ram`'
of the fooo supply: mmze came scmev,.na: 'arer Pottery'. Cave. Wyoming. there are 38 distinct fe.':ile le,.e:s from
rare in :,he beginning, :,as 'a.idespread by 7,'00 _,c. The 9300 years ago :o, o 1580. Ineicating m:e,."rniren:, per-
popuIa:ior clearly became more sedentary,' during this hops seasonal, occupa<ons for long pe.-:ods of Ume '.Jen-
period, us_:aHy dolled ',.be Hopeweikan. but c:Cylater hinds i953>Agricultural acfi_ity `*i:h dependence on
(,,D 70g..-1000_ did dear s{gns ofshifting agncuhure maize in the eastern Plains (the Plains '.'il]age Tr'adiUcn>
appear (the MJssissJppian period), snll combined, asis appeared be:aeon AD 600 and 1000 in South Da.kcta .'-r:d
usual in initial periods, with hunting and gathering. The nearby regions. The bison remained impor:ant, not on:`'
pEncipa_ site isCahokia, nearthe Mississippi River, al- as a food source: bison scapulae',',ere used as hoes.There
most oppos:te St. Louis. Missouri Productlor: of maize 'a,ere ¢.uhual contacts _ith the Pueblos and `*ith the Cad-
and squash increased, and beans '*'ere added around _,a dean Miss;ssiFpian. and many `"i]]ages werefomffed.
10££. Communities :'anged ]n size from I00 to I000, and In summary', quoting from the CambridgeEncyc!ope-
the _a:ger onessho,aed mr!cationsofsoc:aJ stratified, did of .-_,r,:haeology (chap. 57. v,hich. along ,a-i:h Jen-
ti,:r:.. '_::h chiefs or priests dixcting ceremoria]s, mound hinds [:9S3]. is a good sur',e.,, of the pencd;. "a!'. Nor':_
cons:factions, and agncu!:u:-aloperauoes. This culture. Amemcan agricuhural de,,e]eymems 'acre re!ate,. :':is:Dr:-
Oneo:G. spread north to no,":.h-'aestem Illinois and south- caib and ',,.ere deri'.ed from prior appearar.ces in Cen:."a.
e:-n ',Visccr:s:n after _, m i_,0 a:d had connections Mexi,:o and fur:her south" The societies of :he sou:b-
y,lib other mear_y'cu'.:'ures ',iiiages 'acre often fortified east reache_ thegreatest degree of soc{al complexi:.', and
(Jennff:gs '._43a. de;elcpmer.t.
6..5,DEVELOPMENT iN CENTRAL AMERICA
The earl'.,' development of agriculture at centers like the deaiine of the Olmecs. impoEam cultures ar.d so-
Tehuac%, south of Mexico City', ar.d Tamau!ipas, north- cieties de',eloped in the _alley of Mex:co (Cuicufi¢3
west of:be capital, has already been described. The slow first, then Teotihuac_fn)and in the ,,alley of O.'_xaca
emergence of an urban civilization reflects the long time (Monte Alb_.nL where major ceremonial centers `*,ere
necessary' to develop an efficient agriculture in a chal- bulb. In Teotihuac_,n (200 Bc-*,n 800), the pepu-
lending en;:mnment where techniques of imgation were lotion in the later period may' have been as high as
necessary,in most of the area. The firstindication of wa-100,000 for the whole valley' of Mexico. most of it :n the
ter con::'el is in Tehuac_.n 6000 years ago. Places dis- capital.
cussed later are shown in figure 6.5.1. The lowlands of Yucat,_n and Guatemala were occu-
In :he Formative Period (2500 a C.-,VD 300), the ba- pied by Mayas, who extended also to the highlands in
sis of',.heMeso-American civilization was laid through Guatemala. The conditions for agriculture inthe Mayan
the development of intensive irrigation, astronomical regions were quite similar to those of the Gulf coast
observations,cemmoniaI centers and architecture, anta where the first urbancivilization, thatof the Olmecs,
hieroglyphic writing. The firstgreat civilization was had earlier developed. These regions were exce'.lem for
the Olmec(1200-600 sc) which developed its great- sedentary.,but notintensive,agriculture with two crops
estmonuments (the colossal stone heads of La Venta, of maize a year Soil fertility,however, is a serious prob-
San Lorenzo, and others) in an area of the Gulf coast. [era: it is notclearhow the Mayas solved it, butthey may
But the Olmecs established an exchange system thathave employed several different solutions to make slash-
greatly extendedand unified smaller-scale systemsand-bum farming more efficient(.rennings 1983)Cot-
existing before in their area and in other areas of emonial centers like "rikal in the Guatemalan low:ands
Meso-America, thus favoring the spread of cultural andKaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands began
diffusion and trade throughoutall Meso-America. After developing in 30 and 500 sc, respectively The Mayan
DOI02189

A',/,E?,:C _ 313
/
",K:c'_e_ _:aa,;!
i'
II
&.e,"-aoeI
,']'at"r'_,.,,,,7,,g._, ;
"%,.,,
•?ll,21_.II=%1_
Va, ,_e7,• T,,,_
• ,_,,,,_.... _,,.,,. Fig. 6.3.1 ,Mcso-Amedcaf_m Fern-..
_" _ at','-ePeso..4toEurooeax:vn'.a,:',
] _ ](fromO'Shea:980)
culture was st:'ong:? influence!b,,.Tcetiha-,.car:. It _as a toall) gained control and became the firs: mili:a:-!r.c
muhicent:"ic, hie,'-'archica: societl,. '_ith each :ente., ha,,- state of Meso-America. Their influence lasted from ,_.:"
in:_¢majestic,re!igi::,san_; ceremoniaJ mon.:menrs The 900 to 1200 and extended as far asnor',_em Yu,:atan.
majorcenter in :he .Ma'.an classicalperiod. _ka!. oat.u- _here Chichen Itz_i (ended in AD 122a) _e=amec_e
pied an a.rea c:- 60 _:m-"(donnings 1983) and had a ?opu- most impor':an'center in theso called "Pos:c:assic pe-
lation of tens of thousands of people.Outside :he con,or, nod" (A.D 903-.-1520). Tula had been destro.',ed a [itt:e
the population li,.ed in sma:[ hamlets and was more dif. earlier Po'o.e:foil into thehands of the A=recs. _ho
fuse. The ciassica: ?'.Ia:,an period ended abrapd.,, about came from thenorth to found a ciV at Tenochtiti_.n.
At? 900 for unknown reasons where Mexic3 City is located. The) wer_ in power in
The abandonment ar.d des:ruction of Teolihuac:in 1519 whet,Hem_ Con_s conque_d Mexico. A su:",ey
star_ed a competition be'_,een .Me'Uca.': regiona', con- of the period and region with additional references can
ters.in ',,hi:h the Toteas. from 'he city of Tol:annearbefoundin chapter 58 of the Cambridge Encyclopedia
Tuia in the c.entral Plateau north of Teo:ff'.aac,_n. even- of Archaeolog:,'
6.6: DE','ELO?MENT IN SOUTH AMERIC,-',
We ha_,e already discussed the difficuhiesassociated cared local b inthe early period ina variety of differ-
with theveD' ear!? dates of some South American sites. ¢nt environments. The rich marine fauna remained an
Clovis projectiles, indicating the Paleo-IndianPeriod. are importantsource of foodon the coast, but it was later
found in most of South America as far south as Patag-supplemented with agricultural products, and irrigation
onia; in the north, at El Jobo, they may even antedate - wasde,eloped in arid coastal regions. From the riD
those found in No:'th America. The beginnings of agri- highlands c_.me tubers like potatoes, while from higher.
culture can be traced to a period between 9000 and 7000 altitude forestsor the eastern side ofthe Andes other
_._'., mostly in the nonhero and central Andean region products emerged, including appar*ntly manioc,which
(fig. 6.6.1). There is nosingle, contained nuclear area. later spread tothe Amazon basin. As already mentioned,
buta wide strip all along the northwestern coastthatanimal domesticates played a lesser role thanin the Old
later radiated to other pans of the continent. By contrast,World; hov,'ever, in the south-central Andes the domestl-
the tropical forestof the Amazon basin had asomewhat cation of camelids provided an important contribution in
later, secondary, and less marked development, but hints terms of meat, wool, and animals of burden (for trans-
of major novelties are already appa.rent, ponation). Around Lake Titicaca in sou,hem Peru there
There is broad consensus that maize came to thenorth- were. at the time of conquest, some 500.000 camelids
ern Andes from Mexico, along with perhaps squash and (llamas, alpacas). These animals had been food for high-
beans, but a number of plantswere certainly domesti- land hunters since very early times. Their natural range
DO102190

3',4 CH_?T£R
liances or other socia! ale',ices,an "arcS,:?e',_.c'" :':.ze
of ecor,cm_ v.as created v.h;ch g.a,_,o _re_r:e_':r,c sm.,aT,
,f.,.,_(,,--,,...,...._..,._,_-._,,.-_coc-:_._,communz_:esaccessto, or o_,nership of, _:ezesof ',aRc
'"_ ___x.%_ in a great ,,_iety of areas.
Popula!:on density must ha,.e risen steadib, iF: :h:,_
So.",=at,: r_t_f ', not too su_r'ising that tLe /,':cae:m..T:n:
period.
&r:d
it
is
•,_ .-._ ,_ _ which at:he time of conquest extended from sc_th.
_...,,,_,..',a .[.._..__.,._,_t_,,_.r..__.,.._.."_ ern Colc,mbla to south-ce::t:_l Chile, m_',, ha'_e be':,-,
(-" ,,_ /, _ made up of 12 million people Even if this es::ma:e
k',,,._x.._e_.. _ '.'minesc'e'_:Iv accordingto sources, the area must ha',e
--_.c_.a,,,,- ,' " _ been ','e:,.densely inhabited, perhapsasmuch ascentrnl
/Mexico. Complexity of soc:ety probably _ached a :ev.
X'a;k"hei h:a,out3oo0yearsago.asshownb:,the :gh
"_ "_r:a._.v,,a:o _ at which a new sophisticated _ form.thatof the C,:_c,;.:,:
/
cuh:.:re(nonhe:"nPeru). spreado'.er a vast area.o.::ho,-:
any e',idence of political or military'occupations. T'_e
Moche site pictures of the north coast of Peru '2"2
=._c4-:_.:c._', r/BC-.-',c: 600) shov,,'perhapsthe first hints of orgar.:ze5
/milita:'?a::i_ib A majorinfluence_asexercisedb?:_e
/4_T/o/:ua,:ooo culture, locatedon .he southe.-"n-_
,_,_,cf Lake
'k'-,-../ "f]ticaca ',;00O BC to AD1000j.There ",;,,asprogress:',e
de',elopment of ceremonial centers and true im:eaa,s':a-
[_7t .._a_,c"d the Van,_rr',,ar-eY:ee :US'.,.as a:quired in the _ c '
,a., phases. At the Fee.k,me aT-
ban popu]ahon mav.have been 20.00C_:0,000i__,.,.],1_s,-__"--*
_g. 6.6,1 Mr.-2of a_r:c_huraiset:]em_n:sin q ""
. _o.... 1983). 'This culture certainl,, had an :reFer-cant:mpact
Am.-'r-:.aTheio¢,:::cnof a .mode_::':_e t2eYa,'t.oma.m_.
i,_nasa:_dic2_edifrcm Whjteneuseand _.h;_e_cuse:9"5: or',lhe central Andes. probably initiating or ac_anc:ng
_a.":".:1980:Mcms 19SOL economic inr.o:afions later adopted b,, the Incas A,c
ter the col!apseof the.Moche. theH,cr: ,,.u:t_................. d-"
is abo',e 5;3¢ mand their domesticat,.on ,-'r,a,,ha',e begum T_m_,uanacoinfluence established, probaba? t,nrougn.7,;]-
',e."? earZ':rS0O0s ._: Bra,. !980) itary conquest (Morris I9SOL an empire :hat lasted ::r::::
A_,ncz:cre Fie'ted only'a seccnc.ar'?'roie compared AD 800. Other states (e.g., ChimeS. capital C,_at".Chant
_ith .fo_'ino.._= unti{ about 5000 e P, but after this date perhaps 25.000 people) existed at the time in the centn:
I_ger settlements supported b.v agncu:ture began :oap- Andes. The only great South American empire stoned
pear. Sites like Real A!to and San Pablo. on the Ecuador- developing after 1438 '.,,'hen. near Cuzco.the Inca ',,.on a
_an coast, are large stable preceramic fa.rm.ing _illages; battle against a nearby state. The,,adopted an extreme'!?
for examp'.e. El Paraiso had a population of 3000-.4000 efiective mill:aT?' policy and by building an extensi,,e
(Bray 1980). Potter:' appeared around 5000 years ago network of excel}eatroads (15.000 km) across _ec.' dif-
at sites as diverse as Puerto Hormiga. near Cartagena. ficult terrain, hundreds of road stations and state store-
Colombia, and Valdivia, Ecuador. houses, and a well-trained army,they rapidl?conquered
Irrigation was practiced early and itssophistication an extensive territory.Called Tawantinsuyu ("Land of
increased to _markabie levels. Terracing of the steep the Four Quarters") itwas one of the greatestempires of
Andean slopes was quite common and greatly improved the world. Inca was the name of the hereditary monarch
water control and productivity. Cotton (possibly a local The nobility, the priests, and the bureaucrats formed 5%-
domesticate) and the manufacture oftextiles soon ac- 10% ofthe population.The rest was a rural population
quired considerable importance. Improvement intrade on whom several types of taxeswere levied, despite the
networks made itpossible to redistribute avariety of lack of a currency.Of the agricultural products, roughly
materials at long distances, and socioeconomic advances two pans of three wentfor the state and the nonproduc-
allowed people to make excellentuse of the varietyof Jag pan of the population, and the restwas disudbuted
microenvironments present in this region,Through eth- by the village chief among villagers. Textile products
nic and kin relations, in addition to trade,itbecame were made by the women for the state.Time in the arm',
possible to de,,eiop the already mentioned pattern of a and laborfor the statewere required of the men under
"'vertical" economy whereby the same people had access the "'mit'a'" system, which ',,,'as inherited and perfected
to productsmade inverydifferent environments, from from earlier states. Itmade possible very rapid r_a_
the coastto the highest ahiplanos. In the Andes with conquests and the monumental buildings dedicated to
a day's walk. itis possible to go from one to another ceremonial and civil purposes for which the Incas are
of a number of differentecological niches. By wise al- famous. Products taken by the state--food and textiles--
DOI0219I

A ),_5 P i .7._, _15
were r-_ds::zbc, eC tc the pop..iation accord n__:o rack, of potter) H_g_ dens[ires '.',,ere possible or:i, ::', :_'ea__
and indi,.:o...:al ,.,,elfa:-e ,.,,as ass,.,:ree E,'.an ef_cient state ,or) fa,.orab'.e ."or agncu',tu_ ('.at-zest. fro=. ,.',h:c:',r,a-
organ :ca'con. The "khipc.'" a system of knot'ed smngs ti,,es wen soon e',icted after conques', af ::re':'acre :.c:
of ob,<curecr:g:n, ser'.ed the puwoses of communication kiiled by' disease ot sh',.e ,"aids (Ba..'.:w)'.98C
and accounting in lieu of v.nung. E',en toes':in '.he Onnoco and Amazon basin there
The enc,.'-m,ous Inca emph'-e lasted about a con:at'.': atexist robes teat ha',e been relati,,e_v unchanged _,,
the time of conquest, the empire spanced 36: of',atitude European contact. Several of these--in pat':truEr, tee
from ne_- the present Equadc'-Ce'.ombia border to sou:'.", }ano,_a,ne an4 the Makiritare--ha_e been the subject
certr-a! Chi'.e, including much of the At'.aea:t region of of intensi',e biological in_estigat!ons b,. Neei;'1978.
Boli',ia, I: was destroyed by 250 co:q:,isn_,&.res led to ',980, Noel etaI. 1977) and his group inc'.udmg among
Per'_ by Pizarro in he 15Y" The Spaniards _ere gxa:!) man,','others, population genet::ists P Smo,;se. R. Spiei-
helped by epidemic diseases like _,ma!',pox and measles man. and R Ward. linguistE Mig!iazza. a.:-._c-ltu._!
that<_,eyin_olun:adl?imposed to Peru. an_ de.r,i,mated amhropologis: N. Chagnon. The bibIiogr'a_'h) _s_oo
and disorganized the Indian population. The'. aho ably extensive for a complete listing, which can be foun_
exploited c[vi_ unrest, elsewhere (Chagnon e:at. 1970: Smouse 1982: Chagnen
There:n_kabie population density a,':.d degreeof 1983). The Yanomame are tropical gardeners who akso
camplexi_y and organization of the A,",dean states and rely on hunting-gathenng activity. Like other hunter-
empires 'acre unmatched in therest of South Amer'ica. gatherers the'. ha'.ea tow number of bh':Es, because
but a rehu'.e),dense populat,,e,e de_e!opec i:t theArea- of long bit'& mter_aIs. Despite their io'* fe.":ilitv the,.
zon forests in spite of the difficu',ues me: bv fm.'m,ers are at the moment in a period of demognphic gro',*th
in mv.ch cf this area Ne',_ crops _em ne:essae: for Their present location is sho,.,.n in figure 6.61. "D.e
the: wet soil and chmate of t.'.e Amazon: the most suc- history of Yanc,mame ,,'ii!ages shov, s sever-a! fissions m2d
cessf_.i of them ',,,..asmanioc. This p!ant e'..h:s in t_.vo fusions Fissions reflect hostiEties betv.,een grouts and
va::ie: es. s_veet and bitter: the sweet '.arid:'., was pr¢_a- often take place along kinship lines, Although tenden-
b',) ¢omest_ca:elfirsL The biue" t'.pe requires a specie', tiaiL', endogamous, there is migratory exchange bet,,,,een
fermenter;on t,eztment for destroyi,':.g a potsonous sub- villages of the same tribe and. to a much lesser e_-
st:nee that gone=cos cyanide blanioc cuttings can be tent. v.hh other Indian tubes of the region. "D.ere ',*era
easf]) plante,f-, an" propaga::on is extreme',y sim?'.eoniy tv.o door.merited instances ofexchange :Need, pets
It is :special',) s,.aitabie for tropical en',iro':ments and comm) one _as due to the capture of tv,o >'_i=:are
pro',ides ,octs rich }n starch but poor in proteins, so it women (Chagnon etal. 1970) and the other _as due :o
must becoup e_ with other food,Since manioc seeds theabsorption of a fe,,,, sur,,i',ing members of atmbe
are no: used. ::is difficultto trace it a.":haeoZogica_!._: the: hadcome upon hard times (_,_&itkampand Chagnon
gcoc c!ues are'.a:s and special bo_.',s empl,')'.ed to make 1968). Thegeneticexchange between Yanomame '.il-
chicha beer from it. or graters Manioc me) have been lades, in spite of the fosion-fission history,is sufficient['.
domesticated at an eariier date farther noah,but the ear-limited that there is considerable genetic heterogeneity
Iiest _'.e!l.da:ed fine is from _hrinacocha on the upperbet',a,eenvillages, as described indetail in the ongmal ga-
U,:a) ali Ri'.er innorthe.,n Peru (about 4000--3"00 years pets In particular, the tendency to fissions foilov,ing kin-
ago). In the same area and ume was also found the ship relationships (linea! fission pattern)has the effect of
firs_ porte,'2..,probably deri',ed from the Valdivia types, reducing the effective population size of the viIIage and
The Ucaya!i River is a tributary' of the Amazon, and therefore incre_es the effect of drift over that expected,
it has been suggested that there were close connections assuming random fissions. Further strengthening of
between Amazoma and the Andes during the Chavin random genetic drift is due to the high polygamy of
culture. This would explain the Chavin paintings of village chiefs. The Yanomame move frequently,often
tropical animals and plants that do not exist where this under pressure of hostile relationships within the tribe
culture developed. The finding of potter', on the lower and with tuber tribes, and are currently' drifting slowl._
Amazon. and even at the mouth of the river (island of southward, They occupied a part of the forest still suf-
Mamjo, Ananatuba culture, for location see fig. 6.6.1; ,ficiently undeveloped at the time of the Noel study that
date 980 Bc ) has suggested that cuhural adaptations they could keep to their traditional customs, a situation
to the tmpica_ environment, developed on the upper thatis rapidlychanging now,
L'cayali River and other tributaries of the Amazon near The findings in other populations in southern
the Andes, were spread downstream by colonists. There Venezuela orin northern and central Brazil are simi-
were also later migrations upstream, as in the caseof the lar to thoseof the Yanomame. but there are differences
Omagua and Cocama tribes of the middle Amazon. At between tribes depending ontheir econom', Saizano
the time of European contact, the Omagua had villages and Callegari-Jacques (1988) have compared groups that
of 300..-3000 inhabitants, at shot1 distances from each they call stage-A tribes (hunters-gatherers with incipient
other, and the first visitors were impressed by the quality agriculture, like the Yanomame, Trio. Cayapo, Xavante.
DOI02192

arc o:_:ers'.,and stage-B t.'nbes"_echr:o:oglcal',ymore ad- cases.."Me',eme:-',sar.d ad:-i,:'_:es :.re vc: ,_"c:-.:-::::':.
",at.codagric_'.tura!ists and _she.,'Tr.e.'-.:ike :he Macush{. local econcm;c ae',e!c_meT:, espe:::.:- m::';::,£, f:.:-z-
V',a_isXar.a,_cuna,Makint_-e.Cain_ar.g. and man,. ing.a_d road building._-e causesof serious e,ncrc;_,:_:-
others}. Fe_i',ity (number of childre:_ m,ccmpleted fami- meat. Tempera:% ocaupat:on in _o[d-m:n:n_ cFc._:k:n_
lies) is a!!!:k io',*er, inteRribai mar:_..a_es_rer, and ',ari- and i_ oi: fiords is re.--,:destr'-c::_e :c :."ad',::cr:alAma-
ar.ce of :ke ::_..-ber of children higher in stage A. b':zon societies and bodes it: fur :ae future of these?o7u-
other,_Ise,nomeier demogra.:'n:,:_iff,'r;':ces _er_ four.d lations The e\tensi_ edes:r_',:::or,of "heforest fo:_.o,,,:.--._
R is likei} that the a',e_ge s:zeof _:,:La_esis greater m the opening cf roads and modern agricuL,u,-a',and [:_£-s-
stageB trial p:ar.ts c,'_a:ecangets _ha:_o '¢,e!'.be,end :he hea,',
Cor<emp,:,ra_ but fragmer:a_' info.<'m,aticr, from otLer damage to thelocal popu',a,Jor:_
forest people cf:he Amazon-Onncco basrashov,s that Sur,e?s reie,.ar.t to th_s per:or and additional re,:er-
most are settling under pressurefrom go'.emments, but ences can befound m chapters 59 a:d 6C,of theCam-
theu-acit;onal way of lifehas beer. maintained in a few bhdge En<_cioped a of Archaeo:og?.
6.7. PHYS:CAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Physiaa[ anthropologist C S. Coot. (]965} dis:it.- non-Mor.go[o ds. place£ forv.ard it. thecrb:ts: the _'.e
g',,.tshe£ bet',_een Eskimcs and Aleuts. o_ the oneside, oper.ir.g :s nm"ro',,.ed to a s:i: b, e':efclds. _;:h :'e :r.ner
and American lnciar.son the other.The .first tv,o be- edge 9f thee'.e co_ered b', :he .Mongchan or eT:car.-
lcng to :he Siberian Mor.go;c_cs m:.dcameby a laterthic eye fdd in a percemage of indb.idua',s. '_.h:ch is
migration: American Indians are stated to be ."Jor.goloid especially high among Siberians. The :o'-,,ermar_:r cf
in ger.e."alar.d moreur.ifc.m-,,racia:'o. "'despite someof theorbit lies re=her fcr_ard and the z.'_on'a:;c bone:,
their peTu:ia..qties :n blood groups" ar.d are "'moreuni- protrude fo_,.,ardand latera:iy, genera::ng thecna.-ac:er-
fc:.,':'m_aia;',? thanat.? other groupof people occup, mg istic 'high cheek-boned" appearanceThenasM bnd_e
anequal'.:, ,ant area. but the? areMongo'.oids of a par- is usuaI[)low and flaL but there a=ealso aquii r,enoses.
ticu!_" kind ' with little, if any, inter'media!e fo ,rm.s.
_e or:g!n of Mor.go'.oids (see chap, -:- is believed to Amehcan Indians ha'.e less fiat faces thai'.Siberians
be eitherir no,":hem China cr noah of',t..According'c and often prominent, sometimes convex noses T'ris is
A'.exsee'. _]979), the maximum developmentof Men- perhaps themain differer.ce, bur. asjustmem;one_, :he
goloi_ features is found in central ar.dseuthemSiberia. American Indian typeof noseis also found in Asia:
espec:aii.', among: _'I, theTungus-.',.lanchu people of Coon (196_,<)cited theTibetans and the Naganns of' As-
cenmal Sibe,'n,a, Kamchatka, and the lo',,,,erpan of thesam. Pigmer.tationis usually darker among Ame,d=an
Amur Va'.]e,,: (2) Turko-Mongdic peopleof southern Indians. butthere is also ',adation among Siberians.
Siberia and. theYakuts (middleLena River); (3) the The mean statureof Amebean Indians {Johns:or ar.d
Ni'.khs (= Gilyak). a small group in the nor'them panScheli 1979)vanes considerabl,,, being highest at high
of Sa.Lhalir. and the mainland opposite it: (..!.)nonhero latitudes (Canada and Patagonia)and lowest in "he _.-op-
Asians hKe '_.e Nganasan (Taymyr peninsula), Dolgans ical forests (Guatemala. Brazil). This foi',o',,,s the_asuai
(a small _oup south of the Taymyr peninsula).Yukaghir pattern of climateadaptation. In South America. mean
(a small group east of the Lena River). and western stature ',,,'asmapped for 43 tribes (Salzano and Ca!legan-
Chuckchis.Thesepeople have somewhat variable pig- Jacques 1988) and thereis a slight difference berweer, the
mentation in skin and eyes. the lightest being the second northwest and the central-southeast (157 cm vs.161.3
group followed by the fourth and then the others. They cm).
all have extreme Mongoloid features, mostly reflected in Of special interest are the studies of dental character-
the conformation of the skull and soft parts of the face, istics by Turner (1987, 1989). Most northern Mongoloids
_hich include large cranial and facial dimensions, flat- have shovel-shaped incisors, which are also found in fos-
tened face, nasal bones, and nasal bridge, h is difficult to sil skulls as far back as Chinese Homo erecrus. This and
give a "'nuc;ear area," especially because the geographic other cranial peculiarities have been a major reascn for
distribution of Siberians has changed considerably in the claiming independent speciation of Mongoloids (Coon
last thee centuries. Although Eskimos and Aleuts have 1965: see also Wblpoff etal. 1984). The genetic ex-
peculiarities of their own. they tend to follow the same change at various times and places between local human
general pattern.Like most Mongoloids (with the excep- types, even archaic,and immigrant H. sapiens sapiens
tion of the Ainu),they have very little, if any, body and is a possibility worth considenng,but the picture of
facial hair, but abundantand coarse dark hair with rare migrations from Asia to America developed by T,,mer,
balding and late.if any, graying. Browridges are small, and based essentially on dental clues,is unrelated _o
if any; the eyeballs are wide apart and smaller than in this question. It is important, ho_e',er, that on the basis
DOI02193

a,_.',ERi C _, 3!"
of th_s e_:aence, it ,,.as stared that a strong difference from thetare D_ak:a_ curare (fig. 6 2.2!. passel along
exists bet,aeen Ea,st Asians from no,hem China and the southern edge of BenngiatoKodi±Ki£a--,f.z:zdtnez
the :SoutheastAsian u,ae For instance, nonhero Men- to the Nonhv, es: coast of the Pacific He z!s,: state!
goloids Cs;nodonts" according to Turner)have 60%- :hat the third migntion, that of the Esk:mo-A',e:.ats, a:-
92% sho'.e!ing, as against13%-25% in sou:hem Men- rived just before the bne_ge '.,,'as severed,bat after the
goioids _"sandadrn:s" Different percentages =for to No-Done. Theseconclusions agree ;re!! '..,!thomer in-
different pgpula:ions sampled. Japanese of the Jomon dependent sourres of e'.idence (G.'-eenberg e: a',19S6
period lchap a) she,* fl'.e :o,*est _.":en:ages. _d, to- and. apa.,tfrom dates, '*ith our genet:c ana!'.s:s {sec 6.9
gether wkh the Ainu, am c!ass!.fied by dental criteria et seq).
among the southern Mongobids, v.i:h T'nm_and, Sial<,,- As ,,.e have a_mady bhef, y indicated in chap:e" 2. den-
]a,,a, and Poi,,nesia 7_e, other traits showing ma._ordin tal data on nor:hem Asia. southeast Asia, a.n_ :he Ame'-
ferences be:v,een nonhero and sou_em Mongoioids are icas are genera;_,, in exce!Ient agreement with these from
the number of cusps and the number of roots cn mol_s. _ing'.e genes. How much further back this agreement v,ik
Tumer's ana',ys!s is based on the p_mise that dental go remains to be seen. Thequestion of he'd. m_ch fur-
chanacterist[cs are highly' inherited, stablein e',olution, ther back dental data can take us in human e,,oiution is
and :notsensiti',eto e'.olution_ D changes as a function of also a matter of conjecture. Apart from the ur-<nown role
adaptation to diffexnt types of foods. These hypotheses of natu,"al se!ection and of dietetic customs-- be!ie'.ed t,:
require indep_,endentconfin'r,ation. Unquestionably, teeth be negligible byTurner--and the unknov, n Ie',ei of her-
have the ad'.antage ofbeing readable in fossii samples itabi!ity, an important consideration is the number of in-
and perhaps a_s¢ of offering greater detail thanbones, dependent genes ,'hat can be detected by this approach
Using denta', miomevo',ution. T',,merca:cu',ated la kya as This is also unknown: only' when this number is rea','<,
the date of :he first crossing of the B_r:ng !and badge by large are conclusions insensitive to the admit:on of fur--
the Paleo-]ndians. He also postulated that the Na-Dene thor information. Statements based on dental anal.,,s:s _-'e
migration _as indepenC.en: of that of Pa',eo-lndians and '.ery interesting, but it _ould be unwiseto re!?on them
that it occu,.":'e_ i-,a--12kya, just before :no land bridge alone until more is k.nown about the problems justmen-
of Be.'-!.ng!av,as car"pie:e!> submerged Ira,'_di!ion, t:oned, especially if and when they disagree _ith other
he hypothe:,azee :nat the Na-Denema. I",axeoriginated sources of e_iden:,e.
6.$. LING L!_,<7;C3
The non: ng,..::st v,.ho approaches the field of me dos- of the disputeis in a Postscript to the 1991 edition cf
sificat{on of American Indianianguages can only be Ruhlen (1987).
shocked by the segregation of '.ingui,ts intot'_o groups Ruhien (1987 and references therein) summarizes the
that hold almost diametrically opposed beliefs: one. history,of ciassification of Amehndlanguages. di',iding
more numerous, refuses to recognize unity in these it into three phases. The first was stoned by ',hefamous
langlaages and chooses to !ist alarge number of essen- anthropologist Alfred Kroeber (1876-1960), _ho, at the
tinily unrelated small families or isotated languages, the beginning of the centu Ucollaborated with R. Dixon to
interrelationships among _hich are considered beyond reduce the number of families of North American fan-
recognition: the other much smaller group proposes threeguages by combining some previously recognized tax-
families, corresponding to the three major migrationsonomic units. Edward Sapir carried this effort further.
that are also recognized by other criteria, namely, in time and in I929 the number of North American families was
sequence, Amennd, Na-Dene,and Eskimo-Aleut. One six, two of which were Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene,the
cannot faii tosee this as the most dramatic example of the languages of the Pacific Northwest. This began asecond
usual division between "splitters" and "'lumpers." which phase, which can be called a "revolt," and the dismem-
has been observed repeatedly in almost every., classifica- berment of Sapir'sfamilies; after a 1976 conference, the
lion. be it of living organisms or inanimate objects. To number of independent units of Noah American fan-
increase the dismay, the group of splitters uses extremely guages was back to 63. The list of the results published
srror.g language against the author of the umficationof in 1979 was stated to be "'conservative amd not very,
Amerind languages, Greenberg (1987) who has earned controversial" representing "current received opinion."
enormous respect ft'om the whole linguistic community The third phase was opened by the linguist J. Green-
for all his other work, The diatribe has been the subject berg, who made the claim that there exist only three
of articles of popular science (two rather extensive sum- families: Eskimo-Aleut, Na-Dene, and Amerind (1987).
maries by P. Ross inScientific American and R. Wright The Amerind family includes most North American lan-
in AHantic appeared in April 199t). Another summary, guages and all Central and South American languages.
DOI02194

3I@ CH _ PTE£ _'
fcr 'A}:iC5 ',_ere ,.-I_'d r,_"'_',i_',<.ub::*h _een 3RI _,.ilm te_ aEal o]an_oua_ocE _eion£_ _o _e YuFIK S.:_£:'CL:. ¢_C'.J'_4 7T:mar:[?
)sis For 5c_th .Am,,..........- it, g:,'mc_ia;, the infcrmaticn in sowk'o.es:e,_,.A;aska. The Esk:n:c :i'.:ng c'n "_'_..-=re
v.a<_._ ',is:cf 'a'_°''_< or iano_._a£ec]as:ersrather ;hun tic coas; of Ncr.h ,America aug w_ .......... __"a_ i , _ S 2 e &_[ : _, re e
-_ _,:.... ]anz',,azes:,Alaskan Inn:.Canadian ' ....._-_Gre.o:[ar,d
aQ-de , aS:,_ ._.,,;CP,.
"I-h,eexact me_-':'o cf :he '._ord ";.- I " (for which ]nui; These are offer. - , 'o-,._ ..... _ . c¢
_.ons,c......... 5e_mer'.:< Ci-........ = "-J.",.. ;2
•_tre,_.,i._ from "_'_'_---k]aska :o C'reeni2nc
some prefer "'ph,,ium'" or "'s:cck) need not concern us aloe:chain " '-_"-o
v ht_t .......
here; it aseaP.x refers to :he highes_ "__enefic" group- The N-,.-DE>,Efamily is spcke={n nomk:*e_:e.-r,,No:-::
iris_recc__nized._Linguist,_ a.<e:he ..,era __ene:ic.1o meanAmen,ca anc_ cons_s:s of >.o .'_-_'u'_o_ Haica 31C
•'common ....... t simi'.ar ro ,...',.o= ....... for £ene:> speakers of a total 2000 Ha:da. ii',ing on Queen Cha>
mists.Today. some linguists ha',e sta;:ed forTr.ing "super- lot:e and Vanccu',er islands! and Tiingit vaCCiC}sTe:Le;s
fa:,,.,_.s .,-,. ,'hecon',entionai families, hence, some of of T:in_it._ out of I0,00_2i li',ing cn the coast ::c:-:h ,_,-;,-_....
the familiesare no ',onger "_highest genetic unit. Haidal. aso"
v..;; as the Athabaskan ' _'_" ' made
.... SU _,_,.rra, l.} _:"
" -'_o '" tk° of 30 languages The Athabaskan lan_ua__es are sp:,:enNo,...,=-,sts, hke ,,. authors of :no present book, can- . _
not make a contribu:ion to a discussion based on !inputs- b.','anor,hem group of some 70,000 speakers in ea._'er:
. _ eS,el-ha •tic ar_'umen's._ From a o_ene.,"alsc!entiSc point of ;ie,._,. Aiaska and all ,,¢ _ ' Canada, fe_, tm_._<".....' -'\ ..........
the me:hodoIo_ical ana;xsis found in the recent book groups in California and Orezer:. and a sou:horn o'-a-
I__ng,_ge_,: rice.4,,:e.._c_sby Greenber--'. (1987) is con- of about 130.000 spea.<er., the Apache and Na'.a;c
;'mcin_. We acce'::C're*'_"'-:"v ',<'.rk a< a ',or; seric,Js The .A',F_R_>,Dfamii', contains ":8: :_-= i_s SpOken
attem::,at a _o,,,w"e^_- ....."o--::a,e c!ass;fi,ma:',cmv.h_cn has a!- kv..18 mi;lion speakers. The.,. ale subdi',:ge2 b_. G:een-
read',..'_c<o,_*.............some impor':.an: results b; distm£uisn:n_* berg ' LgS7:_asfollc',.,,s _see also R h:_ :,c_-'_.,; ...._-d fig
the samethree manor groups four:d from :oral:,, lade- 6 8.!,,.
pendent sources. E_en if :h:s dassificaLcn changes _n
the tu:ure. :: supplies a sta;':.ing zaJ-: ..., is not pro- I .VoetAe.,na.me,'e_:ancX.des as sum:am:::es.-'.n'csa:
',,..._"_b'.. the ex:reme:'.,ft'agmen:ar? class!Scar.ons sup-Keresicaam, Penuuan, and Hokum
m _ e.._ ,4 .- -
,._,_e_ '23 other aa:hors..As G;eeneerg's book con',me- A1 .4,'n:osa,_cons_s:sof Ka:er:a: ;a s;':g!e ',ar;-_.¢_a_.e,._,:-
ingi? shc'_s, :he d]ffic.;lt:es enccun:ered by the extreme g:c ,:a.]gcnq.:ian ant :',_o,sO'.a_ealanguages. ",_,:.on::::
spii::ers are me:hodoiog!ca! The.,. proceed b.', compar-"t'urok and Mosan ,:',VakasharLSa',:sn.andCh!mak,:ar .
ina :',_Cl=r'oHne_'¢at _rime v,i:h al; ex:reme:v detailed il coxers cos: of Canada sc,u:h of ',mezones occup,e_
':,. Eskimos_theArcl c! and :heNa-De.':e, ncmh',ae_¢:em
•"' ,e_, more than '_"
a::a',,s!s than makes it ;mposs_ele to , <" " Canada and central .A',aska; h a:so ex:e,:as :c :heMac-
small fr'ac:ien of allpossibie puffs."E,'.eir conclusion _es: scumof theGnat Lakes and :o Ne'a England
is iimxe£ :o "he scalene:: that _he pair is either "re- A 2. Keres_ouanincludes Keres :essemiai!? a smge ]an-
luted'" or "'noI rela:ed.'" omi::lng an estimate of a de- guage)and:heSiouan, lroquo_an,andCadecan far:-
o.e_ of re!adonshiz. ,aithout ,ah_ch _- is impossible to hes: it co'.ers the res_of the .",hdv.es_aimos: :o the >x-
build a classificaticn that goes be',ond the recognition :antic coast.
of sea:toted relationships. The decision on relatednessBPc:urban is a nenhe."n group inc',uding much of Oregor:
is based on ex:remeLv rigorouscn:e."ia. ,,.ith which, ac-andCalifomia, ',,.,,itheutliers _Tsimsh:an)as far nar,h as
carding :o Greenberg. it would beimpossibleto recog- Canada: in somheas_emNonth .America.a Calf group
includestheMu_kogean fa,,,;;.',and a fe,a,:se:a_ea ',an-
nine even me unit.', of theIndo-European family, a step
backward by uni;ersal consensus,One of these trite- guages: in No'a,Mexico,Zani; a southern,group _sfcun'_
- in Mexico (Huava,Mixe-Zoque.Totonaaan, and me
na is ",he belief that "sound correspondences" (rules of Maya in Yucatan and Ouammalal.
changeofsoundsestablishedon thebasisofhistorical C.Hokanisa nonherogroupwithsmallclustersinnon,h-
examples) must be followed without exception. Green- em and southern California, Baja California, and pa__s
berg uses a method of multilateral comparisons, in which of Arizona; a southern D"oupin northeastern Mexico and
man)' languages are compared for a number of words and Texas.
other criteria selected for their evolutionary,stability. We II. Central Amerind includes three distinct subfamilies:
limit our treatment in the rest of this section tosum- Tanoan,Uto-Aztecan. and Oto-Manguean
marizing Greenberg's classification, asgiven by RuhlenA. Tanoanincludes Tewa (Arizonaand New Mexico) and
(1987). Kiowa(Oklahoma).
We refer to the three families suggested by Greenberg, B. L'to.Aztecan is in mos of the Sou hwes. ncluding the
called phyla by Ruhlen, as families and to their subdivi- Hopi and Pima groups.
C. Oto-Manguean isfound in somhem Mexico. especiail,',
sions as subfamilies. The geographic distribution of the
the south'.vesl;alsoincludesthe Zapotecan. Chir.ame-
various subfamilies is shown in figures 6.8.1. A and B. can, Mixtecan, and Mazatecan.
The ESKP.40-ALEb'rfamily comprises 10 languages and III. Chibchan.Paezan includes the Chibchan and Paezan
85,U00 speakers; Aleut is presently spoken by 700 peo- families
pie in the Aleutian islands. Three Eskimo languages are A. Chibchan languages are found on:he soulh_,,estem
spoken by 600 inhabitants of the USSR. The Asian Eskimo coast of Mexico and in almos_a',;of Central Amer ca
DO1 02195

_ '-_.S_ "C-_ 3!9
l
-/
1 ' U"C_.s_,r*ac_r /
south of the Yucatin; otherclusters in Ver_ezuelaand the centralAndes. The Inca empire, and perhapsalso the
Brazil include :he Yanomame. Spanishinfluence, were responsible for the spread,which
B. TEe Pae-anlanguages formerly found in nonhero istherefore recent. Ti'_re are also a large number of
Florida (one language, nowextinct), nov,, sur_i_e only speakers in the southern Andes, including the Mapuche
in South Americaalong the COastOf Colombia and (= Araucanians). Threesmall areas in the nonhero A._des
Ecuador and farther down inthe Chilean Andes; there also speak, or spoke. Andean languages.
are al_osplinter groups in the Brazihan fan:st and on the V Eq_(atoria/.T.canoan includesthe Equato6.a[ and :F,e
non:_em coastof Soutt America. Macro-Tucanoan subfamilies.
_v. The 20A,_dean languages, of the 583 Amerind lan-A. Macro-_wanoan is found in nine geographic c!us-
guages, account for half of the Amerind population be-letS. mostly in western Brazil, with a fev, in easte.m
cause of:he great diffusionof Quechua and A._mara in Brazil.
DOI 02196

3:0 CH,_.PTER 5
BE.7:,c:or_sZhasthe_a_est num_.er:25_,cf all C.Mc,cro-Czr,bian_,;::__s_e_ s._cken:n :_e"cr':::e:_re
A.m_r!r:c'.anguages and is 'a<deSr_:d .'r_m ,.,,as:to gions of Scmh Ame:'::a. 'n_cs:!,,on :he cs:,.-_::f Ca;c-r-
east and from :he Caribbean :s:a",ds:o U,"'agua',', in b[a. ",'enez,.;eia,:he Gaianas. a.";,cncr':he.m_=.-'_:.::.,,,::-
x,ene:,.:ea. Colombia. Ecuador.F'eru.and central and oa:iier_ far:her south
eastern E,_z:] The!argo number cf languages [sdue:o
the :nclus:c-:cf :we important sat'families. At'awaken Geographically. Alrr.osan and Ke,"es:eua:_ are found
• and T..:-O,.:ar'am. oni,,in Ncr':h America: Penutian, Hokav,. a.,:-_ (:en-
VI. Oe.?=ro-C_,r:bincludes .Macro-Go.Mac.:o-Panoan. and
.Ma:ro-Carib. tral Amerind are found :n Nor'h and Con:rat Ame:-c'a.
AM.:c-_-Ge was '.eO,',,idespread 'r,'_ioni.',a few Jan- Paezan, Chibchan. and Equatorial in Con=re', a:d S:.::L
guages survi',,e, mostly {nsou:horn Br"az_i.in :he high-Ame.6ca: and Andean. M'acro-Tucanoan, Macr:;-C:r:::.
lan:s and farther south. TheKant':ganglanguage beier4s Macro-Panoan, and Macro-Go on:y in South .:.,met:ca
te :::isgroup. An impo_ant point is that the gecg."aphic dism:',Lcn of
B..V,acro.Pc,_oon once extende_ fromPerum Uruguay: Amerind languages is extremeiy ffagmentar:, especia::,,
max? languages are no,,,,extinct, in Scuth America.
6.9. PH_ LOGENETIC ._,NAL':'SIS OF AMER:CA
Bc:- ant:rcpe:ogical and :inguistic e',idence points :o edged :he existence of difficu',:ies for :ra'a:::g finai
t.h_reeme!or groups that may haxe represented distinct conc;usions
rnign:icns, ai! from Nor:,heas: As:a "iq,",ePaleo-Indians In our paper (Ca,.aiii-Sfcrza e: a! 1955_, ",ah:,zhst.:m-
were :he first, ,,hough their cute of on::", {,<unceaain, be- mahzes some of the poi:::s madein chap:or 2, al tee
t,,,een 35and 15k,va. There s greater ccnsens_:s for icier Na-12ene were collected in one Z.rcup and :he rest of
dates, but e=oag.h ,.mce_a:r. b :ha: at,earlier one must be the American continent '*as divided into :",'o,":,%C.en-
entet-:.a::e_ as a possibi!i:). The nor-:,h_es_em American tra], and South America. The Cent,_i group was defir.el
ind!a:s. :cgnufied b,v the family of languages they' speak on a linguistic basis, taking the Central Amerzzd sub-
as Na-De::e, '*ere next, as indicated also by their remain- family, "_'hich is ac,'ual'.) pa,,":,lyin Nor:h America azd
ing in a morenor,hem area TheEskimo-Aleutwerethe does not include all people from Centrai .4me.-,:a. In
late_<,a::d !nhabit enJ',' :he extremenc.nhem region both that analysis, Eskimos clustered 'a.ith Chukch: and v.:th
in Ameh:a and Asia. The presence of some Eskimos in Turkic-spcaking populations of nonhero Asia, fo,.,_.finga
Asia is beiJe',ed to be a retrogression from the Amencas small subcluster of the NoRheast Asian cluster, ",abile el:
to Asia. r'at:er ',hun an abor:gina! Asian population. TheAmerican Natives including Na-Dene formed a separate.
date of entry of the last two groups is probably 15-10 major subcluster of Northeast Asia.Na-Dene spealers.
kZ,.'a. . however, includetwo major groups,nonhero and south-
'I'v.equestion of whether the three migrations can beera. The southern Na-Dene are essentially the Apache
disting'a:shed on ',hebasis ofbiological characteristics and Navajo. Although the exact time of their migration
has recently received some tentative answers, all ha- from Canada is not known, it was pmbabty !ate, and they'
sically positive. In addition to Tumor's (1987, 1989) are believed to have arrived in theSouthwest around ,, 3
dentalanalysisdiscussedinsection6.7,thereisa study 1200.Untilrecently,therewas a splinterApache g,"o_p
of Arcticpopulationsby Szathmary(1981;see alsoinKansas.
1985), who used data from 14 genetic loci and found In theanalysis of thissection, the major crilerion
the Athapascan (Na-Dene) are more similar to Eskimos for grouping populations is linguistic. In view of the
and Chukahi than to northern Algonquians (non-Na- special linguistic interest, we also added Chukchi and
Done North American Indians). Williams etal. (1985) Kodak in order to test possible similarities with Eski-
collected GM and KM data from theApache and Navajo mos. Within a few linguisticgroups, in particular the
(southern Na-Dene), and the Pirna, Papago, Hopi, and Na-Dene, we use a further subdivision on thebasis of
Walapai (non-Na-Dene from the North American South- geography. Because subfamilies are dispersed in widely
west) and showed that these two groups differ geneti- different areas, it would be especially interesting to dis-
dally. The difference, however, is not striking and con- tinguish subarcas in other subfamilies; but unfor_unatel.v,
clusions based on a singlegenetic system, even one as even after the pooling of individual tribes into ]inguistic
informative as GM, are unsatisfactory. In a more sys- groups, there are not enough data toform as many geo-
tematic analysis based on data from a larger number of graphic subgroups as would be desirable. Eliminating
genes and populations, Zcgura (Greenberg et el. 1986) groups because they take unexpected positions ,,,,ould
tentatively recognized the threemigrations, but acknowl- ofcourse be unacceptable. The procedure adopted was:o
DOI 02197

k ','_E ; : 2 -: 321
eliminate s?stem:'!=aiii,, groups or subgroups that had Figun 6.8.1 sho',_sthe geographic dism_u::on of the
fewer markers. Mere.as in other chapters.',,,,ehavetried linguistic groups, and table 69.', the ,"sT get:eric dis-
to 'AmP gaps to not more than 50% !n the data matrix, tances among groups. The 33 tribes or _rsu;s :hat con-
Populations for _.hich then wen clear signs of admix- rributed most to the genetic data used :n the an'q',sis
tu,re with elmer Caucasoid or African people, accord- are listed be:ow, with the th..,'ee-iet:ers',m_o: 'use: i: the
ir.g :o :heauthors _.ho collected the genetic data, were tab:e.
eliminated. _e thought it useless to ca_.,"_,out a direct I. ESKLVO-A_L'T
ar.aIysis of admixture considering t,_a_ext,_me drift in A. Eskimos: U.S.A. other that. Inui: :EL'S,: U.S.A. Inu:_
man.)'AmeC.can .Nat>e groups has generated exceptiona! (El:;',: CanadianInui: _ECA):Or_enian.d!:ui: _EGR)
gene-frequenc_ vana_on. Tnere is no assurance for an)' B. Aleuts ion::, U.S.A.: USSR A!euts hadto_ re'*ma_-Re."s
of the most info.,-n,a::',e markers,even some RH alleles, and tended to associate '_iLhAsian popu'.aticr.s:
that the',' wen trd',,,' absent in,".heoriginal AmericanNa- II. N,-D_-',_
tires and car. the:efore be use4 for infer'fl:ngadmixture A. No_he_ No-Done (non-A:LabascanLHaida. T:ing::
We are reassured by theresults of another study that /N'DN!
B. Canadian No-Done (Athabascan): Dog=_, S',a_e,
the possibleCaucasoid or Africar. adrrfi_reof some Chipev,:,an (NDA)
data vve use4 is not misleading: Salzanoand Callegari- C. Southern No-Done ,',Athabascan):Apache. Na_ajo
Jacques (19S8; used 17 non-RH alleles potentiai'.y use-III. A.,.i_lso,NDS)
ful for e',aluat:ng :he proportion of non-Indian genes A. Northern Amerind
and compared them. _ith resuJts using RH al',eles,which 1. Almosan (NAL): B!aclC'oot.Cre.",.Makah.Man-
might be bet:or ma,-kers of admixture. T?'..erewas a car- tagnais..Micmac - Penobscots, Naska;i, Nootka.
rela:ion, but it ',,,as doubtful whether the estimates of Ojibv.a. Salish -,-Muldeshoot - Flathead - Quinau1:
admixture, :vu!d be considered q:_antitatjve:? va'id. Of -Okanagan
58 mbes.on:- 5 had estimated admixtures of o',er 25%; 2.Kensiouan (NKE?:Caddoan (Caddo - V,'_ahita-
l I be:v, een :@Q and 25%. T_es from populations be- PawneeL Cherokee
lieved :o ha',e less thanI0% admixture ga_e results very 3 North Penutian: Seminole {=Muskogee). Z_:ai
simiiar to thoseobtained using thegeneral set. As to 4. Semi" Penutian: Eastern .Ma_a,,xiL Kek:h;,
our o;_,nda:a. _e find there is a cle_"effect of admix- Cakchiquel. Kiche), Ma',a. Totonac,a. Tzei:alan
('Tzeltal -- ToztiI). Yueatecan
l:ureoni.', _nNer':,r,America as sho_n b.', synthetic maps Notethat Penutian were tested joint:? (PEN;, and Hck:r:
(see. 6 !3 were ,'liminated becauseof stmmgadmix:u_
Theg_',..psfor v,hich the number of markers was BCentral Amerind(CAN): Chiapaneca.Choiute:a,
considered ade,..auatean listed belay., together _ith the Nahua. Papago. Piton, Tarahumara. Zapoteca
:names of :_e major tribes that fo,L'.,ed them. In aimost C. Chibchan-Pae:an
e',er:case. ,",one',or. there ',,,'ere someother,less well- I Chibehan (MCC): Guaymi,lea. Misuma1_antPa:,a,
in; es;igate:i :fibes mat are not named below but areIisted Lento. Miskito. Sumo). Rama, Tatamanca (Cabeca.',
in the tabulations: data from the tabula::ons ',,,ere used Bribn, Boruca. Te,'-ibe,San Bias). Ta.rascan.Tunebo.
to calculate :he mean gone frequencies of each group. Yanomame
In this '._a,,k v,as possibie to increase therepresenta- 2. Paez (MCS): Atacameno (=KunzaL Ca.,.apa
• (Ecuador). Chaco. Colorado. Noanama. Pact, '#'a:"a_
tiveness of the data.at !east for those genes for which D. Andean (SAN): Alacalaf, Aymara. Mapuche, Ingan_
data are more abundant. Such genes, because they are
(Colombian Quechua),Quechua
represented in more groups,inevitably have a more ira-E. Equatorial.Tucanoan
por_ant inEuence on the final conclusions than genes 1. Equatorial (SEQ): Arawakan (Ooajim,Arawak, Pa-
more rarely investigated Restricting the analysis exclu- raujano),Baniwa, Bad, Campa (Maipuran),Chane.
sively to these genes, however, would have reduced its Chipaya. gmerillon. Guayaki. Jivanoan (Jivam.
power. Aguaruna. Yaruro. Cofan. Shuara). Maue, Oyampi,
In the list be!o,_,the tribes that are named are those PacasNovas(Chapacuna). Palikur. Parakana.Piaroa.
that have supplied the most important panof the in- Piro. Siriono. Wapishana,Zamucoan (Ayor_,Imam.
formation,having been tested for more traits. We repeat Chamacoco)
2,Macre-Tueanoan (SMT): Siona. "l'icuna. others
here that. especially in the Americas,and not only in the F. Ge.Pano-Carib
southern part, there wasenormous drift inmany popu-1. Macro-Carib(sMc): Canib.Galibi. Macashi.Maki-
lations, generating great variation from one population ritare (- Y_uana), Panare,Pemon, Trio. Wayana.
toanother, This is clearly visible, for instance, in the Yupa(-Northern Motilon)
geographic maps of principal components (Suarez et al. 2. Macro-Panoan (SMP): Cashinahua, Chomti, Chulupi.
1985). The avera ;ing over populations can help reduce l.,engua, Maraca. Shipibo.Toba
the effects of drift of individual populations, as alrezty 3. Macro-Go (SMG): Caingang, Cayapo, Craho, Xa-
explained in chapter 2. vante
DO/02198

Table 6.9.1. (;onelicDIstances (in Iho lower loll trlangh_ ) and Their ,";tan(lard I-riots(io tht3 ill)per light lrlanoh9 ol Ar_,mrk:an Tdbos. 61ouped Moslly LinguiMicallyall vah(osx 10.000)
PEN CAN CKC CKO CKt]ECA EC;.['I EIN llJS E'_;ll"M(_.C"vt('_.:;N[)A iVI)N Nf).'; NAt.NKE SAN SKO .'¢MC SMG SMP 5Mr
PEN 0 76 191 280 209 2"1430O 329224178 92 70110 171 50 1041:19 40 37 30 91] 121] 115
CAN 199 0259 386 246 139 3202(i5 245 207 115 1:19 133 12441] 793960 71 118 121_115 1;26
CKC 896 968 0 170537229 1983!;9 244 64265 250 313 3£,6 179 155 257 229 180 241104 261 247
CKO 1241 1367 335 0 678 294 2646;17 5411 210 413 299 495 42_ 269 215 333 364259 3£,2 241405 3;111
CKR 1202 1051980 1414 0 150376 298105 201;140 3"37325 2111 223 1!):1 310 21_43Oll 2!11221 :112 :11313
KCA 956 769650 1070 621 "._ I]656 6966 216 231191 1211 23115 193 21_/19]226 245 257195
EGIt 1286 1152 602 12321667 30E""--.._ 84 691562964(15 314189 345 24/"333 357 298 2144113)7 2511
EIN1438 12111370 2015 1494 326 _95 1113 4o44(;011!1300 245 21111 318 369 324360 409 457288
EUS 1033 977 5621227 496 259330 141 320 360 106127210 11i/' 217 21;3 259 359 21t5 329 31 |
407 677 799 3(;4 3135 241190 231] 151269 289 291 304
ESR 9781002 246680 583 27_0 237 370347
MCC 436 359 1389 1871 17321267 1312 15481372 t£,690105 211 ,'11i2 117201] 92 103 55 7913461161
MCS 334 45t 1462 1857 1851 1454 16302129 17431701]488 031t 531 123 116 68 125 1413 961119 91] 2_8
NDA 744 734 1178 1587 1267 519 1054 4926111 930 1106 1742I'_ 0 £,3 142 111 116 126 129 191 172 213 206
NDN 7445891136 1518 1236645 690 872 595 746 12£,5 1995 I3/'_7_"_O 119 217289263 327 401 196480 451
NDS 256240 756 1019 892836 1220 1051 719 787 5£,0 655 I 42£, 425-_0 52 10273 £,1] Ill 144 145 149
NAL 335, 419 618 963 950 367 831 814 669704 731634 I 4113 736 217_-.._.0 100 167101100 I 1192 141
NKE 257 146 1002 1136 1406 873 987 1263 703 999 4111 2377037111319295 I/ 41 61_l153 94 116
SAN 169 280 1161 1586 1437 1144 1387 137410671335 3.(14 5(18965 10!143.')9417 204F--._060 6_ 110 41 140
SEQ195 230 1089 1522 1673 1072 1293 1450 129214372114352 906 1109 415 4£,1219 I _.35-_--. 0 1793 05 Ill
SMC 174 275 1208 1661 1471 1133 1109 1652 1390 1;1'.19 291340106/' 1193354 4573OO I2,% 9_._ O 133 95 13/'
SMG 381 525.1118 1489 1449 12421722 194012158 1157 fM357B 11181054671565 524 I 4f_4 3117496 _ 0 170 19!
SMP 505 4941430 1839 18781372 13621£,97 14£,0 1£,119 3!).'1 393 10311410 £,80 384 403 I 270 .341 410 6-.'_0"_-_ 0 22(1
SMT 524 5,40 1429 1928 1910 1073 1179 1329 16761724 606 739 10,'5 1234 773690 468 I.. 5/'43',90495 811 73a,'_ 0
Nole- PEN. Pertulian;CAN. NocthCentral Amednd; CKC. Chukchl; CKO. Koq/ak. CK[t. 11elmieer;[CA.Canadian [_k,nos; [GII. Gleenland Eskimos;EIN.Inupik EsWi.n_;EUS. Y_JpikFskimo_; [._;t3 tl!;.=;ll
Eskimos; MCC, CenllllMocro-Ch=bchan;MCS. S_lhM_clo-Chit)chan;N[)A. (;ann(J¢an Na()erie: NON. Nollh NaDone; NI)5, South Na ()ene; NA[, Almosan; NK[, Kmeslouan SAN. Andean, _il O,
EqualOcial.SMC.Macro-Cllib; SMG. Mac(o-Go; SMP.Mac_o-Palloan; SMT. MacfoslucRnoan Tfiangl*_s *ndlcBle mole co.npac191ol_slid)o.. Ir_hJ(hJd inIho 0(_Jl)5 ate li_led _n Iho Ioxl
• US_Sn [skimns hid Ioo lew ma_ko¢$ ilrld wera nol used in Ihe I,ee el Figole 6 9 y end I() a*_'.(x:l(Ho wdh (;h_)kchl
©
O
t..._
..C,

AVE;.:-. ._2]
U$$_ Es_"o
C,_:.KC_'r
-- Kcrta_
I_ elR_eer Ch'_kCr:
N_ "t", N a-,_er e
C_ae,anNa-L'_e
i :nu_xEs_mc
G:eenLa,"cEsk_r_
A_SK_nEskimo
Cara= an_.s_'-_
Mac:e-Panoan
Scu:'_Macrc-C'tJ_chan
.-- _ , Ahcean
," --_ Kerescua_
N_ _enlral Am, or;rid
""1 Macro-Car::
L '-.--', ] '_
i(_E_ua:onat
Centrai Macro-ChiDcna"
AJmo&an
[ 1 ;r
', South Na-Dene
_,_ac'=,-Ge
Macr_-T_ca_ca_Fig. 6.9.1Geneu= :_e :,f 13
.,-_ ....... 5
C:2 2 ':C _ ,_[0Jin_ui$1;: c,'R,:_r;a
_, I _ Gere::= O_s:ar'ce
_"[_',d',[Fee OhEaLR¢_. O? :he _ o •-Ln_u%,,.o-o:'_< __'-"-,e4 c[usior,s are i;"P..o-_'_e_"with .hose .¢.......',,stun.',.:r:z
frc)m s:-bfzm::ies of Noah. Central and 3rut:q America the matix of _-- - -_o_._.eth. distancesThe a;...:, dis:anne of
_s_i_==:.': :=.__ure_9 ! a:'c"no PC ..m._?_.-.figaro 5.9Z. southern Na-ber, eto the two northern Na-Dene gre:2__
,_.c-..=_,and that be:',veen the t,.,,ono,-the_ N.D....
C,a,.airc'..ie gr_..7: _'.h:',an a'.._=, r,um_er of 72.S : is ,3q ,"_
6._ =o,'_e_....ThePC -"_._ra,.,_un,s..... for52_ c""_ o':,;"q:.... groups (Curia/inn and U.S.A.) is 0.0377 <c!fferen:e net
genetic hS.Ra::bE. signiflcanfi: but the nor&era and seuth:_. ?<a-D_neshc_,
Tha _-_."c tre_ s_=o',_s_ _er_ <o_- so=am:ion be-a',e:-a__edistzr.ces of 0.0693 and 0.0957 from :he EsK:-
tv,ee= -s_..... -A,eu_ and Chukchi-K3:2..ak :,n r,echeast- mos Table 6.9.2 shows the distances ' '",-°"";'"nor':&-
erT: 5iL-'erla.s.'-eak:n2 r:c::-.-'.:"-.et_=anhngaages; on one em Na-Dene and seuthern Na-Dene on the one si/e, nag
side. aac. a!: Amer,can Incians otSer that,Eskimos or, the four most ".)p;-"_.... Nora.hem ,.L.e.._-:- " _.._%_.... - ca "he
tr,e other The Na-Dene separate into t_o groups,the other.
most nor'at,e=. jcini::g the Eskimo and ChLkchi cluster It is clear from the abo, e distances that :he A_a,:he-
-,_",_'_'so_"".... es the Amerind cluster. These con- Navajo, forming, the southern Na-De.".e must a,,_.haJ
NU_IK E_KiMC
A_,ST:C
.ifI_,7 1 =,,,o,,..,.o,,,
M_ CRO.TUCA_O_N _ NNA-DENE
,,_ t,,_AC mO -CaMtBC ,",AN : G_EENLAND ESK;M0
_ANAOIAN _KINIO
[%_L_AT Nil[. ,
[ WIAC_O-C_R,_E_N /K_EEE$1Q#ANA" _0$_N ......................
=.[............ ,r.... _-4;._e_F
iSP_sUT,,;p_'_uT_
$i b
l:ag.6.9.2Pnncipal-componen: ma: of
American tribes grouped b? linguisnc
_<omYA_..c_L,,_c_;-/ubfami}ies.
IslP_::al Cocr_ir_.[e.L
DOI 02200

324 __H :,-"TER '5.
Tae_ 8.9_. Ser",et,c_ista_es {x_O,_e) a'r"<:_g',,;_e,em or Re!ndeer Chukch_. or. more rare!). :he USSK E_.k":cs
So_,.:'s'ern Na-_ene and O_er American Nawe_ from Northern and join fi_eAmerind cluster.
Cen_aJ*_r,c..a E',en though the USSR Esk:mos :.re :oda'. mere_m-
ila:geneI_cai',,, to ,'he Chuk,:hi than :o tee:.::'er E'_L>
N.Na.2,,eneS.ha-Donemos. the old relationship is st:',1 ,.isib e _r: :cc;:::-:Ts
Airno_&_ 6C$ 217 The s:mi:ari::es v,ith Almosan seem modes: a::C:he: :,.:.
K_esc,.;an 712 319 mixture ,a,as probably not a major one. :n ha,,--re_c-?>,:::"
Nor'me--,Fern.sam _S tee therex'formaland ecoicgicai segrega:'.cr: of Esk{'-:s
N_.%_nC._-t"a.&-ner:nCian 6_2 7.4_
Th,e similarity of no,"them and southern Na-De::e :.r.c.
their other associations are also c':eart.,. ',isible :n :he _':e:
co:':s!derabieadmi'<',.:re w:th no_he,"n. Amennds. It is de:ai',s of thebootstrap behavior. Tn,egroup fcrme.: e'.
also poss:ble that the no=hem Na-Dene ha_e had some Hai,.q.aa.Tiingit. and a re,a, A[habascans or, the coast :s
admixtu_ ,*it>,northern Amefinds, but the data are in- falrl? similar genetical',y to the Canadian A:ha_z__:z.n,
sufficient to show it. and :he.'.almost never part Sou,hem Na-Dene _,::,.:.,_
This obser',ation can also exp;a!n why in our ear!ier their affinity with the nonhero Na-Dene, but the,,ha'.e
world tree {chap. 2) a group made by aver'aging north- an e'.en greater affinity '*'hh Aimosan. v.'hich mar:. :-e_.:s
em and sou:hem Na-Dene tended to join the Amer'inds. itself in painng with Almcsan in 25 of 50 boc:s::'::gs.
sp:!ttmg from them. howe,,er, a: a: apparently '-'eo' early whi!e they pair with one or the other or both ncr':r.-
time. We knGv.that mixt',;res tend "o attach to an a,,er- e,m.'.a-Done in i3 of 50 bootstraps: the', shc,a a'.mes:
age linkage tree at a higher )e',e] than the actual time no tendency to pair ,*in an,. other smgle pcg:::._::cr:
at',,,.hich the mixture occar':'ed. The attachment of Na- This ndicates that d_e admixt'are of Naxa'o-.-:,gac",e ,_;t-'.
Dene :o other Amerinds indicates :hat the component in Ameunds probably happened most].,,'in earliert n:es :n
the mixt:re dueto the latter as. on the a'.erage, strong Cana,_a before_he mole south
enough that:.t outweighs am original, unMqo'._n, compo- The Amerind clusterhas an internal subc:_.s:e- cf
non: respons:bie for thedifference _e:_,_ees Amennd and se',e:" North. Central. and Sc,_th ._.meEcan s_;bfam: ies
Na-_,ene. Tv,o :airs of subfamilies, one centr'a]-scu:,":em at.: "-=
"i_,.efi',e Eskimo groups arereasonabh,' c!ustered in other no_he."n are next: Ge and Tuna:roan are "he ,au:-
Lhe tree, w_:h Asiatic Eskimos showing grea:=r similar- hers
iL', ',_::h :herr dose geogt-aphic neighbors, the Chukchi. As mentioned more than once before, an c'.:her in
than with the American Eskimos. USSR Eskimos are a tree has several possible explanations Ass,;m:::g :ha:
a vep: sma]! group and the separation sufficient]? long evoh.tionar?' rates are constant, one can tr2st the tree
that this result is not su_rising. Furthe--"more, there are structure :o correspond to the order of separation: of
linguisti: connections between the Chukchi and Eskimobranches, and thus probably to the order of :herr re,-
languages, strengthening the case for a reiati'.ely recent gration away from the place or places of o_g:n When
common origin of the Eskimo and Chukchi, an outlier is a very. small population that de',eloped in a
Bootstrapping shows that the separation of the t,a.o highly isolated area. the assumption of constant e,,otu-
ma-or dusters is clear-cut, tionary rates is difficult to accept,as one ",a.ou!dexpect
Of 50 bootstraps, 19 show the identical first split of it to show a long branch because of high drift. I:'_this
the tree of figure 6.9 :. Thismay seem a low proportion, caseit seems more likely that outliers did not set.'arate
but in the cther 31 bootstraps, deviations from the tree particular1,,' early, but being of small size had a very.'h_gh
of figure 6.9.1 are almost always minor, evolutionary, rate because of extreme drift.
In14bootstraps,themainchangeistheadditiontothe Inordertoavoidthe consequencesof extremedrift
Arctic group ofthe southern Na-Dene; given the strong for individual small tribes,we have grouped them. in
similarity' between the southern Na-Dene and the north- this case, according to linguistic subfamilies. If linguis-
ern Na-Dene this is not surprising. In 6 of these 14tic families are formed of groups with greater internal
bootsn'aps also, the Almosan follow the southern Na- genetic similarity than randomly formed clusters, the
Done in joining the Arctic cluster. Because Almosan is poolingof tribes in linguistic groups can help reduce
the Amerind group geographically closest to the Eskimo the effects of extreme drift. Although we did not know
and northern Na-Dene, the potential for admixture is not whether averagingby linguistic family would be trui,v
negligible useful, we attempted it nonetheless. We _ currently
In 17bootstraps, one or two populations leave the not awar= of better alternatives.
Arctic cluster, they are, 11 times of 17, the pair of If drift of individual tribes is very' high,one may need
nonhero Na-Dene and Canadian Na-Dene, which almost to average many tribes to obtain a substantial r_duc-
always stay together and join the southern Na-Dene in :ion of variation. Thishas noalways been possible here
the Amerind cluster. In the other 6 cases, Chukchi or the because of a lack of adequate data. In fact, the t,*oworst
DO102201

oudiers >,',acro-C,e,and Ma::o-T,;canoa'_ are made up a,[ :his po;r.:,',_ecanask the most impt,xan: c.ues:ic-:.
*'- r .spe..... ', Morn- doestheproposed ,hre...... ra,:,.n theor-, a:'_o u.;,_.:he
of onl', J,. and :,ao populatior.s, ro " '" , o.,-,-,,c , n
o_er. ,_e number of mdi;idua'.s :n :hose :-:bes{s _" ...... sm_. results of geneLc an£vsis? _'_e ans',a,er is:lear','.' pos-
7"heGe are m_st!,, np_sented b_ the Caingsng ,'7600 itive. "r'ne tv,o major clusters of thetree,Arctic at."
in Brazi ,.Ca':ap,G,}--ej:) in Bmzi', , ant Xavan[e t=C_u Amerind, mould ce_ain!b,be m,e,"s_ted a_replete mi-
:', T-_ ".-_-o repmsemed _ :he T.,c,.:na. _ ....in Braz........ _..... am . _orations.ant "_-Arctic cluster doesconta:n a secor:da:-,
who num._er 21 0CC '" Brazil, Per'a. and C_,,.,,,b,a.o, - split into Na D .... and Eskimo, the omer :v,o postu:ate:
bined. "£ac_',::ca: bo."uta:!er ..;_'.ikeb.' tc, be a small mig,'mt!or.s,Thus,the tree is ,.o,,,.a_,DI_-_" ': '_,with _.e 'h_ee
fraction of the iota: for the :,"{,beand to ha,,e little or m_<zrations,the:rv,of Om_,,be,."*"_ e,*at (199T). as is the PC
no contact '*ith c.t._.ersphnters of the tribe _ocatedin map. The ana'.ysismay also support the idea that the t,a:
othen of:on dis:_n:, rations These aura.ors _ then- later migrations, Xa-Dene and Eskimo. had a elated or.-
foelike',,,,':c _ cases of ver) hipS. c_nft. The next gin in Northeast ,Asia. inthe sense of ha,,ing come from
South Amer'.can outlier, Macro-Pa:oan. is represented a common e,'hnic group m that region. Ti',e separation
by seven tribes, v.i:h numbers of indi_dua:s compara- of the Esk{mo-Chukchi-nonhem Na-Dene cluster from
ble to those abo,,e: Central Chibchan-Paezan is r_pre- the Amerind cluster is also ',isible in the first pfinci-
sented b; i0 tribes It seems that the greater the number pal component of the PC map The separation of north-
of .,_..,'-_'.'_the less extreme is the position cf the family, in ern No-Dean from Eskimos is also seen in the so:and
the tree T_is _.,....<'"-c'-s, _b_,.idea that ar:,f_ is impor-componem, though, not asc]ear],,. The No-Done and Es-
tamin this case. f'_;":her e',idence that high daft is kimo ma.,, ha,e migrated independent'.,,to America. or
in'.ol',ed comes _'"-.._,..geog_ph:: mu.' '.or:ate roans., the.', ma? ha,,e separated in Be,"in£ia._or e'_en in Alaska
and from other data to be gP.en in later sections, it is impossible to sol',e this problem v.i:h the present
_*,hich shcv.o .... _ ':;; ..... o ,_o.x.,..,:. _:;a.... ,,-.s be,v...n _eo_raah:c data.
neighbors. "i'nequestion of dating thesemajor migrations ma?,
.,.c.-_..... x,..,a..... ,_n for outher__!s an agglem- be reoonsLdemd again here. In our 1985 paper (Cava;:i-
erati;'e or:pit. ,a:9",conm_uticns frommat:) gro_ps be- Sfona eta!.1988), the divergence betv, een aleAmerinds
!on_in£._:c '.e> ....,e,.n,'<F".. , sources. In urban c>ilizatior.s, and all northem Mon£oloids_ is in slightt', better agree-
this is ofte.",cbser',elin capitals that have ,...,',e.'o--,'_ immi- ment v,ith the first date of eat.,,,', proposed, about 35
gems ......e.... _iCe',_ different tee!oRs. T_'_,,..sEa,a, there- kva,. than ,vith the second.Using,. the constant ca',-
fore. =': ;'_'.... forrr.ing cuiated in table 2.5.1 we obtain here the date of "_[
a_..r,.u.-,a,,t.":man',,otherreo_,ons._ ,..,u_,
.,_, kva, Hov_,e',er, nonhero Mon_oio_ds are a ','e_ di-
close_a_rs _,.,.at,.. pamicuiar one. This .x,.;...a..,..,,-" "_- _" car'. . . ,
be e.'<:',.ie" in the present case for fores: popular:arts versepopulation, which underwent considerable in-
like the Ge zr.a :,'re Tara:o. _,,.holi;e ('at ions: ,,oda_ ternaI mo',emen: in the last three centuries (Aiexee_.
a: a !ov, eccncT..: :e',el m isolated areas The safest pers. come 'L With mixtures and other compikca:ions.
gener'a_ cc,nc'.us_on from the tree. as v,e discuss later, the d>ergence betv.een the aver'age Sibenan and the
is that. ai:hou_<': the ma_or _ssions of the tree are inaverageAmenncl is likely, to be greater than the di-
good agreement _ith info ,rr".,ationfromother sources, it vergence of Amerinds and their direct Asian antes-
seems ,.,_,.,,.,..,t reconstruct a reasonablegenetic his- tars. It is alsolikely that some of the Siberian popu-
tory' from vas far as :he Amerinds of South America lations that nmained in Siberia wee exposed to morn
are .concerr..ed \",e see in morn detail insection 6.11 seven environmental conditions and decreased in size,
that this conclusion is correct. This does not necessar- undergoing even greater drift. In any case. our attempts
if',' mean that grouping by linguistic families leads to at identifying one Siberian group closer to Amerinds
wrong conmiusions, but simply thai it was notadequate to have not been successful. On the basis of nlatively few
impro,,e on a difficult s_tuation, markers (6 loci),Spitsyn (1985) found that among aI1
The PC map (fig. 6.9,2) is morn useful, at least in Siberian l:_oples, the "Fungus, Even, and 'Yakut located in
showing the effect of geography: the first axis sepa- the northern panof central Siberia are genetically clos-
rates the Arctic populations at the right,puts all north- est to the Athabaskan. The Asian ancestors of Amerinds
em Amennds in the center, and the centra/andsouthern may have come from a relativelysmall region,and their
Amerinds at theextnme left. It is thus in good agne- Asian descendants may now be diluted by admixture
ment with basic geography. Arctic, northern Amerinds with other less closely related ones. to the point that
cluster neatly, whereas southern Amerinds show three they are no longer easilyrecognizable. It is also possi-
major clusters: Tucanoan, Central Chibchan.Panoan; ble that the majority, of the Asian ancestry, of the Amer-
Carib. Equatorial. Andean; southern Penutian.southern ican pioneers has effectively leftAsia,as happened, for
Chibchan, and Oe. These results differ somev,'hat from instance, for E._kimos. All these considerations,and the
those obtained _hhthe Lr_e. but they are based on two expectation of high drift in ngions of very. low C-nsity
dimensions only.like Siberia. would tend to increasethe distance between
DOI02202

326 C;- 4?TER 6
S:ber!2:zs 2red Americans and :hun le:.d to an o',eresu- for,akicr'. i,_.eha',e a not :.omF:e'.e:) :or:',::::.m__es:_7-..::e
mate of :he :_meof passage One may a]soconsider that (31 k.,,a: discussed abo'.e, the'q,:he dare cf sop=r:.::;:::
_ese are ,=a',esof sepa."'a,ion. presun'..ab_y on the .Asian be,',*eenN:-Dene and Eskimo. probabl.', st=:'.:= .-Xs;a.:s
mainiand, and ',he date of passage may be ',deer. There about I8 kba. Note ,hat ,'his _s not necessari:':a dare ,:.:
are se,.erai ==_sea of uncer',ain:y and a dating based on entrv to .Ame_ca of one. the cu-.er, or be,h: segara: c:
the di,.erge=:e of .Amerind from no,hem Mongoloids ma.',precede entrn. ',,,hich ma.', be icier but perhaT_ no:
cannot '_et be g:',en comgiete eeriE.lento, bur '*e are b'. a ',argo amo_n_
clearly 'ai:hin therangesuggested by archaeology. The rubes '*ere groupec {n :his sect!on acco.'di::g re.
Fro.-:.=t:e :red in figure 6 9 '..the gene:!c separ._- a lingua>tic cme.'-:on, n',o,:.ifie_:e some e\ten: b.', a get-
,ion bet,.,een :';a-Done anc Eskimo is a iit,'.emore than g._7':'.:.: o":eIn thenext se:'.:en_econsider _het.-.'tes
halfwa.',be",,een the sep_"-a'ion of the .-',re:it group and that are better known gene:_caL.',,moependenl of _he '.in-
the Amennd group If the first is taken as representing guistic grouping used in this secqon, for Note and Sc_::::
the seFa:"auon between Amerinds and No_heas, Asians. America
6.].0. Pn:__,v'---.r-_:C ANAL': SIS OF i",;DWIDLa.L TRIBES
The :.-.ben "eared for ,he greatest rumber of genes in can linguszic groups because of the ex_ensi',e iLngu:s;ic
our._a:: ::.:us are _'o'_ _nc:' ;aua..'/ana[':'zed. Consider- _,,,._1....... he',aeon someof :hem. The res'.. :s of ':he
in_' firs_ Ncr:h and Cen:ra'. Amer::.a 'de ha,.e the _ene'.ic ana',vsi._ are sho'.',.nin % .... 5 iC,3; distances _-- _:'.,en
•red ;n figure 5 IG.!. _ased cn a sam;re of ,'7 popula- in :ab'.e 610.2. Thea_erage number of markers ,.,,as
"U"numberof 62._ = :' 8 markers 61.4 - 5.7.
IiCES 'a',:n an ,a',,_Fa ....
Tab'.e6.'"_ ' :he
.... sno',,,sFaT geneuc dis:antes. Cree and Diffic,.h problems anne in the inte.,"pre:aticn ot :h,<
";_"_, _,h'.:.h are '.er', similar !ino-u:s:!ca:i', (Voeeelin tree The PC ma2 from ',he same data trot _:,en,, .... s
&,':d".ce2._-;:2'.9"7). ,.,,ere pooled; oxen after pooling, not bring an'. clarification No simple geogr:.Th:c ar
".... be
the':rend:r, the g.,:.,up ',a:th fev.,=st panes, linguis::c corTelation is found at first sigh':, a ,,.:_ to
TE,.e.Arzuc :.luster has the same str:.;ctureas before, discussed fu_her The amount of o,;- -_-:;. ,;--_ _,_
.ene._ v......... t ,,.S
........... a-D..... 7Athabascan and Dogrib_ con-_ith -o -_''_ N o_ been going on for 10 ky has not abatede,,en coda?.
ne,,z:ed :c Esk:mc. but separaung from them in thefirst gi',en :nat population densities in most of the area are
sp!it; USER Esk!mos are :he rues: penphe."ai of theEs- still ',ery small and may e'.en ha,,e becomesma'. e: :n
kimo cluster, some cases. There has clearly been an extensi'.e o,'o-
In figure 6:0.2 thesamegenetic data are presen,ed graphic mo,,ement of robes, as shown b._,among other
as a PC map ",*hich accounts for 59% of ',he original things, the fragmentation of the linguistic map, and also
geneuc ,,aria,con. The clusters indicated are iinguisuc b? modem ethnological observations. There a]so _lUS_
groups and are discussed fur,her in tile next section, ha'.e been in the past, and there certainly is at preser.,.
"fine anal?sis was repeated for 30 populations from a complex network of genetic exchanges v,.i:hin ;_.",d
, South and Central America, including Cen',ral Ameri- between tribes, which has been studied in de,ail only for
Inu_k Eskimo
[G_eenta_Eskimo
CanaoianEs_mo
!LUSSR Es_mo
I Alf_ibascln
IDo_nb
C_bwa
iCrel Na.._k_p_
N_ra_o
P_
P_o_go
,--[ _ _'u_
If Oh_rok_
L Eastern _,tan
Guaym_
l_g.6,10,1 Generic tree of 17 smg!e :nb_s
C _0 00S 0 or geographic groups of robes from Noah
= a [ GeneIicD_s_ance and CentralAmerica
DOI _ _*

rt
o
C_
T;ible _; 10IC,,_l,,_lK:d_,,l:,t_:es (mIh,_ lower I,'_llItian(31,r) al_d Ihl_iq slanda_(l _tl()ls (JimIh_ isp_etn(3hl J_i;),)gle}arno,)(jNo,U) All)e,ican lllbes or small _reupsO| Ihem (ell values x 10,000).
ITl_l_Lill.'!;io(JK:il(Olel_liv_!lyIloI1K)(J_ql_OU5 _lOtJpS
._CA FGnEIN EUS"ESIt A,'VN AN/' AfVM.'_'(_NCI;' NA I-NNA ACIVAOJ KCH PZU PME
(:A _'_ () 01 f,I 74 G:I 30:1 142 I:1!1 :1:1:1 Ill0 1 I I24699140 235193322
(ill :IU2__-_ 0 [13 71 140 3l)'s {115210 3()!} {_00 17.5 324 291 209 347 236 334
IIN 325 2111 _--_ () (35 II_/42111 355 2!!7 544 145310 281]255 352 371 403 419
,l "130 4 I_ 133 2f,/22I 241 :l.G l 14712915.5 220115255 245, 327
l t]_; v,,,
1 _;1_ - 401i_/?- - I¶)t] ...... 351_01911 24I till 414302212258201 17830l 2i3 233
ANN II/:l c.lf}4 121t{Y 675 II1!_ _--_ 0 40 :111 2lilt 3:14 200 79 148 146 62 41142
ANI' 951 1"11}4 151)!1 tll)5 1211-() I 1/4"_'_"-_ o :12211i 211 23266 80 142 |10 55 94
1(;0 I 0_ 0 1711 192 59 92t06 67 46 14.5
AIU1114(.)5:l 1220_00 Ii125 I I(;(.......... 1114
M_G 11502t110 2615 2013 1952'1147_1:] Z()50570591 300381375 317Ill 179
NC[)77S1113734 913 129R 1:199 1445 1()(i5;11!_3i--....._0 66 174202 300 396 307131
HAT 754 741i 9S?GTG 1109 01;131110 791 2Gill[ __ 95 297322 460 324 109
NNA_172 1253 111/2(i511 01/;H_7_1_;l; 205 112.') N 0 55115 100t23 82
ACN 5:15 I I:){] 1117!}:1<1 930 4()1i ;|31 340 11¶}1 Itf;(i 9113_--2. _"_.._. 0 56
t00
233
130
^(.)J 619 ¢1!)11;;li!t 711755 131 (i11 511_1 1211t2!1_.1 12:]5 [ 433 157_'_-..._.... 0 122 221 162
K(]11 1171 t Ilil]172111}5¢J 1211 170 21;(i _)14 'Jf;5 2,13!1 1409540 374 496 _101I00
I'/UHI!l/,()fill 15231251 1F,03?34 210 1,_()'_i_J,t 1(;112 '1514 441 715 840 _.__60_
I'M,- IZll0 1342 ITZ_i f03704,1 270 34/.'|,7 fill ,41|4 ,IS?304 428567
Note-_(;A.((;_'(.IIN.t"tl';,(_itt._:skirlw)'; (_*eef,_bl_ C,9 II. ^f'JNNid_uaANf _. I'_p:_o A/_I,Ihr_a: M!;(;. (iuayr_ NC(._,I)og_; NAI,Athabascelrl; NNA, Nava_o;&CN. Cree, Naskt_p_,Motzta_uai$;
At)J.(}pb_hl. K(_H.(_h_uk_. 1_ZU. _uni. l_fdl_,[asloln Maya

32fl CH _,PTER 6
_OGP-_8
8AS
5 2
t.,I/_...U !. j
o.............../.....................
_@ _ _ lqg. 6. I0.2 P:=nc.:pat-ccmpenen:map a'."
A_..,,s',o.wEs .,..Nonhe.rn.and Central Amerind tr"_s or
"" "_eo_phic groups The c'.us_e_ refer:o
iIN_K ESK M_C - -
]linguisticgroupings: 1. Eskimo: Z. Ncnhern
/INa-Dene: 3,SouthernNa-Dene: 4. _irr, es:':
6] 8 \\X G_EE_,L,I",SE--.'__O IS. Cfibchan
] 5. Central Ame.,q,nd; 5 Penutlan; T,Ke.':s:cuar
i I '=_
1st Pnnc;;a 3ocrC:-z.'.e
t_'o tffc,_s (Yaromame,.',,t_,:ir!tare_ These investiga- _:ens? The.'. arestill mo',ing and expanding ,Chag=cr:
tions _ the only ones #cm',,','9,icha model can be i9%'L The stc._'that emerges from the Yancrr.a:: e v:"
denver. One wonders how much one can generalize M_,:h":.tare is one of man', scenarios _hich must ex-
the conclusions reached for these examFies,but it is ist in South America,It certain',.', shou!d net be ex-
encouraging to have excellent data evenfor only a few tended to regions whh a long his:cO' of fo.rm.a::c=of
populations, v,h]ch ha',e not been serious',.','affected by to'*ns or cides or even villages ha,.ing a teta'.'.y/if-
contact wit,9 latecomers, or at least haxe sho_n tittle if ferent de,:nogmphic and mating strJcture Rather. fix."
any tendency to accuhu.,-ation. 'I'he Yanomame may ha,.e Yanoman-e are a model for populations 1i'.ing as p.'=m-
originated at a considerable distance from their present itixe hor'icul:urists in the American tropical f:rest.
location in the upper Orinoco (see fig. 6.6 1), prob- which is a significant fraction of Cen;tai anc Sot.:1:
abiy in Panama (on the basis of linguistic consider- America
LINGUI-e "IC G_O_P
GwI y"m C_IDC_,I'_
Cl_nglng 1#41_.-G I
iW_r_m _mcro-Cmr:#Demr
I _ziw&_n E@ACC'Jll
P;l_&S_iS ENI_ rllll
_I win,too_zFig. 6.10.3 Tree based on genetic
Pmra_mr,m E_._,_ distances of 30 Sou_h and Cemra]
or near-Central American Indian
0._ O_ 0.0'_ 0tribes.
DOI 0=.:0)

Q
T.'_t)le13 10.2.Go,=olic [)istRocos(in thelower loft triangloof tile mablx) end Their Slandwd Errors (Irl Ihe upper right tflarigleof Ihematrix) among CenbDJand South/_rte(ican Tribes
(all values x 10.000)
ANN ANPA_MCA MWf( MCY £fSIG pZU PlblE AAM ,4Ay AMrA AQU EAREfl_q EEl# E Jr f'MA EOY EPN El_r EPI MAIA MA4K J_ITR MWA MYU lktGC _X ilrT
ANN 0 42 3_148 220 217276 43 151 216 177 247 90 49 176212 7/9 125140 3_7 320 12l311 142 220 Sg115 go 124 IS4
ANP 114 0 ]1 201319 1181@6 4¢ Da ]2J 204 200 14 113 2IS 2IS2Y*I 212 I;39 $47 207292 tffil 11;12 136 BS 170141 143 22]
AP_160 104 O 174 2_1 169 180 _l 15434,) 113li13 1_ 132' 1212157 130 IS4 N 48_,)20 PB211 IN 197 110 134 17¢ 141 11711
MCA 47¢0 080 440 0 244424P 428 10_210 34_41184 89 195321328 73 124 229 229 341 88 2*JlJ I_11 _4 |.)_ _ _ |so 2,)7
MWI| 68_1168 103.1 1102 0 `)IIO 8572_) 3113 4`)814tl 4`)6 211 2.36 _'M 245 333 539 ?ll`) _634 415 254P _41397 239 `)tit lOS 454 404
M{;Y _ 92170114_1_6 O 2_121 _04 128 26r252 _21 34`) 214 254 1G4 t811@6 463 494380 175325 _I02_2 260 341 732 2,)g
M!;CI_rl4 IV3705 1,341 1529 7_S 0110 16_ir_g 10"2 iaS 201 _033391 3rz 180 100 1_.1241}'73 344 r423352013Q_S48`)40 484
t'ZU 2]4 210 1_S_,8 i090 5,84 $94 0 60328 155 15( $41_ I1_?_5 IS1 115 10414072211 _25I.)l182 108 111 2011 184 307 146
PME 2t_ ,34_ _fl _55 I@g$N_ _11 2_O 0 205 26_I,),) 4_I11_4 25511 12g 113 2472441 73go 101I1 137173 IN 721el
_M IOr_s 13Ge 14@41212 19.47 _001 _ I100 022O ,)43 :;_$3 ,3t30 480 4P1 441195 40,) $53 16411 4711 _153.14 173 192I(le $,)| 34Q 289 375
*'U_Y 414 SO0499 190 Sll 810 1144 44_9 11(I 115,) 0 165 140 110 2532_11 175 1_3 2OS 47"2 3@6 2211 170 175 ;Nil I:),,11 244 190 443 1112
AMA 604_26 ISl0 64214;"2111K) 717 SS! 486446 8_2 0 14;S0_45,_3_012,) ISS382 314423 )113 141324343 405 454 S04ISI3"3S
A()U 3_303 21_1 40,) 1045 941 7_(S _150040 41_2 466 0 II_* 195280 71 128 1G4 ,35(I 255 _,) I3S |46 |02 _7 |$4 15Q 141 2111
_AII IM 4_O$4_S_S S_I B54 021 SN 31512¢/9 eli 13U9 5J_S O IS271114_ _8 115 _7 go7 2211 18_2111 Ill 109 224 89 IM 353
Jell SAS639 4/'1 1041 1110 214 809 5434 6911874 9,_2 1381 855`)920 35_1_2 1552,)S304 _1l251 |S7 _ .)$3 31Q 148211S 2_| Z_O
ElM 6)4 121_11185 1515 1135 1_4_1 r2go 114_ 1113_40 1_11113124Q 732I;'920 434 .3111 3Ge 447 $40 _ _ 204 _2310 `)33 202211 331
['JI `)44 6_O 3113 2'eS 1129 lttO613 $25 102614 525 4511 2_5 480 511 1240 O 137 IlO 103 21571 112 E4 II/'.) leOI_1r41 4go r4_l
I MA 321P 6*)25g`) 430 I1_ 912910 452 44_ 81,) 700 6_2$1,) sTg 7)91401 42_0 207244 :290 14.) r_ lIS 136_17 170 .)43 311 go
EPN SIS I_ee I;_64 1013 112:21_149 140413811 7711553 1405 1@64 1@5_8141:310173564,) IQeS 1257O I;25164_3i liPS ;NI61113 r.)$I14 654 427
£Pt| 1188 1146 14@6 1554 _N_44 2094 2131 1316leo IG09 110] 21_9 $35_ 1676_Z2I2,311 ISSO 112,) IS_a 2_, III 0 343 :1310 29_159 39,1 4011 6.24 .)$3327
_PI 160 OS4 4_3 342 18_1' 15_31195110 ,351 _e_82 6111 239 11121082 1130215 _1I4S14_IlIi 0 Ill 1341IN I_S 3411702_1II_
MMA _t_e3S 3_4(}$2_4@6 $9763/' 143' I00_e15 445 35(I 441 42) 1041294 41/' 4_ir/' _ 1213.3 .)Sll 0 77t_14G IS(I 192 411 /'4
MMK 635/'25IO_8_ 1110177_9_O 854 45_ _012_22 10_4 52,t5*32 132e 1045317 I)11164_62.) |665 45_ 3_O_rOS 2341 102 $3_304
Mill_5S t_J_2 _ ?001241 _Q_I lr;10 _:_4g1_?IVJ2104542] 431 1004 110r41_1 5_s . 71i 1025 _f_ll 1172 470 602oIZ_l 2/'5 2]0 41.) :7"26
MWA 2_4c_5_3S650 7_i_135_/IO_(I ._4S432415 54r11@6 3_S`);_8_20161 _ _ 353 L/) 13;P9 75.) 7124117 _9_0I_lIII 443 .)3_
MYU 4_761 Sgl11@6 lO40 85_)go1) 71`) SS_l 701933 1115 70;_.146 455Illl $24T/.) I3251`31 1643 100960.) 12(17 '/@6 .)_4 0 133 22:2 264
MOC 2'J361_4SI`) 915 012 i"t_ill 1126 gol 621709 02/' 1534 149 3241 842 68741se 1152`)52 73.S2105 0607iD4D .)KS 727251 4370 359 4711
M(IX 2_4 501ES/' _B212_1 1_25 _0B_O2_1_ 1_2/' 14S4P4 SOl 112 _IS _4 84118714@6 16JI 750r_2|OS_ 1144.313_S705 O_52
MTT 574 824 lie 0532051 lOSS 12_1 e0S 825 1`321 U01 92582010520011602 3U7240 1512 126/' 14_7 $21 300 t2e$ t35 10S& 10431.371 I,311 0
Note- ANN, Nahuo; ANP. Papego; APi, Phil; MCA, Atacar_eno; MWII.Warso;MCY. Yarmmlme; MS_,Guayr_; PZU. Zur_;PME,Easl_n Msye; AAM, A_ou¢srm; AAY, Aym_m; AM_M_p_cho;A(_J.(_Jech_s; EAR
A_nw_tk=n: EelS. 8*_1; EEM. (_me_¢lo_: EJI.J_,mro==n; EIV_.Mane; EO_.Oy_mpl; EPN. P_coe Novas; EPR.Pm=k_ne; EPI. Pi=_o=; MMA. Macus_l; MMK.M=lddl_e; MTP.. Td_MWA. W_J=na;MYU. Yupe; MGC.
Caklgu=p;MGX. Xavlmlo; MYT. TicunL

330 CHs, PTER
_.-- , _-._._\ /_/
y
i i _:_: _7"_, "'] _= i _"_'_- _g. 6.10.4His:or_of _si:::s
_"- i f _"-" , _-_ 's'scnsof sc_en_,'.a,,r-
" _ '..... ""' \_,,,0,.:_1/ i, m_'e_':;ageso,¢r60}- :rcT
sC...¢/,_ i.._/_ ...... _ I c" _ i_ Tke_%iogene¢:re, :a,:_.-
a "s- /"'1...... "_" _:_' ;a:ecfrcm,ene::cs;m zr:¢s
C,.,._-._ -=_" _ f i ./_="-_ Of f_S:O_S'_.h_ch '_-c_4:d
I
0":::-_ l' i ": r ;_'e :_,,,';' h¢"din£S_ a: ',:'¢ 12."
$__ :¢i :B,S,
Tke ;_.s:c:':cf_ss;cns ._ndfus!cns for :he Castfev. tribes. Considering _hefrequenc:, ',qth v,L::L_r:,:ex _re
gene._hor._-of the Ma_kimare (so_. fig 6i0.% shov,s a raide_ from o_her tribes, a certain amount cf rsr:4_m
s:r,c:sr: of _e."} sma'.Igrou?s, o: :he order of IO0 ir.di, or neath random ou:_reeding v,_:h neigh_iDrs must alSO
_icaais each, _,hich split and reus::e, to someextent ac- occur.
c:r:_r, i :c kinship Hnes. Kir.sh':_ groups,howe',or, are There is or,l:, limited info-'-mationon ocheri:'dmsba!
no: necessanl? stanie entities_P.enqewed o',er soy- mig_tion. According :o a summa O' of inform.aticn b?
e_l generations, _nd the '_.?'.olepicture is one of incom- Saizano and CaHegan-.racques (1985).genetic exchange
?lore randomness ef splits and fusions that is not easy is considerable, and it is highe r for tribes at a mere ad-
:o model quamitathe!y. The geneticvanafion between vanc=d economiclevel. Their tabuiation does nol dis-
;illages is about tv,ic¢ what woul'd be expected (Wag- tingaish between geneticexchange with neighborB and
ener 19,',3_ onthe basis of the observed propomons of with different tribes, In unpubtished data collected ,,,,itch
mig_tion,assuming that migrants are a random sample H, Groot and A. Espinel in Colombia.geneticexckanges
of the population. Thus, drift is higher than expected between different tribes on the upper Onnoco became
from theobserved migration and populationsize, prob- very.high at the end of along period of intennbal hos-
ably because splits and perhaps reunions tend to follow tilities; in a small area investigated near Puerto Inirida. it
k3.nshiplines and are therefore not random (Smouse et al. was difficult to find marriages where there had not been
1981; Smouse 1982), asin regular models of population recent admixture between different tribes. The memory
structure, of geneticexchangesin older generations is frequen'.ly
Another source of amplification of drifteffects is IosL and such findings make one suspicious about the
strong differential fertility, especially of head men (Neel real isolation of many South American tribes, at least to-
and Weiss 1975; Noel 1980). The Makimare a.m largely day. Yet, there isenough geneticvariation between South
endogamous within the village, and even more within American tribesthat some degree ofisolation must have
the tribe, but give and receive nontrivial genetic con- been maintained in many instances for a long time (NeeI
tributions to and from neighboring tribes,usuai]y of and Ward 1970). Our capacity tounderstand the genetic
different linguisticgroups since several thbes moved stracture of southern Amerindian tribes can only benefit
a long distance from their origin. One cannot exclude greatly by anextension of studies like those already cited
the possibility that immigrants from other tribes have by the Noel group,beforetheyare made toraH? gropes-
closer kinship ties with the tribe, decreasingthe out- sible by the disruption and disappearance of madhional
breeding effect caused by mating with members of other customs.
DO102207

:,',:E'z -- 33;
6. ii. COM?AR;SON OF GENETICS V,:TH LiNC.U]STICS A_,'D Ci.EOGR_,PE':
In sect:or,6.9 v.,eha',eseen that o'ene,icana!',sis :'ui',', In fi,_ure 6 iCE. tri,bes_elcnclnc' ",c.... sa.-r.e::..,e::::i::c
COn_.."TT.S [he #[',,IS[O-"ofAmerican n=,....... ',_:, 1";ic three ma- o-,oup ",-_ ,..r,_e,...-;-_ ,a There _,ear.s-_ _ is fi reascL22',e,t_Q'J2;_
jot clusters, Ame!r, ls..",'a-Done, and Esk:rr.os, v-hich no:me:':'e:t ao--o_- ',e.v,e' ........_ _ ;_-_......,_' - _-'_ a _o.....
are. a,_.o'-clear:,', _..J.,_._;_'--'. hn_uistica!'.', The hypothesis .-_as_,-:'a-.a_lon.The sea'.! ,,,.,-_ --'_- pe,,-'m,,:'.
.... n.,.,_e__, no" co,-.,-
that the; co,wesponlto thee --a;m-i" _ " m : _ :_ : [ _ _ S , ]Z Z fro m plete',_,satisfactory, assessment or"t,,e_" az_eK_:!,.:n TLe ,_-
Siberia v:a the Ber..sa ,"ezion. is in _..e-_'"o_o-"........ with cur- complete '_oreo_ - of
...... e.t indicates that the esz:,-..a:es o_-
rent a._haeoloo_icai_know ie_=e=, desk.?e. m"eser.:•unaer- netic and lin_-.s_ic.. s:.'rnian:ies me,.. -,.'__,.._ ........m_,_, _•,..,'-"....
rain:itson dates The genera', picture seems =e.asonabLv It may'also result from frequent language or _-e,":.eficne-
',veE eszab_ished and. fu_her anal>sis gi'.en it,, section placements. Infact. theseex/,an, ations are not mutua'.'.,,
6. I0 has clan,fled possible ciou_,ts ar_s(T:g free the am.- exc_us>'e, and to someexte.-.t, all me.', ha',e cor::nbuted. :e
bi_uous_ posmcnof the southern Na-Dene. Their geo- reduce the co_e',atio_ without comp!e',e'.', ..es..z',"_ .... ,,_ ;,,.
• _.e,,e,,_ ."eiafionships Using othermorecon,.entionaI apprca"hes. Spuhiergraphicposit_or, and the_eculiar o ,_ ,;-
_i:h other Na-Dene and v-ith Amerinds are best ex- (1972) foundno e_idenceof corre'.atJon bet_een gere::c
pained b? adm;xtu:es v.;:h :he latter that must ba',e ac- and linguistic distance. This negam.e result ca,,be
compact,led ,.heir sc,.athem migration When ,.,,e tome to more of an indictment of the method than of the _er,era!
_ g='_ '!' R .
cons,den Amer:nds.wefind greater . ......... e. in full', correlation between lin,,uis:ics an" _enet_cs. A linear
re.onciiing gone:to data with info."Tn,a:io:: provided b? co.elation can easilybedeszr%ed by some out!iers
other "_¢'eroac::es Inpar:, this is caused 3,. :he po'-e_) _':.e expectation'of iinearity' maybenaive',,,henthere:s
of infc_ation A_ this .-_,"..... ho,a,ever, ,*emustsumma- .',_o"-,7,_ex,.,. flss:,on and fusion pauem; s;mu',a:iens me,,.ee
nze :,,,c 2re'.ious _ ,.-, a_,imm,_
• ,._,._.,,_.,s t,,.t show v,{:::ou: doub_ appropriate for a comparisonof the different ,me:hocolo-
that A"'*_-d.s too. pro'.ide good e'.ilence of a s',rong g'.es, However. Spuhler 9";2) reanaivzed the samedata
co,•...a_,.n ber,,.ee:_ ge.".et_csand language byan anal?sis of ',ariance. which escapes thes:ic:ures
The,'n,:-s:_san e_.:ensi,e an£ysis of ""* relations of iinear-con',ehtionanaL<sis,and foun,.., ....... e ',a_a::ce
be:v. een the ,,ere",: !i.n_._}_t:c. and c'_"._' similar- of ,,enetic distances among linguistic stocks is sl_n:fi-
hies of 5- Nor".h A,mer:aa.n Indian tribes za::,ied out cant[.', h_gher than that within hngu_stic stocks This is in
bySpuhie: 115791, TEe analysis used a subset of 13 line,:,,ith his result b'. discfiminant anal>sis h is wo_"
gone frequencies from ABO,M?,'. RH: Diego biood adding that Spuhler found a moder'ate but s:gni:'Sca,n:
_-_rou-_._astes:e_ c,ni'. for a subset Of se_en Iino_uistic. correlation _e,,_,.en",' ," ...._enetkand _eo_r..,.,.oo ,_' - ,.,._,u.,...,a;.....
groups: Arc',:.-_<:eric:'.. Na-Dene, .',tact>Algonquian. and none bet,.,,een linguistic and geographic distances.
?,Iacro-Sicuan. He.ken. Penutian, and Aztec-Tanoan. 3..:' Apart from Spuhters studies of the gene:_cqing-_stic
(6..;.2%: of 52tribestested v.ere classified correctlycorrelation or. the North .American nonlinear, there ha'.e
usina o"-o frequencies. This indicates a substantial been man,, in'.esti_ations of limited romans or _roups of
aereemen:_between ,m_u,s.,._o;"- an<! ._'enetic data. but also Central and South America An earl,, onebv Spin!man
a number of discrepancies Moat misciassifications in et el. (i97a) compared the linguistic distances among
theSpuh'.er sample are found among Na-Dene. Macro- seven Yanomami dialects and genetic distancesamong
Algonquian and Macro-Siouan. and in the Hokan group the peopleoccupying the corresponding geographic at-
In Spuhler's analysis by culture areas (Arctic. Sub- eas. The matrices ofgeneticdistance, distanceca',culated
asotic,Nor'thv-est Coast. Plateau, CalFomia, Plains. from lexica_ data,and from grammatical data sho,aed in
Southwest, Northeast,Southeast) 31 of 53tribes were all three cases a significant congruence.
correctly classified, or 58.5%. Considering thatmore Chak.rabor_y et el. (1976) found no linear correla-
_oups '.,.'ereteste¢ inthe latter case, the twoapproaches tion between genetic distances and linguistic distances
gave approximately equivalentresults. In conclusion• in seven Chilean "highland" Andean populations Lin-
there is substantial,even if imperfect, agreement be- guistic distances were calculatedon a scalebased on an
tween genetic and linguistic or cultural classifications, earlyclassification by Greenberg, The scale of linguistic
Some of the discrepancies, especially that of northern distance used maybe responsible for the failure.
and southern Na-Dene are of interest;note. however. The same measurement of linguistic distance v-as used
that Apache and Navajo are not misclassified in Spuh- by Murillo etal. (1975) to compare linguistic and ge-
let's analysis. The statis_icaI approach used by Spuhler neticdistances of the Chipaya ofBolivia to nine Sou:h
(step,.vise discriminant analysis) is different from the _merican Indian tribes. Theyfound no correlation.
usual one of cain.elating correlations between genetic Salzanoetal. (1977)investigated theintra-and inter-
and linguistic (sometimes a)so with geographic) dis- tribal genetic _,ariation _ithintheOe-speaking Xavante,
tances. Moreoven weuse more genes and fewer tribes. Kraho,and Cayapo of Brazil. They conclude that the
DOI 02208

.332 CHAPTER 6
a'.,,e,_gein:enr::_ai generic distance '_]thin thislinguistic guages ]r,"_or:ed 'e? the :3ic::::i po',_.ers_r _.::_ mere
_oup is about _3ffcas great asthat bet'_eentribes speak- _idei,, spoken,traditional ia:':gu::_esfret:: ether grc,,.,'?_
ing morediffe_ntiated languages They'found, ho'*e'.er, This "_ouid certain:::.,coc:r!_,.::e:e :he des:r,.:,::(or cf :he
a',_eak[ines,r correlation (r= 0.27) be:'_een genetic dis- corre'.atien of lang,:ages:_ndgenes There mr:', :'e c:_-_':
t_ces and ccgnate percentagesin a gistcf ',00 v,,ords, impo_am r_asons:ha: c.eser,,emc_ research
A ve_'thorough and detailed stud)' ,":,asbeenpublished One sacu]d remember tha_, as '_e ha_e a'.re.:d', _i:-
_ce._tly b} Ba.rr_rles et al.(i990) on :he Chibchan- cussed(sec '-cj:. Americ:.: :X;ati',esshov, an e'_.',reme',,
stx:aking groups of Costa Rica ar,d Panama. Ten such high gecg_hic mobiii D. as mer,sured by the re!at,.e:-
populations '*ere analyzed for _8 genetic loci. The ship be:v,een genetic distance and geographic d!s:ar:c_:
genetic distances between pairs ofpopu!a_'ions were Mobility is also de:e,:Iedb? s:ucy:ng the Cistribc:io:: ,::f
correlated;c thelinguis:_,cdistancesbasedon cognate languagegro,_ps,v,h_chisextremely fmgmen'_ec,v_i:_
pe,'ventages The observed correlation _r=0:'4) Js high subfamilies fc:-n:ixg very compiex, interpene:ral:r:g pc:-
and highly significant, higher than that observed for go- terns. This mig_ be enough. :o des:roy linearccrre!:.
netic and geog:-aphic distances (r= 0.49, not signifi- tions betv,een geographic and linguistic distances, a:_c
cant]y different from zero) and for geography and lin- between genetic and ling,-is:ic disvances. The ecc;eg>
guisfics (r=0.52. significant at P=0.05). cal situation also conmbutes to this result: the Ancear:
When welock at figure6 10.3, we are unable to find chain fo,,_m.,sthe backboneof thecontinent and :s vet'-,
a simpleinter'pro:anion Inking genetics and :inguistics in different from teeeasthruns from ',he extreme Rome :c
'he '_no]eof Central and South America. A simiiar fail- the ex',reme sou:;",and is re:ati'.ely similar eco!eg!cal y
ure ts experienced in 'he related tree g!;'en for South in spi_e of :he great _ar{aEion in latitude. It is oc,:up:ed
America in Saizano and Cat!egar:Jacques (1988). It by peoplev,k.o are ab,o rela:i',ely homogeneoLs per:err.
seems likely' ",hat. in these c]rcumstance, a :roe '.s highly cal!v, as _ve]l as iingui_t_cail,.: on'.,'.'t',a.o major _ra_."am:-
inapTmpria:e for detecting the correlation of interest, bu', lies of the nine spoken in ,,hewhole subcont:nen: occur
it is also possi_ie that :he data are ma,f.equa:e, in the Andean chain todayBy contrast, tee flat:or, east-
Even the usualL',strocg reiat_on between genetic and em panis more heterogeneous geneticallyand :inguis-
geographic distance is blurred in South America. The cor-ficalI','. Linear correlations are especiall', unsuitable for
relation ca_:uia',ed between t'-e two distances is 0 19! = measuring :he association among geographic, genera,:.
0.045 (standard error calculated by'boots:_p) It is pos- and linguistic cistances it: :his case.Detaile_ s:udie_
iti;'e but !o',a,,and confi ,rm,s the results obtained by piot- of single linguistic groups that ha'.e not undergone
ring ',hegenetic distance between population pairs against too many,disruptions and extinctions--for exampie, the
their geograp.".:c d:stance (see. 2.9). Linguistic distance Chil:x:han (Barrantes e: a!. 1990)--are best suited for
be:v,een families showed a negati',e correlation with go- showing the correlation betv.een genetic and linguiszic
netic distance (-0.139= 0.0¢1) and wi'h geographic vaniation. Studies of o_her groups, that have not been ex-
distance (-0.212--0.051). These results (Minch and cessivelyimpove,"ished by extinctions may alsobe usefu,:
Cavaili-Sforza, unpubl.) will need further investigations. The studies of correlation be,v, een genetics and fin-
There are many reasons '*hy _he correlation oflinguis- guistics in America can gi;e only'a '.ery pania! answer to
tics _it,h genetics and also ,a,ith geography is especially the genera: problem. Of the seven s_udies we have liste "_
difficult to study in South America. Panof the problem only one that used linear correlation ga',e satisfactoD
is tied tothe major territorial, economic, and political results. One can see many reasons why this can happen
changesthat have taken and are taking placein South even if there isa general congruence between the two
America. causing an epidemic of language extinctions phenomena. Other methods have given positive results
that must have been especially dramatic inthe lastcen- when linear correlation failed. Moreover, even if this is
mr'y and earlier. For instance, in Ruhien's (1987) list,71 generally overlooked,significanttesting of linear correla-
languages of the 11"7(61%) thatform the Ge-Pano-Carib tions between distances calculated between pairs of pop-
subfamily are extinct. Similar high percentages apply to ulations is unsatisfactory because there is usually an in-
many other subfamilies of South and Central America: temal correlation between the pairs. This does not apply'
Equatorial 67/145 (45%). Tucanoan 12/47 (26%), An-to the sample by Murillo eta]. (1977) in which the pairs
dean 12./18(67%), Chibchan 25_43 (58%). of populations are independent. For further comments see
Languages often become extinct when population Cavalli-Sforaa et aim 1992.
numbers become too small, or when there isgovern-In summary., thrce of se_en studies favor the hypoth-
merit pressure to expand those of another language, but esis of congruence between genetics and linguistics bt:t
this does not mean that the people also disappear. In for methodological, theoretical, and historical reasonS.
fact, it seems reasonable to asaume that in the modem one may expect this type of analysis to faiI in the
situation,with the continuous shrinking of groups, an Americas, especially using linear correlations Fu,"fi'er
increasingly larger proportion of people stop speaking work on American data with more refined methods is
the traditional language and replace it, either with lan- clearly necessary'.
DOI 02209

A',! F__ : 2 -:, 3:,-"
6.1o_. GEOGE-_FH:C MAPSOFS[NC.LE GENES
The A_,Dsystem is _markabl',"_:'"........ wifi-
_,..... .n.!n America ere......... chemothe,"_DeUtl_,S Ti_e dates and _e_-
from other pro'is of the world: Ame,_nds are unique in _ph', of theEuropean epidemicbeg:=ning shot-:;',_:er
havin,,-almost "_'°' "
. come..... ?lost the Aand Ba_ietes.B', the returr:,of Columbus' crev.,correspond to the expec-
contest,. Ais conse,'-',edamong Na D.... and shov,s tauor.s ot the hypomes!s, but others ha,.e c!aimed th2t
a rem&rkabl.', higk frequenc), amor,g sor:-e A!mosa=:. the diseaseongtnated in Af,'4,cafrom a ciosei.,,re!z:ed
whereasamong Eskimos. the Aand Bfn:quencies are spirochete responsible for yaws, a non,enema: disease
much more similar :o those ofthe restof :hev,or!d. (McNe,'l]9"6) A search for a co,rreiauo.,tbetween ,,av, s
Thus, the ABO locus is a faifiv __ood,Lhouch not a _er- and ABOwas n,eca:.l_e (Cavaih-Sfo,_a [9S£c,.
feet rain-or,of thetba"aemajor postulate£ miT'ations, The geographic distribution of the ABOalle!es sho_=
The reasonsfor the loss of one or tv,'o alleles of this in the maps deserve some comments Because of the
svstem,, which _ present at re!ati,,elv, constant frequen- ram',,of .4 _,_ B, and the omnipresence of O, all _.,,.o....
tiesin all other would populations--and to some extentfrequency distributions are ,,'eU skev,. In Norm Amer-
a_so in man',' Primates (Socha and Ruffle ig$3)--are not ica Ois lov,er, v,ith a[lele 4_being high and reaching
entirely understood. The .... to
•.x .... which random ;'ari- a peak aoo'.e 45% (a]most aI] A]) in _,ester'nCanada
afion in gent frequencies affected Amerind populations E,se_ ...... 0is almostnever less than 50%.I:= the e,_-
wiiibecle_- from se;e,'-al other _-- ', "'
exam_..._ L. _n:s section treme south, there is a small patch v,ith a maximum af
and suzcests__the: =.,,e.,.c,_'_,;- driftplated a ',eq:important Agreater than 10%. and a co_es_onding, trou_'_:,,in O
role in Amenca. Did drift determinethe i,,"reTaiant:es of Greenlanlis also high in AL4]j.
gent frequencies in America because of a ',tO' 1o_ hum- In Eskimos. Bshows a peak in eastern and sou:hem.
her of inir:a mi_m.nts_(aninitia! founder effect), or I.._,.... Canada. _here Ois low and there are also ......._s cf .4
bottlenecks, and perhaps persistence of lOWnumbers for Apa:'t from Eskimos, thesimultaneous presenceof A
lcr.g periods? 'A,e me'- anticipate [ha: the be,_,a,,_orof and Bin proportions of 4:1 is a strong indication of
H/..4,loci indicafes :ha: the seconc or third h':'po:hesis admixture ',',i:h Caucasoids. This is !ike_,, to bethecase
rra',' be true, and that man', tribes onginate._ from a vet"} on the :astern coast of Canada, but the absence of 9in
sm=[_number of founders. Instead of the mar.>a_eles of the v,estem pa_ of Canada. despitethehigh frequent', of
an HL4 ]ocuscommon]','founde]sev, here,even Jnsma',l A, is ?roof thatfi",Jsis not dueto admixture. If Negroids
populations, a p_mcutar Amennd tribehas onl) a fev,were the donors of ABO genes, v,hich is not the caseir.
a]!e!esa: a dispmpc_ionate:.', high frequen:?, _ith other Canada.the proportion of Ato Bv,ould be lower than for
alleles rare or absent. In another t,nbethe samera_,ty of white admixtu:z. V'/ehavetried to avoid using data from
most alleles except a few is observed, but the frequent mixed populations but we wilt see that in theeas'e_
aleie.'s are different.This remarkable phenomenon is part of theUnited States and Canada a fair number of
therefo_ uniikely to be due to natural selection, given mixed groups are present. More intensive contacts _ith
its magnitude, or to the initial founder effect of a small Europeansoccurred in this area and. therefore, it is not
number of first migrants from Asia.ABO has far fewer surprising thatit is difficult to find "fuit-blood" {or e_en
alleles thanHI.A, but in a way there is a somewhat sire- only 3/4 blood) Amennds.
ilar phenomenon: an excess of Ain a few groups, and Variograms of ABO alleles have long initial linear seg-
an excess of O(upto 100%) in all theothers. A high merits, with rather sma!l slopes.
frequencyof Bis almostnever found. Acid phosphatase(ACPI,B) shows an almostregular
Even if there is a good chance that drift was respon- gradientfrom north to south. The distribution is almos:
sible,at least in part, for the anomalous distribution of bimodal, reflecting the major difference of Eskimos and
ABO, itis difficult,if not impossible, to exclude the Amerinds from the extreme north versus the rest of the
effects of natural selection. As we have seenin section continent. The variogram is approximately linear up tc
2.10, ABOphenoUpes(or genotypes) react differentially4000 miles? with a fairlylarge slope.
to many infectious diseases, and a popular explanation Adenylate kinase ](AK1) is, like ABO, a marker of
for the loss of Aand Balleles among Amennds isdiffer- Caucasoid admixture. The less frequent allele, AK].2
ential sensitivity to syphilis, because Oindividuals are hasa frequency of about 5% among Europeans and is
more resistant. The origin of the hypothesis is the b_lief essentially absent in other populations, The band of low
that syphilis was endemic in Central America in the AK]*I(<97%) across the NorthAmerican continent in-
fifteenth centu.'y and was spread toEurope by the crew dicatesCaucasoid admixture. It confirms and extends the
of Christopher Columbus after their return to Spain.obser,'ations with ABO. The variogram is uninformative
The evidence from direct studies of patients (Mourant et and is not reported.
al. 1983) showed that Oindividuals heal more rapidlyThe Diego blood group (DI.A)is of special sig-
([_judged on the basis of immunological tests) after nificance in America. It was first found in Amennds.
DOIOZZIO

334 CH_.,PTER 6
in ,xr_:zk. as :he map sho'*s. :he ,a. al!e!e ,,aries fro=: Ame,'nca,-. Indianshad been "_ _' _2_',oc,...e_ 2, _,ac:.L2;',-
-- • """ '-, 19S: '*he foun4 that. !n a su_p,:7.:a :,:a:5
less :ha:-,5%',omore than q_% it is also found in some S,.a...n_ ,: _.
no_,e."E_ x_-,: : ' bu t at ' " "
.... _l._.,_:e.cs_ , a ]o,aer f:'equen%. It must 122 peo_Ze._,,hese parents Ha.-4 ,.a_u.vre-._ _..... "I _ ] "_'i " = k=C:1'_=I
tl':e_,_C.... ,, _ Ono;'a 'o'_ " Ns,'-:heas: Asia Its consider- there 'acre 56% fen,or homoz', motes '_",n ...... _"
_,.e .... [f._..
able ,.a_=a::cn !n Ame:hca is most prcba_i',' due to dr.,ft, phenomer,cn :s :%e to differen::al mor:ah:',. :: ca-. }ee:-
Thema'..m--:=.s)'.no_he_ 13raz!2. but it is rm*e or .6cie,mJ,.st:died oni? Jn :he fe_ popL!atJc_s s::22so;: e::
absentin Nc:-'_: Ame=ca.._,":einina, slope of _hevat:-tOhigh prereprcdac:ive mo,_...'.
og.'-am is ."a','!'....h'z_.ann the linear :onion, is iess than Themostfree'_,ent.HL-L_.a!!e!e is ,4-2-37Q, ,.-.......... --
10CC,n=:;esaverage--andit reachesmaxtma :_er50%in sc?x:;':'._e__:-
The Du::'. blood g."s-:?(F.;" '.aaes considerably with era Nc_'. America and in \e,,e._,e .... h mm:ma :a ::'e
aile;e A. s_'.o'amg a maximum in theArctic. Thedis- northern Andes and in easter= Greenland. Thegistr:_:_.:-
mbutionspansalmost thecompieterange, but is con- tionis likely :o ha,,eat leastt_o modes. HL&4-_ has a.'_
cent.,ared be:',_een 40% and i00%. Allele Bhas been average frequency around 3 [Q ',,,ith a peak o\er S0c'c _,-,
studied mac,", less extensive',',': it peaks '*ith more tt',an eastern Greenland and the nor':hv,estern Ar::ic Asec-
40% f_quenc._ be..... nor'them Brazii and theGuianas. ondar?'peak (o_er 50%1 is found in the;'_
nOIX,,_."_.'-:',:5_eS.
The '_ar_zL'-a:7_of allele .4 is faMy regular, v.hereas that whereas :he rest 0f South .America has frequencies _e:o,,_
of .9 has a strc:':_!'._..'-,e_"'',-=... initiaI slope20%. The distribution see.ms _modal..AiMe.-_-J';, ?:as
Ai!e;e .' of es:erase D (£SD.,' sho'*s a maximum in an a;era_',' of 17.5Q anda peak of mere than 40c'; ",
Mate Grcssc southern B._zii! and _heParaguay'basin, as no,,":,hemChile. with lev. frequencies nor':,.-,cf Co;om:'ia
v,ei!as in Central.America: italso sho_s an ab.soiutemin- With ar a_eragefrequency of i0%.,4-28 has a xak':ear
i_U'm '" ,a_ .... ,,_ o_ ,.,,,
........ . ...... e..ste,,,Ta."z, ofBrazJ? The',,anog._m 40Q i= :he extreme south. Averaging 0,":?:15. A.,25
,:_--_- a',o:e and is knear ;anti',a_out ihO0 miles, has a :e._. of -..-_.,a. a -'" more :hun 4Q in the sou:heas:e,'-r" l_..... ,.
G!vo\','.ase-i.... a_lele J (GLO.:-il has a maximum in States. A subt',_e of A]_. ,4___. a',era¢'es_ :j:"c, reac_".-
Cen':-ai Amer:ca and :ox_ ,.aJ,_es in South America: ing more than -;0% in no.hem .Argentina Aga:n, :?re
.t
'_ "co :at _ecreasetoward thenor:,h is a.n!factuaI and distr, b_.fion seems bm_oc,_..-V, thou<n _, hasa max:mum
caused b'::he near absencecf 4ata :n Nenl'. America above IEQ in the southeaste,,m United S_a'es. A-23 a_-
except it, fi',eextra.me north. The',ariogram is approx,- erages }.8_c.
rr.ate!':::::e:: for almost 2000 miles v.kh a ]at_dishslope. With an " " _" . .. ._,'-a:e frecuenc_ of 12% and a _eak o',er
"i2negroup-specific component or _i:amin-D-binding 50% in eastern ','enezue'.a, HL4B-5has a se:.crdar':peak
7rotein a2eie ](GC-/) sho'>.s a minimum in centra[ in eastern Greenland. ,Although its mean frequency _s
Brazil and a re!afi'.'e maximum far:her ',_,est: thevari- 1%, B-7reaches values abo'.e i0% in the v.es:e_ -',rc-
og._m !s :_eo.ular, possibi) because of the closeness of ticOcean region. Allele B-14. _ith a 0.8% a',e_ge.
the mi.'-,:mumand maximum. The elec.trephoretically fast has a frequency greater than lOQ in the southern Andes:
subtype ofGC.],GC-IF has two peaks on the western and B.75, average I1.5%, has a peak in ncrthern Chile.
_C7
coast :_ Souti_ America, a relative minimum in the ex-B*]6. a\e,'age Ia,'c. has a peak in the nomh-central -%n-
t,"eme south and one in the extreme north. The variogram des greater :hun 50% and minor peakse!se',,,nere. B.2J,
si',o_sa complex form. averagmg 1.5%, has a maximum abo',e 10ecin the ex-
Haptoglobin {HP*]) also has a ver? widedistribution, tmme Southwest of the United States. B.22, _ith mean
with gonefrequencies ranging from 0% to 100%, with 0.7%, reaches more than 10% among cen-ral Eskimos.
amean of ...%. The peak ism the extreme south,but Well known for its strong association with ankylosing
there are other secondary peaks in South America: the spondylitis,B,27 has an average frequency of 3.:$%,
lowest '.aiues are in the extreme north, Basically, there iswith a maximum above 20% in Alaska. It is interest-
a north-south gradient, which, in the present case, cannot ing tonote thatthe three tribes of the Southwest, "_.e
be attributed to climate, The variogram has a relatively Pima, Papagoand Zuni,have similar origins but signi_-
short initial T_rtion with a positiveslope, candy different frequencies for B,,27.The most frequent
Antigens specified by HL4 genes have revealed an Ballele,B.35, has a 20% average and reaches about
unusually narrow range ofalleles, especiallyinSouth 70% in Brazil. With a mean frequency near 19%. B,,4C;
America (Black etal. 1980). Only HLAA.2,A.9,A.28, reaches over 50% among Eskimos of the western Cann-
A*30,A*3I,A*33,HLAB*5,B*I5,B*I6, B*17,B'27, dian Antic.
B.35. and B*40 have average frequencies significantly Insum, HLA shows great variation,most proba-
different from zero, This restricted range of polymer- bly resulting fromdrift, like the other genetic s.,,s-
phism is expected ,,,,hen the genetic diversity of anterns, but asalready noted, its multiallelic structure
ancestral population hasbeenreduced several times by renders variation more evident. Thisgenetics.',sten_'
passage through size bottlenecks, isordinarily represented by a great number of alleles
Apossible effect of selection should also be consid- in almost every population--even if very, small--ira
ered forHLA: infact, evidence for heterosis in South the Old World, and all alleles tend to ha',."rela::,ee
DO102211

_,!-:E"i:S_, -:3S
;,:,._.f_:_.e:'c:e_. In :he .Americas, the si:ua: on is dif- ',*.here:here ;s :'roeab',e -_fnc:r aCmixture ,An Orie-:a:
fe_m One or re'..,, ::]e!es become retire'el? dominant hap/oL',pe, za,b'f,._:bGb5, has an average ff'equenc_ of 6%
in freq,_en::,, in ore or a fe'a tribes, sometimes reach.- and peaks at mo_ {nan 20% it: Alaska and in Lab_d::-.
ing ,,a!ues abo,,e 5)%. and the other a',!e'.es arecorm- With an a_e,,age of 16%, fa,bOb:'b3b..c.b5 ,)',as ',a=:ous
sponding[? ,_: but most popu!ations an unique in that peaks in thenorth and south, none too pronounce!A
thedomina,':t a:',e!es differ from one to the other,some- Caucasoid hap:oLvpe,f,bOb/b3b4b5, has an z',emge ft'e-
timese_en :n neighbonng popu',ations. "E,E:sis exacti:, quency of 2.7% and pe±<s in Green:an8 and :n the nc:":_'.-
',_ha"'a,ou]d 0eextorted, at least qualitative]',, under drift em panof South America.
alone. I,_ fac:, in the total absence of cross-migrat!on, At first, one might be re!uctant Io be!ie,,e that ai:
drift v,ould e,,entuaily lead :o thesurv'ival of only one these ,-,.2ximaand minima for GM haploDpe frequen-
allele in each popula'_on. The sur,,iqng a'.!e!e is or-,o- cies aredue to drift. One might hyTothesize that this
sen :-'andom:y from among those origina!iy F_sent, sub- immunog!obulin marker reacts to Iota:. infectious dis-
ject to tire rvie :ha:theprobability of an a',!eEebe:on- eases, and then is a little evidencefor itas discussed
ing thesole fir,a_ sur, ivor equals _.heinitial frequencyearher. However. drift is expected to operate with the
of that allele in the drifting popu!ation. Perhaps most sameintensi',y for all markers. It is therefore likely that
alleles were npresented at the beginning in Northeast many GM gone.frequency peaks or troughs in America
Asia; man', are still present in some. but not in aH theare dueto dr:ft.
other tr:bes. The light immu noglobu:in constant chain, KM-(] ,4 ,',2).
Somealleles _,ere probably lost. a re,,,, among thehas a mean of 32%, with a widedistribution of 0% to
founders perhaps but mos" in the process of evolution 80%, minimz in the north, bur at least one in the so,.;th,
of ind',idua :ribesas shov, n b', the very different local and maxima around Panama
porte:ms of each allele It seems as if most local popula- The '.ariograms of immunog'.obulins tend to bei.._:'eg':-
tions ',a,en sta:":e_ by such smal!n_mbers of individuals !at and uninform, at]ve. The Kell blood group (KEL.L"; is
thatthe', cou'.5 onlymaintain tv,o or:h_e aHe_,esathigh a rare pcLvmorphism almost homogeneously nea_-zero
fmquen<, t'nde." theseconditions, onedoes no: need KEL.]sa is also reiative!y rare(2% average), but she'as
to postuime a _.e,"y'strong founder effect at thepassage a peakabo;e 20% on the nonhero coast of South Amer-
from Sibe:ia :o America ,:or even earlier) Theremark- ica. The Kicd group (,./K.A) has a distribution of 0%
able ','a:-:a:i::: a:"'or'g' :hein'hart tribesof South Amenca to $0%, with minima in the extreme south and in the
suggests:heex:s:enceofa]aterbottleneck, perhaps more Panama region, aridvarious maxima. Its comp'.emen-
impc:':an: :h2: thenrst. _r there',,.as a firs: oneIn other tar?' al:ele, J'K*B is poorly studied directly; it shov. s a
;_,nrds. man', a'.le'.es may ha'.e been present at the begin- complementar? maximum in Panama The Let. is blood
ning and :os: ia:er. ©n!) 17 alleles ha',e suffieientl', high. group LE.ie a'.so ".aries greatl,,, from 10% to 100%. a:'.d
a'.erage freqJe:'c:es {ogeneratemaps of America: this is has a maximal in Alaska. LE-Lefa-)has a maximum
at,ore ha!f ff',enumber ofEuropean alleies, bur one does in a neighbonr:g region, but has a much smaller range of
not need to ccnc!ude that half of the alleles '.,,ere lost. variation Almost all theseblood groups ha;e irregulm
It :s possible :hat there exist severa! undetected alleles, variograms.
because[he ma_om? of reagents areof Caucasoid origin The M,'VSsystem shows somewhat less ,.ariaion than
and Co not necessariL', detect all alleles present in other other genes, judging by FSTvalues, butthe range of gone
popu a:ions frequencies is notsmall. The Mallele:'ames from 30%
The va.riation with distance sho_vs here, as in other to 100%. and the Sallele from 0% to morethan 80%:
HLA data.se,,etal negati',e or fiat initial slopes: .5 of 17. both frequency distributions are probably unimodal, but
The initial iinear segmentsofthosewith positive slopes both geographic maps are full of relative minima and
are in the usual range, and the initial linear portion may maxima that span almost the wholerange. Of the four
scmetimes span 2000 miles,haplotypes, only the rarest. Ns (6% average frequency).
GM (or IGHGJG3) also shows considerabielocal vail- does nothavea distribution extending from nearly 09
a'tion. Themost common haplotype,za:g, ",'aries from to nearly100%; maxima and minima appear inregions
,¢0% to 100%, with several peaks and several minima, already showing strong drift forother alleles, like the
The next most important haplotype, za-r;g, has a maxi- north-centralAndes or the Arctic, or in new ones, like
mum in "he center of South America and decreases al- the coast of southern Brazil. All the variograms have
most regularly around it. positive initial increases with regular slopes, but with
All the other GM haplotypes have lower average fro. oscillations, except for Ns which is fairly flat.
quencies, but all show usually single, sometimes extreme The P]blood group, allele 1, has a distribution vary-
peaks in different regions. Thus za,bOb]b3bab5, a No- ing from 5% to 100%, with a maximum in southern
groid haplob pe (re D poorly represented in the maps for Chile and minima i.nmany places, but mostly among Es-
reasons of reagent availability), has an averagefrequency kimos. The FST is .levated, and thevariogram incnases
near 2%. but peaks al more than 6% in the Guianas initially.
DOI02212

236 CHAPTER 5
PeTu,daseA tPE?.4) is pocri? studied and sho_s lit- ico :,rid in the South_es: of the L'ni_edStates T_',_::-aT,_
t!e va-":atk,n: a]]eie 2 hasan a',e_," frequency of or,b,' are ,:mitred.,'Z,ne '.arie_,"ams of RH _ho_ ',ess e:,:re:ue
06%. T'se ,,aric_.'-am is _ -_--_,; '
, u....... ...... ',e and is omitted, oscil]at:ons a--oundthe cur',e than most :tLe-Amer:c:':
TastertPTC'T) is poorly known in this pan of the v,or!d: alleles, probab_?because_f the gremernumber c',:=a:a,
it ',a-":_sh_.,.,.e_,,..... 30% and i00%, _ith maxima in south- and slo_es, are ;a;.",..,,. large_on 'he,,a',,e._ge
em Ch:!e and the southwestern _a.": of North.America T_e secmtcr ':c,_._.-'_,cE'.aries from ]aSS ' _ _ "...... _I7Q ::
Minima a_ among Eskimos. Th:s geographic distdbu- 100%in frequency of :he 5e a:]e:e a_d has a ca,tin_-=
• tlcn' :s :n sot'r,.ea£_emen.'_ ,_,a..,an,advantage, for tasters around the ecuator. Pans of the map are re: s::FF,r=e:
in an,area *he'.e _:?t'.Ooid subs::mces containing plat.is by data and "_e unlikel) to represent real ,ar:at:e:' :cr
may be aomrr.on, at least ._othe extent thai Eskimos, example, the maximum in _or!da, '.,.hich :s exu-aTc',=:e=
' " _e"r and _£".• _-,,' less exposed to from ',he high Mexican values, anc the maximum m :he
who eat essen,la q, .....
theda.n£er It is not clear ,,e ..... the areas with highestext_mesouth,Theminimum ;_ B,_zi] seems '.,.e![ s:..?-
frequencies of tasters ha,.e a parti,:ularly frequent occur- ported and is notsurprising gi',enthe high drift -'b_--e-,e:
n:nce of edibie plants dangerous for '_h':ro_dfunction, throughout America.
Phespheglucomutase1(PGM]*]) vanes from 55% to Transfemn (TF)sho_s a fev. troughsof theco=mort
100% with a mean of 81 5foraile!e ]: themaximum is alle!e C. wherethe akemati'.e allele D reache_ rob-
in Venezae2a.but a seconca O, pea.,( is found in the Na- five_y high frequencies, up to 30C'c: in Panama.no.hem
Done _g:.sn.Thereare'.adous min,,ma and an irregular Venezuela. and Labrador.
va.nogram,asis almost usual. PGM2 is lesswell known The major conclus{on is that the .,.X.mer_cas,?,,-. ",
ard. in a-n) case, shou,s less variation, being confined to South America. shov, extreme geneuc _ar:abii:t,,. Th:s
8C'.%-I_% for allele 1. A minimum is in the extremeis a!so shown by a',,er'age FST a,.e_,v.ere
south "Fqe ',.,ariog_m of PGM2 is uninformative, culated for the_91 populationsselette_ for de:aLe.:
6.phospr,ogiucona:e deh,.'drogenase (?GD)shows a anal)sis Below '._e comparethe American a',e,_ge ,ak_'.
,,e_ .... .) of ailele B. ',,,,.hhsomeanomalies in north- avera_es of '.,.eric groups or rezions of interest:
easte_ Ncr':h Amerz=a and :r, nor:hem, Chile. Allele C
America O.O'O:0,_ I_
is representedon themap,and Bhasthecomplementao'
pat:era. Thevariognam has amcderate slope. CaucasoiC(no exclusions) OO=3: '3 0Cl_
7"heR." S)stem is also _'_'_ .
.1_..I', '.':'%abie. Alleles Cand sub-Saharan .Africa 0 0]} = 0 0;-
Essan. ".s._n,m,c_"' 1,, the whole ran_,e._v-rile Dis less van-
able, ha',:na, on the avera£e,_ 96% .%uency."-,_Cpeaks Ausu"a!ia 0 C19: 3 3(1)-
in Panama and is lowest in the Arctic: Dis universally New Guinea 0 039 : 0 0C-
high ever.,,a,here exceFt for minima on the eastern coast Polynesia C<': I = 0 0C4
of North ,America (possibh, reflecting Caucasoid admix- " "-
ture, since Europeans havethehighest v,orld frequencies In the various regions of .Asia. FSTSrange frc7 90"1
of uhe d£lele [RE-]). E peaks in the Arctic and in the (Southwest ,Asia) to 0.035(Southeast Asia)
Andes: it is minimal in Panama. - Of the various subdivisions of theAmericas. So=:h
Themost frequent RH haplot)pes are CDe (52,¢,7'¢)and America has the greatest',ariation of gonefrequencies:
cDE (36%), and both span almost the entire 09¢-100% the average FST is 0.059 : 0.006. The gone with the
range. The first peaks in Panama. and the second, in the highest variation is SE,Se (0.:0). followed by K,__ Jsa
An:tic. Next in frequency areCDE (a%), which a]so has (0.19), PGD*C(0.18). and TF.C(0.16). After Sooth
several relative maxima in North and South America, America, the extreme North has the greatest variation:
up to about 30%; and ode (a.6%), which peaks in the 0.051 = 0.007 (including Eskimo. Aleut• all Na-Dene.
South'a,est of North America. Ordinarily eDe is a good and also the Chukchi, who cluster with Eskimos): the
marker of Negroid admixture, which, however, seems most variable genesare FY,A(0.26), LE*Le (0 21).
veryunlikely in the Southwest. The ode haplotype is, onPCT.T(0.13), and KM*(I &],2) (0.10).
the average, 2.5% and can be taken asa good indicator North and Central America combined, including No-
of Caucasoid admixture; not surprisingly, it shows a Done but not Eskimos, has a comparatively low a,,erage
peak up to 20%ontheeastern coast of North America, F_r (0.034 = 0.004). The most variable goneis ABO,.4]
where we have seen other signsof admixture. It is on- (0.17), followed by A(0.13), HLAB*35 (0.12),and 0
certain if the relative maximum in the extreme nonh'_est (0.12). Of the various linguistic groups,Chibchan sho',_s
of Canada should also be interpreted as aresult of Cau- a variation comparable to that of South America as a
casoid admixture, because the other possible markersdo whole: 0.059=0.007, with DI.Abeing the most _ariable
notconfirrnit.Tworare haplotypes, CdeandcdE. show (0.17), RH,cDE and CDe next (0.13 and 0.I11.and
minor variations. Haplotype odE surpasses 3%in a small finally TF,D(0.11 ).
area of Mexico and reaches 1%-2% in the extreme south The impression from the geographic maps and dis-
of South America. Cde shows very low maxima in Vex- tributions of gone frequencies is thus full',' confirmed.
DOi02213

a 'I EF.'C _', 33":
America, _,_-_,T
,n _._,.l_u a, South America. is gone:call.,, the ues gr.er, abe,.e PooIi:Tgne:._hbors deceases ,"-STvalues
mostvariable pc,-.of :he',.,.or',d.Asa ,* -o..... _. < " "; ;_- and o_',._
.,on_._....... there C.,a.,-S,,.,,=a F......... 19901, azd :: :s :he,'mf::.=
are extreme cscil!at:cns of mean #'STvalues a: various not su_rsln£ that th o FST ',,altos ¢'i_e_ m,'o ma¢s _'e
_eographJcd s,.nc_s a=oundthe "_ "' ' "har--s
mt-,ro,-,ec _ario£mm ]:_'zerthan .... : _'-"_-'°'_ from :he49; popua Ion:
curves, that ;_ of thedata _oints sho_n Jn ._°:.,o_.mms. An ' '-,-' ," o_''
.-, . _ mc._e.,d .... approach that leads to the same:on-
These os:illafions tend to belov.er oni', for o"'es ';'
:.,, ',,,,,.h clusions is the stud} af mitochondna] DNA. V','ith a
hi£;l densities of obser.e_ frequencies, but e'.er, there lov.-_.__:u,.o,.'o_"; " :echnioue. the _s'r_:t:o:7-f.'-a_ment-length
the stron£, iocal __=.,o...... ....'-,,-,,.'.'a..mat_one_'_,'-a % impor':an: pol}mo_h_sms _RFLFs _+"three-n_._s Piton, ,",Ia,.a.
flu_uatior.s. Ticuna, were studied (V,'a'.lace et ai. 19_5: Schu,"r.et -'
¢.i
The F values india',ted in the top ri._m comer of the 1990".and showed a _.a.fiationof RFLPs _.-,',"'"," ^" -,;
gene-frequency dist:;butions g!',en _'_ea=h geo_nFhic genes indicatec above. Anal','z!ng DNA markers makes
va Lies, _.... L•
map az_FST ' _"" uniike those gh'enabo,,e, the,. it easier to identify specific mutants and may ne.p us tc
are obtained from the anginal gene frequencies. They'folio',,, specific migrations more closely. Infe_ncesabout
therefore include populations that have be°-.,.excluded thenumber of migrants to America tha,...._'_,..,'been mace
from the491 selected as genetic references and, more in some mtDNA papers, even with techniques ai',ov.ir4
imFortant]v, the,, ',,,.'erepooled v.hh neighbors The data higher reso:ut or, than those above, seem,a.:.,. unw__--
frorn the49I popuia:ior:s are the basis for the FST vai- ranted at this stage of our knov.ledge
6.13 SYNTHET:C MA_S OF AMERIC_
Table 6.I3.i shov-s the par'thion of the:otai ',_i- and Am:rind Fopu!ations closer to Eskimos or. theone
aticn among .... PCs. v.h_ch "_ )_":c....... re,e,', side, and therest of America on theother s,,de In Sour
ex_',ain. 7,_3% of ,h_ total ;anation The so,.entv-two.America, there is a dff.e"_ -_,_,_at_onbetv._o_........-_<" a,.,..-av,e:,-"
genes used for ,heanal',sis,co,,"resr,onc.to the 69_.._,._,,oo'_o';cAccording to some archaeologica! dates, net ',.hi,ersa'.!':
mapa listed in theTable of Genetic Slaps 'ai:h thead-accepted (see sec. 6.2). ".reeastern area ,.maya:sa bethe
ditian of ABO-.42, AK/-:'. GC./F. Table6.132 sho',*,s oldest pan, There is a good correspondence ,,v{th:.Tofirs:
co_elatic, ns of the first s:x PCs ,,_hh:_,,.o_efrecuencies, fission, '.,.h]chseparates Eskimos and Na-Dene from a!:
Theana!vsis, of sin<e_ :.._,,'nesshov.s considerablelo-Amerinds. To note: the highestcorrelation of the first PC
cai ','adat_on. Pat:e,-ms found for differentgenes are axis_s w]tn /GHGJG3= :n,lbOsrb3bh, a ,..r,_al marker
ra_ly similar. B':con:nst, in other cant:non:s, so,,-of .Asian origin.
er'al geog.,Trio patterns of single-gonefrequencies '.,,'ereMost of the d:;ergence found in the map of thesec-
obse_ed _' _)
r.'pe_.e.,.','aith different genes. In those con- and PC (fig. ,5,13.2) is obser;ed in North America
tinents, onecould easi','," anticipate, on the basis of the Thereislittle variation in South America. though the
repeated patterns, and the n'amber of repetitionsof each. east-west differenceis always noticeable. In North
the general shapeof s'entb,etic maps obtained, b? PCs and America the major di',ergence is betv.een Eskimos and
their orderof importance. In America we find this oc- non-Eskimos, with Na-Dene showing more similarities
curs clearl'eonly forthefirst two synthetic maps, whichtothe former than tothe latter. The peak in the
correspond closely' to the first two fissions in the genetic e_tem part of North America most likely represents
tree. Caucasoid admixture; this isthearea in which
The first PC (fig. 6.13.1) shows a north-south gradi- contact between Caucasoids and Amerinds has been
ent wilh the greatest slope inCanada, thus emphasizing longest. Thisarea has ABO,,B, relatively high AK]*2,
the distinction between the Eskimos -,- Na-DenegroupIGHG]G3*f; bOb/b3b4bS and highRH*cde.strongly
indicating Caucasoid admixture.
Then= isan inconsistency between the observations
T_bl_6.t3.1.P_t_mt_geolTot_lV_e Exl:_ir_dby_"_First onthe frequencies ofthe Caucasoid markers just indi-
SovemPrmci0,,tlCotrg)o_ent_(_fAmsncamGoneFr_luenci,,_ cared, which are drawn directly from the gone-frequency
maps,and the correlations of this PC with the gone fre-
Prir_ipal %olTotal Ptit_pal %oITo_Iquencies shown in table 6,13.2. The reasonfor this
_.omlaoe_nt V_an_Com_,f_nt V_i_r_ discrepancy is believed to bethe existenceof inordi-
ta2.B 5 $.7 nate genetic variation in the Americas,which tendsto
2 12.7 6 4.B cover otherlocal regularities. The presence of im ,ortant
386 73.9 ethnic heterogeneity--that is, of Eskimosin the North--
( 6.0 alsotends to alter the meaning of the correlations of a
DO102214

DOI 022 _

A_,:£_ _ k 32'9
PC _vi:h inL;'.ieJal gone frequer,c:es cbser, ed in a spe- '_.ith Africans--is like% :o ha_e t_em ?'.ace:n eastern
ci_: _icn Venezue'.aand:noGuianas
Cen:_l America i_,more similar :o .",'or:k.",mericathan The four'tn PCfig 6 13a)a!sohas a ".a.es:-to-eas-gr_-
to South Ame:"-:a. Thus.this map shows approximate dien', both _,nNDr':.hAmerica and in SouL-,Ame.m:a. b,,.:
correspondence ,*i:b. the fission between Na-Dene and in contrast tothe third PC, the directicnof the g:-adien:
Esk me. b_t also '.',_t- :ha"between South America and is inver:.ed m the nor.It and south. The sim_!_'-:b of the
the _s: of the Amercas It also higK!ghts Caucasoid third andfou,":,_PCsadds some evidence to theh.',poth-
adrrix:ur_ o5 the eastern pa._of North America. esis that both, eas:e."nG_en!o_ndand the easte.'-r,coast
Extremevalues for :he third PC (fig 6.i3.3) areof the United States ha',e had someCaucasoid admi',.-
foundespecial'.],fn South America. the contest being ture. but the d;ffe_nt behavior of the tv,o compone.u.:s
remarkably strong _ev_e_r the nor':,heastem and thein Guiana may stxngthenthe hypothes:,s of admixture
sour:hem Andes Noah America also sno'.,.'s some ,ea_- with Afrir.ans in this region.
orion between east and 'a,es:, a_d in :Le same direction Thefifth component (fig, 6.13.5)st_ssesthe differ-
as in Sour: America. It is possiblethat the east-westoncebetween the Panama area and therestof America It
gndients observed in the north and in the south again is also indicative of migration to thesouth via Panama
express Caur,asoJd acmixture which, as we have seen The sixth map (not given) sho_s ve_ [ittie variation
when discuss{ng singlegenes, is especially prominent in except in ,he extremenorth, where itemphasizes the
theease-central a=ea_" N:.'-:h America. butis n_t missir.g contrast bet,*een theAieutian islanders and theYupik
in South Ame.";,ca Caucasoid admixture is also probably Eskimos, occupying the south_este,m, par:, of Alaska,
found among Greenland Eskimos. v, ho were in contact v,ith theEskimos of nor:,h-central Canada.
,*ith Vikings. espec!:- i',on the eastern coast inthe ninth Other authors have usedthe synthetic map approach in
to fourteenth centur:es _, p_. E_entualf?, the Vikings died America. O'Rcurkeet al in both North (O'Rourke e_ al
of star',orion or ,,..ere kilied b.'. theEskimos (their fate I986: Suarez etal. 1985) and South America (O'Rcurke
v.aa ne',er c!=":fied:, _u: there ma? have been genetic ex- and Sumoez i986), and Salzano ant' Cal!egafidacques
change. If this _s:r,e. _t _s not surprising that one finds (1988i inSouth America. Both groups havefound e_-
some -:imi;r'nr::n tr'edegree .of shading of the three idence of strong genetic drift in South America as v.e
area_ trot max have had some Caucaso,d con:n'aution: have, and their maps show Iess regul_ patterns than
some further c!ari.'!,ca:_on to this problem comes from ours being some_,,h,": more similar to our single-gone
thene'er PC. An adm:x:um of another nature--that is. maps. Our synthetic maps. hob, ever. seem less sensiti',e
• ' --"_"d--_ _ \
l:!h
:!fl:_:hl[
/./.
.;,= ,,, ._, .,,, .'... J, ..'- .',. 2,2,, .h,, .,'_, .,',, ." .I, .,, 4, .,,,
_. 6.13.3S)nthelic map oftheAmeric_obtainedb,_ Fig.6.13.4Synlh_ficmap oftheAmerica_obtainedb',
usingthethirdprincipalcomponent, usingthefourthprincipalcomponent.
DOI022_6

3-3 S-: -".P- F__
differ from me eas:ernpanof gec:: -_merica Tee c,,e:
--,.,,.._s.v,.:ththe northern ones mcre s_r':L_.r:c
-• \ '" Cent_; kme2ca.-l-he fou_fi PCemphasizes:he ur._q.,e-
nessof southe,'-r,Chi'.e. In theeasternpar:.,one ,:mrc s::n.
• gu;sh a nonhero region fom:eg by easte.m'_,'ene.::,e:a.::-<.
x..., the Gdir_nas(see. e.... the third PC'.. _kr_._._,?-;-*_,:':affez;e.:
',, b_,..kfr:c:.,n.:_o-."_...rio,a.:a centra! one formed b',..nor::'..
T"-':, < , , em B_zu, and a southern one cor:',espondh:gto so.:_'_r'::
.,, Brazil. There are important e:olog!:% Oifferencesamen:i-
_. ,-, these areas, and there probab!? _,as greater exchan_
t!l,.e .... e,!o_o _ica[ r_£:cr%
',.,,.i:hin._,her than between. _" ....
-_,''' i The color map of the Americas conve)s 6-:.9% c:
E '" ' i" the regior_al,anations.ln North Amer,:athere an, green
and ye!iov, zones, theyeliox_ being Na-Dene speak-
C -i '" ° [ors and _he__reenareas most'.,, northern Amerind T?,e
co!or picture does not suppl? a clear distinction be:v..eer:
.... '.... ._' _,_'_ .F'" theseand ]nuit rEskimos/, probabi._ be:ause:he I::-
," /ter inhabit a ve_. thin area on :he coast. T;",e sou,h.
_-" '""" / em 7a."zof North America is ___\;sh. and 'he pink area
/
_*_ at the bc'undar? betweensouthern Arizona..Nov, .Me:c..
/
/
/ ico. and norther_ Mexico is a sort,of average fro':: ,._:_.
z..,, ous local pop-'.ations: southern No-Done{Apa:.he a::c
" _ _ '" _' ;' "'_ _ "_ .\'a',ao v.hoalsoha',,e some £ene',;c admit, tune ',',_h
Fig. 61..2-: __:r:r:et:,: ma_ cl :he_mer can eCtained b:, Amerinds; andneigfibonng speakersef Uto-Az:e,:an '.an-
usm_ ::,e'_::: prate:Fat c.ompc_-':: guages
Central America sho'_s a compZicated mosaic cf
,odnf: fi':::n _o ird_<Cua! genes. Our method obtains colors,as expected of a region that ,,,,.as_rs'r.ah'.)
firs: -':'-< :'. :.:"o_e penes and proceeds from them to crossed man', timesbv many __rou_s.Thearea ecc.u-
obta:n PCs and :hen ;heir maps. Th:s :ends ,o smooth pied b? Chibchan speakers is re!ati\el.', hon'o_eneeus
maps .'.ere ::::: the directcalculation of PCs from otis- TheCaribbeansarepassi',e]y stained: ,here are "re a:-
inal ger.e frez.;'encies of selected groups or the slightly originals left.
different m,apcm_- method used b,, O'Rourke and Suarez South America is dominated by t',_o colors• recand
•, _," blue. neither of which is found in Nonh Ame_ca n-,-_
_98_ DifferencesmmethodsinexitabiyhighIightone ......
aspect or ancfiqer: oursynthetic maps are aimed at get- colors appear,though not at the sameintensit), or '.,,i_h
tins £eneral s_mfiarit_es.Our single-seremaps are more thesarrenuance, in Central America as we_i. [n¢icat[n£
useful than our synthetic maps for seeing highly local- that there are someremnants of the passageacross the
ized effects of daft. funnel noah of it. Biueextends to thenoah and northe:st
7"heconclusions from synthet;c maps reinforce previ- and must represent a dominant direction of migration,
ous findings and help visualize major genetic regions, where languages of Tucanoan, Caribbean, and Ge stocks
Eskimos, Na-Dene. and Almosan are weI1 characterized am spoken preferentially. The other dominant migration
and are even further differentiated into subgroups. The inbright red is found inthe southern direction along the
Caucasoid infiltration in the eastern United States, in Andes. but it did expand from the Andes toward theeast.
eastern South America, and perhaps inGreenland aremostly into the Amazon plains,as we have seen from
clear. The difference between the western and eastern archaeology. Is the whitespotin the middleof the ,An:des
coasts of North America is clear. In South America,near Bolivia and Peru, an indication of a possible in,,'e:se
several regions can be defined: the Andes show local Thor Heyerdahl (1950)effect, the arrival of Polynesians
homogene_t? at the level of the higher PCs and always to South America?
6, 14, SUMMARY OF THE GENETIC HISTORY OFAMERICA
The genetic patterns in the Americas fully confirm Their order in time is strongly suggested b.',their no_h"
the three waves of migration suggested by dental and south geographical order. Further refinements map re'_e_',
linguistic e_idence: Amerinds. No-Done. and Eskimo.that more than one entrycontributed to the first v,a_e
DOIO_lT_.

_ .'£-'2- 3,;!
but thearchaecio:,ic.-d.:mfc.,'m".ation_s c","'__._ctc,_., and Andeans entered before "_* Paez2c. ci, e- :na'. th,_,,
our unders:ancL:'.z of the £ene',_c pa::er:"of"-,',met:ads _s extend fan_",er south The Paez3': faro,., ,_, -'os _-" [r,
incomp!e_e, sothat *" -',..... _ ..... _ ' '
............ eat ..... _.,._are _qui:'ed to North America /F',orica] ar._ is most ::esei', rela',e_ :o
settle this _,"oblem Chibchan, v,hicn is found -n ' ..... _., '
• _.._su_, in C ..... al. ;" ' aiso :n
Eskimos. the last ',,.','.,
,.'_ - fairl,, m_id:,,•se::',e._'"-At'- South.America The;-'_"-_':-_" _"_'--'- a-'_....
tlC cocsta',Iin_ and -_-,,X -_ _i_,-_'
O_,..u__ the iR!er:orIn t_' 'ff',.avan!e_ate their entr',, into Sou:,"._"_,,:"
exuemeeast'.Green and, the',' ma_ ha',e 'mixed v,ith ltisvery "_'-,_• . to .... K_ inferencesabout'"_ cr'%r of
Caucasoids, most :._-c_ab,',_. becauseof :sntzc: ,,,_:.",-',_.... er,:_.,'_¢:,,..... r....-'-)_......v,hc '-'_',,,. steak, Car:b, Equatorial•
Vikings v.ho serried .n G,reen!ard arid e;'e=t,..a:b,' van- Go, and Panoan, on the basis of genetic da_a On the
•e _' _ " ;..; ,_ r; .... ':- ,'am.J',ies
ished under fa_rl; m.',stenous circumstances It seems basis of the g o=t"arhicd,_.,bud,.,no, ,in_,_,,_
reasonable to assume that some of that population ',,,'as hov,ever. it seems natura! to sucres: t_a: the.', _'_','- _
_a_sorbed b.',Green:an,..1Eskimos. in the order in v-'hJchthe', a_ found in South,.America.
Thelinguistic and geographic splh bep.veen no.hem those located farther south being first.Somesubfamilies,
an,:, southern Na-Dene is genetically clear-cut and prob- however,havea very wide r'ange: the Eqaatoria! fami!L
ably reflects gene flow from other Amennds. especia!ly for instance, is spokenfrom Venezuela to Un.;gua':
in the southern Na-Dene (Apache and Na,.ajo). who had
greater oppor:unities to recei',e it, becauseihe.,, v,ere in w_t East
more directcontact.
Amennds shov, a m,,.:chmo_ comp',ex _ ....kI_,u _ ]n North ghibchSr
Noah America. there :s a band across thecontinent, (:ate.s:', Car_
which Js "_1_"-'m :heeasl, of Caucasoid adm \ture. This Tucanoar
_anoa_ E_ua',oria_ Ge
admixture is also found e!se'.,here but _; _s _ess _crer,.se
than in Noah .America.In general, ;_e ha_e tried to avoid South Paezar"
using populations in v.hich admixtureof somemagnitude leslie:) An_ean
v,'assuspected, but it '._as lmpossib.'e to a,ot- m_xed
_- _,_ These conside_fions could hase more v.e:_h: ;:,_..,-o
pog,ulationsent:rei.,,',,,ith,ou: introducing an _.n_.rra,.,e_ _,. ......
bias. ','.asa good co,'-relationbet,*een linguistics ar_agenetics
Jn South America. onecanuse synthetic maps to in South Ame-ica. Unfortunate:..',. thereis not. or it has
distino_uish,three maor =_,'e',c, regior.s: the•Andes,the not .vetbeen found. Moreover, the considerab!e _,ene:ic
Amazon bas'.n, and the sou:hem plateau They are ',e,'a noise caused b'_ daft. and probabl._ high_,_variab!e from
differentecalogicaI',,., and genetic exchange may have prate to place, makes an historica! inte:"Fretat_on of ti".e
been less f_qaent "_m'"o them than _,ithin. The eenetic _enetic tree Iess credible in South America thar. in other
picture;',i/bin the reg,on_ _>so ,,ana_!e that a,':enormous pans of the v,orld. V¢ith ',-eUsmall populations,of ,.a.-i-
amountof genetic drift clearl,,must ha',e occunred. This able size, e',olutionar', rate from drift is so ",at:able that
varianon is also found in North and Central Ame_ca, the length of thebranches of the tree is hardly indicati,,e
but it is somev, hat ',es'_extreme; besides, much of the go- of e',olutJonar), time, usingdistances based on gone fro-
netc variation in North .America is u direct consequence quencies..it is difficultto say if otherapproaches--for
of major differences amongethnic groups like Eskimos. example, using mtDNA--can be more useful.
Na.Dene and A,,,erm_, maintained o',er the millennia by At the moment, the simplest hypothesis is that fissions
ecological, behavioral, and social separation among the and movements of tribes, their complex gone flo',,,,sand
m'oups. No such obvious original ethnic differences ex- fusions, and the contrast that can be expected between
istin the rest of the continent. Clearly. fissionsof tribes, the genetic and linguistic effects of fusions between
and probabl,, also fusions, ha,.,e been numerous. Man)' tribes all contribute todissociate geneticand linguistic
tribes have probably originated from a small number of evolution and to some extent even their relation with
founders, justifyingthe enormous intertnbal and interre- geography in this part, of the world.Some regularities
gional drift: they mustalsohave moved around,as they emerge from the genetic analysis of major geographic re-
still do.especially in areas like the Amazon and Orinoco gions in South Americabut. at a micmgeographic level,
basins. An important testimony to the extensive move- several poor or negative correlations among genetics,
meats of Amerind tribes is the extreme fragmentation of geography, and linguistics show theneed for more de-
the linguistic map, especially in South ,America. tailed research,perhaps carried out with other methods.
It would be interesting to know whether some of The research by Spuhler in North America and that on
the South American linguistic families existed before the Panama Chibchan (Barrantes et al. 1990) reassure us
the passage through Panama and, if so, in which order that we are on the right track in assuming a parallelism
they entered. TheAndean family is found along the of genetic and linguistic differentiation in America, that
Andes, alternating with Paezan and, in some places,this researchmodel is productive, and some times even
with Equatorial. It is not unreasonable to think thatthe more informative than work at a macrogeographic level
DOI 02218

3,2 CH _,'aTER 6
Lob*ever,not e_eo roe:on v_ii] be equal]? favorable for merit of 5miles per _ear _s fas,', because :_s::.'-z::.-
m_cro._eciera:_-,icanahsis., hess means that often, but nct .,,__ ] i_ S ,it _ C _ ]4 "--".... _-
In a m,_Ce!,desio_ned_to tes_ _hether the setflem.en: of the ,_roum.to ne,v teeter, h is. of :gurse. ,__e.__,_._<._",.:sat
theAme::cascouZdha_eproducedthehigh__enetic_ari- mo_e_ en,'_'aS b_ leaps andhounds._ ...... _"-_
atioir, obse-%e -a (Cavaili-Sfor-za ]9_6). fi_e assumptions per mo_e if people stayed in the same D.._e tcr so•-
were made: ( 'J demos (tfibes) ',,.:ereof census siT"e500: oral _,ears in a ro'_II This pattern of repeatedmc',e'::er:
("'.,,the,,.:roCuced "buds" -_'_<%of t>e size of t,he initial in',oIvesa specific beha_ior that :s not t,,pical of _.-ro<e-_.... "-
dome; *73)buds doubled in sizeevery generation of 25 day hunter-gatherers (e.g.. for Atnoun P.,.gm es: Ca'. a I:_I
.`',ears(a rate of grov,,'th supported by man,,',observations Sfer-za 1986), '.,,he move for long distances ,_ur,..g4.... ._
on popular:arts in free growth; see see 2 %.: they' there- year but on established paths and repetRive, v,.ie.[-kn:..,r.
foxreached ",he.size of a fuii dome in 50,,,ears:,_,..,x)m circuits.In the past, Pygmies ha',," cer':ainLv mc,.ed far
a nudging cycle (two generations), a dome movedan long distances, in search of no'.,, abodes, but it is diffz.:.L:
a,,erage of 250 miles (5 miles _r ,,'ear). (5) It is iikel.v to find comparable modem situations.
that buds advancing in new rotatory, had low mona,_,.``."" The mode! is _Ie _. approximate, and onh. an al:: _-
li;ing in environments either not contaminated or less rate simulation could give more realistic values Per:-a7s
contaminated by previous inhabitants; on the contraQ', only at a later stage, closer to saturation of poF_Za:i,:n
domes :n regions behind _headvancing frontier v,ou!d density, fusion e',ents would becomemorecommon, k
soon slo,_ down pepuia_on increase. Perhaps increasing isdifficult to e',alua_e the sa*uration densiL', in en',_:'c'>
m,:rtalit.v u.as caused byrapid saturation of local popula- merits as di\ers¢ and poorly knov..n as those in Sc:,tzh
tion dens::':. It is a necessar':assurr.g':ion of an.', expan- America. Clearly. population density gradua'.'Orose=n
sicn that population gro_,th is rapid at the fron'Zer and the Andes to levels much higher than in the res_ of the
ceases or s]o_Is dev, n considerably back of the frontier subcontinent. Man`` urban developments, theskili-_.', :x.
{.-,',mme.,"manand Ca',aIli-Sforza 1984). ploitation of the ",'ariet`` of ecological niches and a:::_:e
Under theseconditions, theoccupation of the Amer- social management in organized states must ha,,e grad-
ic'..s :e,'id be completed in fev, m,i]enma, and. in the ual!', but greatly increased the ca,,,n">ingcapac:t.,, o_ "Y.e
absence of admixture betv,een domes, the final genetic Andean region inthe last few m_ilennia.
,a.._at:on _t'.,.'een demos would e',en betoo high with The most successful ci',Iitizations arosei'- :he .Andes
3,' =-_¢,0.Gone Row ber,.,.,een demos would, of course, and in man.', pans of Central America v.here the c'.::Ta:e
reduce genetic variation. Tubal fusions are bound to i-,a_e ',).as morefa',orable. No such developments e_er rock
.. =end, variation place outside the Andes or other pans of Con:re'..A::er-
pia.,,e'_ a," import,ant part because the _, , c
,a,ouic, ae excessive if the models above are fight, ica. But in the northern subcontinent, in times befcre
A detain budding and expansion _.rocess in tv,o dimen- European contact. Plains tribes wereproba_1? of re'.a-
sions _ou'.d probably" be random in direction, cenainiy tively large size. More sedentary, groups lixed in ::om-
un_u_ed except by the search for game. safety., and munities that reached numbers in the thousands (sec
comfort, The idea that a single band wandered across 614)i Thus. v,,here',er population numbers ere',.,.. '.he el-
from ..-ksJato America seems unrealistic. Along coas_s fonts of drift were buffered and. especial'.',' '.a,here ur-
and fi',ers, the processwould be closer to unidimensional ban communities arose• they were e',entuall> drascica_l',
• and unidirectional. The average rate of (random) move- reduced.
DO[02219