No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
A goal-oriented approach to identify and engineer land use systems
Abstract
This paper describes a formalized approach to identify and engineer future-oriented land use systems. Such land use systems can be used to explore options for strategic decision making with respect to land use policy and to do ex-ante assessment of land use alternatives to be further tested or developed in experimental settings. The so-called goal-oriented approach consists of three steps: (1) goal-oriented identification and design of land use systems; (2) quantification of biophysical production possibilities; and (3) defining the optimal mix of inputs, i.e. the production technique, required to realize production possibilities. The goal-oriented identification and design depends on the land-related objectives of a system under study, whereas plant, animal and environmental characteristics determine biophysical production possibilities. Characteristics of the production technique determine the realization of production possibilities. General guidelines are given to structure the specification and number of alternatives to be explored and to apply agro-ecological principles required for quantification of future-oriented land use systems. Concepts of the approach are illustrated with data from the northern Atlantic zone of Costa Rica and the Sudano–Sahelian zone of Mali. Finally, suggestions are given for the application of the approach at spatial and temporal scales exceeding the field level and time horizon of 1 year.
... One way of improving knowledge regarding the complex relationship between agricultural production, environment and economy is through integrated quantitative methods and tools. These methods allow exploration of suitable production activities taking into account farmers' objectives, resource availability and technical feasibility (de Wit et al., 1980;Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). This would complement the existing literature assessing the feasibility of biodiesel production on family farms in Brazil, much of which is qualitative in nature (Abramovay and Magalhães, 2008;César and Batalha, 2010;Garcez and Vianna, 2009;Hall et al., 2011;Padula et al., 2012;Watanabe and Zylbersztajn, 2012). ...
... The input and output coefficients of current production activities in TechnoGIN are based on survey data. Alternative production activities, however, are quantified based on knowledge of the biophysical processes of plant and animal production, technical recommendations and land use related objectives following the so called design criteria (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). For these activities, target yields were based on crop models (potential and water limited yields), field crop experiments (rain fed and irrigated), expert knowledge and literature. ...
... Main current production activities were identified in each of the research areas through farm surveys (previous section). Alternative production activities were specified according to biophysical possibilities and their technical feasibility combined with land userelated objectives (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). ...
In Brazil, local agricultural research agendas are increasingly challenged by the search for sustainable biodiesel crop options for family farmers, especially under semi-arid conditions. The aim of this paper is to explore the suitability of different biodiesel crops (i.e. soybean, castor bean and sunflower) through a set of environmental and socioeconomic indicators in a semi-arid (Montes Claros) and a more humid (Chapada Gaúcha) municipality in the state of Minas Gerais, southeast Brazil. A technical coefficient generator (TechnoGIN) was used to assess current (maize, beans, soybean and grass seed) and alternative (castor bean and sunflower) crops grown with current and alternative production techniques. The quantification of the inputs and outputs was based on farm surveys, expert knowledge, literature and field experiments. Although castor bean and sunflower are economically competitive with maize in Montes Claros, feed and labour requirements may hinder farmers' adoption. In Chapada Gaúcha, the double cropping system soybean/sunflower presented small economic gains when compared to soybean; it also increased nitrogen losses and biocide residues. We conclude that the scope for alternative and sustainable biodiesel crops on family farms is limited. Their economic benefits are small or absent, while their introduction can lead to higher environmental impacts and there may be trade-offs with food and feed availability at the farm level.
... The input-oriented approach implies that inputs serve as a basis for the calculation of outputs, which together form the technical coefficients. In the output-oriented approach, the production target (output) is set dependent on the most limiting growth factor and on the objectives of the agricultural activity and then the most efficient set of inputs to realize this target is defined (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997; Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). The latter method is particularly apt for alternatives. ...
... In assessment of technological innovations a 'very' large number of alternatives needs to be included, as this is the only way a BEFM can find the most promising alternative cropping and husbandry techniques from economic, social or environmental viewpoint (Hazell and Norton, 1986; Falconer and Hodge, 2000; Ten Berge et al., 2000; Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002 ). This 'very' large number of alternatives represents the technological innovation (e.g. ...
... In policy assessment, the number of the alternatives can be relatively low; the alternatives defined should capture already identified promising techniques that are used by progressive farmers or broad categories of technologies that might be picked up due to the policy change. Alternatives must be feasible from a biophysical and technical point of view; whether or not they are socio-economically viable will be assessed in the BEFM (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). Immense numbers of activities can potentially be incorporated , for example over 100,000 crop rotations can be generated if potentially 15 crops can be grown on a certain farm. ...
Bio-economic farm models (BEFMs) are developed to enable assessment of policy changes and technological innovations, for specific categories of farming systems. A rapidly growing number of research projects is using these models and there is increasing interest for application. The paper critically reviews past publications and applications of BEFMs on their strengths and weaknesses in assessing technological innovation and policy changes for farmers and policy makers and highlights key issues that require more attention in the use and methodology of BEFMs. A BEFM is defined as a model that links formulations describing farmers’ resource management decisions to formulations that represent current and alternative production possibilities in terms of required inputs to achieve certain outputs, both yield and environmental effects. Mechanistic BEFMs are based on available theory and knowledge of farm processes and these were the focus of our study. Forty-eight applications of mechanistic BEFMs were reviewed as to their incorporation of farmer decision making and agricultural activities, comprehensiveness, model evaluation, and transferability. A clear description of end-use of the BEFM, agricultural activities, model equations and model evaluation are identified as good practices and a research agenda is proposed including the following issues: 1. development of a thorough and consistent procedure for model evaluation; 2. better understanding and modelling of farmer decision making and possible effects of the social milieu; 3. inclusion of several economic and environmental aspects of farming including multifunctionality and 4. development of a generic, modular and easily transferable BEFM.
... production, environment and economics) and scales are integrated and synthesized to explore alternatives. Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum (2002) presented an agro-ecological engineering approach to convert information on specific aims for new agricultural systems into a targeted identification and quantification of land use systems for the land unit level. The approach integrates and synthesizes processbased knowledge of physical, chemical, physiological and ecological processes, and empirical data regarding agronomic relationships using a variety of numerical tools while taking into account available resources and prevailing land-related objectives. ...
... The goal of this paper is to contribute to a formalized engineering approach as described by Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum (2002) enabling the systematic exploration of land use options at farm or regional level. In this paper required numerical tools are identified and some are applied to analyze the consequences of uncertainty in the performance of engineered land use systems. ...
... Here, the agro-ecological approach to engineer land use systems at land unit level is briefly described, for a more extensive description of background and theory we refer to Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum (2002). Next, emphasis is on the required tools and the product of the approach. ...
Agriculture faces an array of interrelated problems that call for development of new and revision of existing cropping systems towards the multiple needs of the 21st century. Agro-ecological engineering approaches aimed at design and exploration of alternative land use systems at various scales may support the identification of appropriate land use options. Engineering approaches are based on mathematical representations of well-founded agro-ecological principles while taking into account available resources and prevailing land-related objectives. The goal of this paper is to contribute to the development of a formalized approach to engineer cropping systems at the land unit level that can be used as building blocks for systematic explorations of land use options at farm or regional scale. The approach for engineering cropping systems at the land unit level consists of three steps: (i) goal-driven design of cropping systems, (ii) quantification of biophysical production targets and (iii) definition of the optimal mix of inputs required to realize production targets. This paper describes the approach and illustrates it with examples from the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Mali. Explicit attention is paid to the required numerical tools and their application to analyze consequences of uncertainty in the performance of engineered cropping systems. Using numerical tools, uncertainty is made explicit with the aim to better manage or reduce it. Identification of uncertainty at the designer's desk allows taking uncertainty into account before applying engineered land use systems in regional model studies or testing such systems in practice. Problems related to the application of numerical tools are discussed, including the future role of agro-ecological engineering as independent discipline within agricultural science.
... The input-oriented approach implies that inputs serve as a basis for the calculation of outputs, which together form the Technical Coefficients (TCs), while in the output-oriented approach the production target (output) is set dependent on the most limiting growth factor and on the objectives of the agricultural activity and then the most efficient set of inputs to realize this target is defined (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). Characteristics of both approaches are: 1) Input-oriented approach: a) Inputs serve as a basis for the calculation of outputs, which together form the Technical Coefficients (TCs) b) Variation in performance of activities between years is caused by weather. ...
... 2) Output-oriented approach: a) The production target chosen determines the set of inputs needed and there are many different possibilities for the production target: potential yield, water limited yield, nutrient limited yield, actual yield, etc. b) The output-oriented approach is more commonly used in normative studies as it is based on what is technically possible. This can be understood in relation to the nature of alternative activities in normative approaches (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002): they must be possible from a biophysical point of view and feasible from a technical point of view (either 'on the shelf' or 'in the pipeline'). Their economic and environmental feasibility will be assessed in the optimization procedure of the farm model. ...
... Output-oriented approach (also called target oriented): The production target (output) is set dependent on the most limiting factor and on the objectives and then the set of inputs to realize this target is defined (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) Physical environment: Combinations of soil and climate properties in which production takes place. ...
... We describe cropping systems in terms of discrete sets of combinations of inputs and outputs, also called technical coefficients (Chambers, 1988;Hengsdijk et al., 2002). These coefficients are generated using location-specific information from farm surveys (Scholten, 2007;Tesfaye Shiferaw, 2008;Mengistu Assefa, 2008), Farm Handbooks ( Mohammed Abdulwahab, 1988), general agronomy knowledge, physical data (climate and soil) and the dedicated collection of input prices at local agrochemical stores. ...
... twice the yield of TAC) and associated higher input levels. The input levels of these new production techniques have been defined based on the target-oriented approach (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002), which entails that first a target yield level is determined and subsequently the optimal combination of inputs to realize this yield. We used TechnoGIN to quantify the input levels of TBF and TCF. ...
Modelling approach for rain fed farm household systems in the Central Rif Valley of Ethiopia to assess the possible effects of intensification of cereal-based cropping systems to farm income, mitigation of GHG emissions and other household indicators
... The methodology for this explorative land use study used production ecological concepts (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997), a target-oriented approach for quantification of a broad range of alternative production activities (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002), and an MGLP model for the integration of biophysical and socio-economic information (De Wit et al., 1988;Rabbinge et al., 1994;Bouman et al., 1998). The study Table 3), a.i.: active ingredient, and 1 USD = 8.3 yuan in 2002. ...
... activities comprising goat, sheep, pig, cattle and donkey production. Quantification of the production activities was based on a target-oriented approach (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002), in which target outputs were set first, and then the required inputs such as nutrients, capital and labor to realize them were calculated. A quantitative land evaluation was conducted using the EPIC model (Sharpley and William, 1990) to quantify interactions between yields, soil loss and effects of various agro-techniques and land conditions (land units), and the results have been preliminarily validated with empirical and experimental data from Ansai and the Loess Plateau (Lu, 2000;Lu et al., 2003). ...
Ansai is a county characterized by hilly loess relief that experiences all problems typical to the Loess Plateau of northern China, such as population pressure, soil loss, over-use of marginal lands, and poverty and food insecurity problems. Alleviation of these problems needs an integrated consideration of different objectives. To learn about the potentials and limitations of agricultural development and conflicts between objectives, this study conducted a systematic and trade-off analysis of different policy objectives, based on a land use optimization model (linear programming) integrating biophysical, agro-technical and socio-economic information. The results can serve two purposes, i.e., to reveal the solution space for each of the objectives and to analyze trade-off relationships between pairs of objectives. The information also forms the basis for further scenario analysis in which several objectives are considered simultaneously.
... The inputs and outputs are fully determined by the physical environment, the plant and animal types and the applied production techniques. Therefore, the production activities were derived from factorial combination of design criteria (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) that explicitly characterize the physical environment (here: soil fertility), type of plants and animals (vegetation and herd) and production techniques (fertilizer application and harvesting regime). An overview of the design criteria and the variants per criterion is given inTable 2. Combinations of variants were filtered for agronomic feasibility. ...
... 355, 53.4, 64.3, 32.5. Circles with letters indicate the position of the farm houses and stables for the farms.Fig. 6. Relationship between gross margin of agricultural practice (including subsidies for nature conservation) and the average, area-weighed abundance of species in fields for individual fields (a), farms (b) and the whole landscape (c). Ittersum (2002), yield ex ante assessments of land-use alternatives to assist strategic decision making and to inform debates on landscape and land-use planning. The possibilities for multi-scale design and evaluation of landscapes offered by the framework, enabled evaluation of spatial interactions and their implications at higher hierarchical scales ...
Intensively managed agricultural areas in North-Western Europe have been undergoing a shift from solely production oriented use to provision of multiple services and functions. Design and assessment of multifunctional agricultural landscapes could be supported by exploration of trade-offs between financial returns from agriculture, landscape quality, nature conservation and environmental quality. This paper presents the Landscape IMAGES methodology for spatially explicit exploration of options for multifunctional agriculture in landscapes at a scale of a few km2. The framework has been developed to support discussions and inform decision making by local and regional policy makers, land owners and land managers. Other relevant stakeholders could include non-governmental organizations representing nature conservation and environmental protection objectives.
... The method is based on concepts of production ecology (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997; Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) and simulation modeling. The identification of cropping systems was problem-oriented and on a rotation basis, taking into account the land suitability and inputs and measures for water and soil conservation, using a similar approach as proposed by Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum (2002). ...
... Cropping systems were specified by four types of factors, or so-called design criteria (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002), i.e., suitable land units, crop types/rotations, production situations, and agro-techniques for soil and water conservation (Table 1). A cropping system was defined as a feasible combination of these factors. ...
Severe soil erosion and food security problems are the most important issues in the Loess Plateau of northern China, which are closely related to the over-cultivation and poor management of marginal land resources. Alleviation of these unsustainability problems requires, among many other things, alternative and innovative cropping systems. This paper describes the identification of such cropping systems and their quantitative evaluation. It uses an operationalized approach based on production ecological concepts, and the application of the simulation model EPIC for the case of Ansai County in the Loess Plateau. Based on four criteria, i.e. suitable land units, crop rotations, production situations, and agro-techniques for water and soil conservation, we identified 548 cropping systems. The yield potentials and efficiencies in terms of soil and nutrient conservation were quantitatively evaluated for each of the cropping systems. The results indicated that the low productivity, and serious soil and water losses in current cropping systems may be greatly alleviated by increasing nutrient inputs and use of soil conservation measures, such as growing crops in rotations with alfalfa, using crop residues as mulch, and furrow-ridging tillage. For most crops, the current yield may be at least doubled by good soil and crop management with appropriate inputs. The study suggests a range of crop rotations that satisfy food production, soil and water conservation and economic objectives to different extent. The results of this study can serve two purposes. First, they may help setting an agenda for empirical and experimental research aimed at the testing and improving of cropping systems, and second, the cropping systems can be input for an integrated land use study that weighs objectives at regional scale and reveals potential and strategic land use options.
... Few BEFM applications include technically feasible alternative activities and if they are used they are based on expert judgment with the risk of missing out suitable alternatives (Dogliotti and others 2003; Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum 2002; Janssen and Van Ittersum 2007). In FSSIM two specific components are available generating systematically alternative crop rotations and crop management options. ...
... The aim of FSSIM-AM is to describe current activities, generate alternative activities and quantify the activities through all the required technical coefficients. Alternative activities are new activities or activities currently not widely practiced in the study area, and include technological innovations and newly developed cropping or husbandry practices (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum 2002; Van Ittersum and Rabbinge 1997). Based on the farm typology, the Technical Coefficient Generator (TCG) quantifies inputs and outputs for arable, livestock or perennial activities or combinations of activities. ...
Bio-economic farm models are tools to evaluate ex-post or to assess ex-ante the impact of policy and technology change on agriculture, economics and environment. Recently, various BEFMs have been developed, often for one purpose or location, but hardly any of these models are re-used later for other purposes or locations. The Farm System Simulator (FSSIM) provides a generic framework enabling the application of BEFMs under various situations and for different purposes (generating supply response functions and detailed regional or farm type assessments). FSSIM is set up as a component-based framework with components representing farmer objectives, risk, calibration, policies, current activities, alternative activities and different types of activities (e.g., annual and perennial cropping and livestock). The generic nature of FSSIM is evaluated using five criteria by examining its applications. FSSIM has been applied for different climate zones and soil types (criterion 1) and to a range of different farm types (criterion 2) with different specializations, intensities and sizes. In most applications FSSIM has been used to assess the effects of policy changes and in two applications to assess the impact of technological innovations (criterion 3). In the various applications, different data sources, level of detail (e.g., criterion 4) and model configurations have been used. FSSIM has been linked to an economic and several biophysical models (criterion 5). The model is available for applications to other conditions and research issues, and it is open to be further tested and to be extended with new components, indicators or linkages to other models.
... Most of the decision-aid approaches developed for assessing the sustainability of agricultural systems have classically been based on multiple-objective decision-making methods (MODM) (Meyer-Aurich, 2005). These methods are often implemented within some "systems approach" frameworks consisting of (i) systematic and quantitative analysis of agricultural systems for the mathematical definition of objectives and constraints, and (ii) the synthesis of optimal "solutions", using optimization techniques (Rossing et al., 1997;Zander and Kächele, 1999;ten Berge et al., 2000;Kropff et al., 2001;Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002;Bontkes and van Keulen, 2003;Dogliotti et al., 2005). The ex ante evaluation of innovative cropping system sustainability poses two major problems for MODM methods based on optimization techniques: ...
... At that stage of MCDA method selection, we were confronted with two opposite approaches within the agricultural sustainability research community. Users of MODM methods claim that only such quantitative methods can disentangle the complex relationships between agricultural production, environment and economy, thereby increasing the transparency of choices regarding sustainability (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). Similarly, others even consider that the use of expert rules and semi-quantitative indicators in such studies is cause for concern as it is difficult to evaluate such rules, rendering the results of local relevance at best, whereas MODM methods are more effective (Dogliotti et al., 2005). ...
Sustainability is a holistic and complex multi-dimensional concept encompassing economic, social and environmental issues, and its assessment is a key step in the implementation of sustainable agricultural systems. Realistic assessments of sustainability require: (1) the integration of diverse information concerning economic, social and environmental objectives; and (2) the handling of conflicting aspects of these objectives as a function of the views and opinions of the individuals involved in the assessment process. The assessment of sustainability is therefore increasingly regarded as a typical decision-making problem that could be handled by multi-criteria decision-aid (MCDA) methods. However, the number and variability of MCDA methods are continually increasing, and these methods are not all equally relevant for sustainability assessment. The demands for such approaches are also rapidly changing, and faster ex ante assessment approaches are required, to address scales currently insufficiently dealt with, such as cropping system level. Researchers regularly carry out comparative analyses of MCDA methods and propose guidelines for the selection of a priori relevant methods for the assessment problem considered. However, many of the selection criteria used are based on technical/operational assumptions that have little to do with the specificities of ex ante sustainability assessment of alternative cropping systems. We attempt here to provide a reasoned comparative review of the main groups of MCDA methods, based on considerations related to those specificities. The following main guidelines emerge from our discussion of these methods: (1) decision rule-based and outranking qualitative MCDA methods should be preferred; (2) different MCDA tools should be used simultaneously, making it possible to evaluate and compare the results obtained; and (3) a relevantly structured group of decision-makers should be established for the selection of tool variants of the choosen MCDA methods, the design/choice of sustainability criteria, and the analysis and interpretation of the evaluation results.
... This simple formulation assumes economic rationality of profit maximization. A generic bio-economic farm model should adequately represent arable, livestock and perennial activities (Thornton and Herrero, 2001; Pacini, 2003), current agricultural activities and future alternative activities (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997; Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002), different objective functions (Freund, 1956; Hardaker et al., 1997), different resource and policy constraints, and future policies and technological SEAMLESS No. 010036 Deliverable number: D3. ...
... The fully quantified activities, i.e. the complete sets of agricultural inputs and outputs are assessed in FSSIM-MP on their contribution to the farmer's and policy goals considered. Alternative activities are new activities or ones currently not widely practiced in the study area, and include technological innovations and newly developed cropping or husbandry practices (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997; Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). As current activities are widely practiced in a sample region, their management operations and some of the associated outputs can be based on observed data and expert knowledge. ...
SEAMLESS (System for Environmental and Agricultural Modelling; Linking European Science and Society) integrated project, EU 6th Framework Programme, contract no. 010036-2
... This quantification was performed by setting achievable target yields for each management system according to the method explained by Van Ittersum and Rabbinge (1997). The optimal combination of inputs and management to obtain the target yield was defined, assuming the 'best management practices' principle (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). This combination of target yield, inputs and techniques was specific to the physical environment of Canelones, characterized by the region's climate and soil types. ...
Sustainability of most vegetable family farms in Southern Uruguay is threatened by low income and the deterioration of natural resources. This study quantified the effect of the inclusion of different alternatives of livestock production in the structure, and economic and environmental performance of different types of vegetable farms. Based on two farms as case studies, we conducted a model based exploratory study at farm scale. The results suggested that the inclusion of livestock production in vegetable family farms is a key factor in reducing erosion of the cultivated area. To reduce erosion, the model reduced the area of vegetables per farm, while expanding the area of forage production. As a consequence, family farm income (IF) was reduced between 12 % and 31 % depending on the case studied. However, we could design production systems with erosion lower than the tolerance limit for the soil type and higher IF, relative to the target, in both farms. From the livestock production alternatives evaluated, the most appropriate ones to include in vegetable production systems are fattening steers or heifers in cycles of 14 to 18 months, due to lower cost for restocking and less use of concentrates, reducing capital requirements and dependence on external inputs.
... Oriented Approach (TOA) has been developed for prospective studies when data are scarce about performance of specific alternative activities (Hengsdijk et al., 2002). In the TOA, the calculation of technical coefficient is based on first production levels that are evaluated depending on local conditions (climate, soil, techniques) for all activities, and then the needed inputs for such production are calculated with models. ...
Les systèmes agricoles sont en constante évolution sous les effets conjugués d'innovations techniques et organisationnelles et de changements du contexte socio-économique. A l'échelle d'un territoire, des acteurs locaux peuvent encourager et accompagner des changements de ce type s'ils ont une vision claire de leurs impacts potentiels. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'élaborer et d'appliquer une démarche permettant d'assister agriculteurs et autres acteurs locaux d'un territoire dans la construction et l'évaluation de scénarios d'évolutions des systèmes agricoles. Une démarche basée sur des approches permettant une analyse prospective, multicritères, multi-échelles et participative d'évaluation des systèmes agricoles a été développée. Elle a été mise en oeuvre en Camargue (sud-est de la France), avec des exploitants céréaliers et des acteurs de la production agricole et de la gestion du territoire. Des scénarios portant sur la réforme de la politique agricole commune (PAC) en 2012-2014, ainsi que sur des objectifs nationaux de réduction de la consommation de pesticides et de développement de l'agriculture biologique ont été développés. Ces perspectives d'évolution des systèmes agricoles camarguais ont été évaluées, via la formalisation de nombreuses données et connaissances. Deux outils de modélisation ont été utilisés : un modèle multi-agent a permis la mise en place de séances de simulation interactives avec des agriculteurs, et un modèle bioéconomique a été développé et utilisé avec des acteurs locaux tels que le syndicat des riziculteurs et le parc naturel régional. Les scénarios portant sur la réforme de la PAC ont confirmé la dépendance des exploitations rizicoles aux subventions. Des agriculteurs ont testé différentes stratégies d'adaptation de leurs exploitations à la suppression de l'aide couplée à la production rizicole. Ces stratégies, souvent basées sur la diversification des activités ou sur la conversion à l'agriculture biologique, ne permettaient pas de compenser les pertes économiques liées à la disparition de l'aide couplée. A l'échelle du territoire, ces stratégies réduiraient fortement la surface cultivée en riz, avec des impacts importants sur d'autres activités en lien avec la production agricole. Cependant ces stratégies vont dans le sens des objectifs gouvernementaux de réduction des impacts de l'agriculture sur l'environnement. Des scénarios portant spécifiquement sur ces objectifs ont permis d'identifier des marges de manoeuvre importantes au niveau des exploitations céréalières camarguaises. Cette thèse propose un cadre pour la mise en oeuvre de démarches d'évaluation des systèmes agricoles dans un territoire, qui associe les agriculteurs et les acteurs locaux à différentes étapes, depuis leur engagement pour le choix des scénarios, l'acquisition et l'analyse des données, la construction des outils de simulation et l'évaluation de scénarios. La combinaison de différents outils de modélisation pour la réalisation de réflexions collectives, pourrait contribuer à la mise en place d'actions pour un développement durable de l'agriculture.
... The inputs and outputs are fully determined by the physical environment, the plant and animal types and the applied production techniques. Therefore, the production activities were derived from factorial combination of design criteria (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) that explicitly characterize the physical environment (here: soil fertility), types of plants and animals and production techniques (fertilizer application and harvesting regime). An overview of the design criteria and the variants per criterion is given in Table 1. ...
En la presente Tesis Doctoral se desarrolla un marco metodológico integrado con el fin de evaluar el comportamiento multifuncional de los sistemas agrarios y definir prácticas agrarias más sostenibles económica, ambiental y socialmente, y diseñar políticas agrarias que favorezcan la adopción de las técnicas agrarias óptimas desde el punto de vista de su sostenibilidad global. Para ello se combinan diferentes metodologías de valoración económica, modelización integrada, el análisis de las partes interesadas y la evaluación multicriterio. El marco metodológico se desarrollará y aplicará para dos casos de estudio, el olivar de Andalucía y explotaciones lecheras intensivas del norte de los Países Bajos, sistemas de elevada significación económica, social y ambiental en sus respectivas regiones. La hipótesis subyacente en la Tesis, y que ha sido contrastada, es que en la actualidad no se están implementando por parte de los agricultores, en ambos sistemas agrarios, las técnicas agrarias más sostenibles globalmente debido a que no se están considerando adecuadamente en el diseño de políticas agrarias y agroambientales públicas los beneficios y costes públicos y privados de todas las partes interesadas y las funciones de mercado y no-mercado de los sistemas agrarios a nivel de explotación y/o paisaje. Así, los objetivos últimos de la investigación son: 1) priorizar las funciones de no-mercado, o no comerciales, de los dos sistemas agrarios analizados según las demandas sociales a la agricultura; 2) identificar técnicas de cultivo y paquetes tecnológicos óptimos de acuerdo con su comportamiento multifuncional y sostenibilidad global a nivel de explotación y/o paisaje y definir los cambios necesarios en las técnicas agrarias actuales para alcanzar mayores niveles de sostenibilidad; y 3) definir mecanismos políticos eficientes para promover un cambio efectivo en las técnicas implementadas por los agricultores con el fin de alcanzar la adopción de las técnicas o paquetes tecnológicos de mayor sostenibilidad global en los dos sistemas agrarios objeto de estudio.
En el artículo 1 se desarrolla y aplica un modelo integrado de evaluación de la multifuncionalidad a nivel de explotación para el caso de la olivicultura andaluza. El modelo se basa teóricamente en el método de análisis de decisión multicriterio Proceso Analítico de Red (ANP), alimentado por el conocimiento de 27 expertos, una encuesta a 400 olivareros de Andalucía y revisión bibliográfica. El objetivo es evaluar el comportamiento multifuncional de la olivicultura a nivel de explotación, incluyendo sus funciones económicas (costes de producción, rendimiento y calidad del producto), sociales (desarrollo rural y empleo, identidad cultural y paisaje) y ambientales (erosión, fertilidad del suelo, contaminación de las aguas, biodiversidad) en función de las técnicas agrícolas aplicadas referidas a la plantación, manejo del suelo, riego, fertilización, tratamientos fitosanitarios, recolección y poda. Los resultados indican que, en general, los oleicultores están aplicando alternativas técnicas que son óptimas para la obtención de un producto de alta calidad, pero están descuidando hasta cierto punto los impactos sociales y, sobre todo, los ambientales. A pesar de la evolución positiva en la última década, todavía hay mucho margen de mejora. Los grupos de prácticas más sensibles que deberían mejorar son el manejo del suelo, el riego y la fertilización. Los resultados también ponen de manifiesto que un mejor resultado económico para los agricultores no es incompatible con los objetivos sociales, tales como el desarrollo rural y el empleo, y con la protección del medio ambiente del suelo, el agua y la biodiversidad. Finalmente, los resultados indican el mayor rendimiento multifuncional de algunos paquetes agrícolas alternativos como la producción integrada y la intensiva. En el artículo 2 se desarrolla un marco metodológico integrado para el diseño de políticas públicas que promocionen técnicas agrícolas más sostenibles globalmente según los beneficios netos privados/públicos asociadas a las mismas. El trabajo combina dos modelos multicriterio ANP sobre las múltiples funciones de la olivicultura, uno de ellos desarrollado en el artículo anterior, con un análisis económico y un marco de los Beneficios Públicos/Privados Netos (BPPN) para el diseño de políticas. Se consideran los beneficios y costes de todas las partes interesadas: productores, consumidores de aceite de oliva, administraciones públicas y la sociedad en general. Una encuesta a 409 ciudadanos permite definir las preferencias de la sociedad andaluza hacia la agricultura. Los resultados muestran que técnicas como la cobertura del suelo, la fertilización orgánica, el análisis de suelo o de la hoja antes de la fertilización, el análisis de la calidad del agua de riego, la fertirrigación, la frecuencia de riego siguiendo el consejo de expertos y la baja intensidad de la poda deben ser promovidos por políticas que favorezcan una mayor sostenibilidad. El mecanismo de política revelado como el más eficiente es la extensión agraria. Los contratos territoriales y los programas agroambientales también pueden resultar útiles. Los resultados también demuestran que la maximización de la sostenibilidad no está reñida con la mejora de los beneficios netos privados de los oleicultores. En el artículo 3 se pretende integrar las múltiples demandas sociales hacia la agricultura en la evaluación de la multifuncionalidad de la actividad agraria a nivel de paisaje, en el caso de la ganadería intensiva lechera del norte de los Países Bajos, en concreto de la región de Northern Friesian Woodlands. Las funciones de no-mercado analizadas son la calidad del paisaje (variación en el número de especies de plantas en los pastizales e irregularidad en el patrón de los setos), el valor natural (diversidad de especies en el pasto y setos) y la salud ambiental (baja pérdida de nitrógeno). Las alternativas de paisajes vienen definidas por variables estructurales de las explotaciones como el tamaño y la fertilidad del suelo y por variables de manejo como los regímenes de fertilización y siega de los pastos y la presencia o ausencia de setos alrededor de las parcelas. Las demandas de la sociedad neerlandesa se obtienen del Eurobarómetro y las relaciones entre estas demandas y las funciones de no-mercado mediante entrevistas a 10 expertos usando una combinación de las metodologías QFD y ANP. El modelo de optimización multiobjetivo Landscape IMAGES se utiliza para generar y evaluar alternativas de paisajes y revelar trade-offs entre las funciones del mercado y de no-mercado. Los resultados indican que la mejora del paisaje actual hacia el óptimo social implicaría cambios en la gestión de los pastos que resultaría en un mayor margen bruto para los agricultores y una mayor calidad del paisaje, que se podrían relajar ligeramente las restricciones ambientales actuales, y que se podía llegar a niveles más bajos de subvenciones en los programas agroambientales. En el artículo 4 se propone un marco metodológico integrado que es una ampliación de la metodología desarrollada en el artículo anterior, que permite trasladar los beneficios netos de mercado y nomercado en beneficios privados (de mercado para los ganaderos) y públicos (de mercado y nomercado para el resto de agentes). El objetivo es explorar y seleccionar agro-paisajes potenciales sostenibles en función de los beneficios privados y públicos asociados a alternativas de uso del suelo. Finalmente se definen mecanismos de políticas públicas eficientes para la mejora de beneficio social neto de los agro-paisajes. Los resultados indican que la extensión agraria es el mecanismo de política más eficiente para promover el cambio a la alternativa de paisaje socialmente óptima. En el artículo 5 se aborda el problema de la escala espacial en la evaluación de la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agrarios y cómo la colaboración entre agricultores puede resultar en una mayor sostenibilidad de la actividad agraria sin menoscabar el beneficio privado de los agricultores. Se propone para el caso de la ganadería intensiva lechera de los Países Bajos un mecanismo institucional de compensación financiera entre los agricultores integrantes de un paisaje, basado en el criterio de Kaldor-Hicks y la mejora de Pareto y, que permita determinar cómo el apoyo público definido a nivel de paisaje se puede distribuir de manera equitativa a nivel de explotaciones y posibilite una mejora óptima de Pareto. La evaluación del comportamiento multifuncional de los sistemas ganaderos se basa en los modelos desarrollados en los dos artículos anteriores. Los resultados muestran que los beneficios de los diferentes ganaderos difieren considerablemente debido a diferencias biofísicas, ecológicas y geográficas de sus explotaciones. El mecanismo propuesto pretende contribuir a una mayor equidad entre los agricultores y se debe basar en la confianza mutua, la comunicación y la capacidad de control y sanción, y la descentralización de la toma de decisiones hacia un nivel más local. La implementación del mecanismo propuesto podría ser a través instituciones informales, como el acuerdo verbal entre los agricultores, o formales, como a través de las formas contractuales o con medidas específicas dentro de los programas agroambientales.
... The management of this land has profound impacts on the quality of the wider environment through, for example, nutrient dynamics, water resources and biological diversity . Sustainable land resource management depends on the good assessment and planning of current landscapes (Caldiz et al., 2000a;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). ...
Sustainable land resource management depends on the good assessment and planning of current landscapes. This may be possible with application of multidisciplinary researches, as this study presented a multidisciplinary approach in a spatial database frame work using Geographic Information System. Agroecological zones concept is used to integrating and characterizing homogenous spatial units. This approach combine theme layers include of available water resources, climate, terrain and soil conditions, associated with land use and settlement patterns. Climatic indices layers, including of growing degree days, aridity index, length of growing period and freezing period were created using the correlation between climatic parameter and digital elevation model. Using this approach the Borujen watershed was divided in 28 agroecological zones which defined 3 landscapes or agricultural regions. The most important constraints for developing agriculture in landscape I has topographic, climatic and soil constrains, landscape II has topographic and soil constrains and landscape III has the some limitations of soil. Landscape I and II are much less attractive from an agricultural perspective. Landscape III is suitable for agriculture but, the potential for rainfed cropping system is limited by a lack of growing period during which neither temperature nor moisture is limiting to plant production. In general, the case study of the Borujen watershed indicated that this approach can be used for different scales and adaptive to the particular planning.
... Agricultural science has already used scenario analysis coupled with integrated models to analyse a wide range of sustainability issues relative to agricultural systems (Heckelei and Britz, 2001;Kropff et al., 2001;Van Ittersum and Donatelli, 2003;Arfini, 2005;Verburg et al., 2006;Bryan et al., 2011). However, the scenarios implemented in model-based landscape frameworks tend to focus on a given type of scenario, based either on exploratory "what-if scenarios" (Therond et al., 2009) or on the optimization of other indicators in the systems (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002;Groot et al., 2007) in order to determine targeted outputs for different objectives. These studies do not satisfactorily combine the different types of scenarios necessary to understand the functioning of agricultural systems and their impacts at a regional scale. ...
To improve agriculture faced with regional sustainability issues, agricultural landscapes providing a diversity and high level of ecosystem services are necessary. We have developed and tested the MOSAICA-f framework to build innovative multi-functional agricultural landscapes that can consider explicitly: 1) the performance of cropping systems at the field scale, 2) farmers' decision processes on the adoption of cropping systems, and 3) possible scenarios for innovations and policy changes at the regional scale. This framework is based on a scenario approach that encompasses normative, exploratory and optimized scenarios to assess the relevance of combinations of new agricultural policies, changes to the external context (market and regulations) and innovations in cropping systems. The impacts of these changes on sustainability issues are simulated using the regional bioeconomic model MOSAICA for farmers' decision processes regarding the adoption of cropping systems at the field scale throughout a region. Applied in Guadeloupe (French West Indies), the MOSAICA-f framework enabled the design of a scenario increasing agricultural added value, food and energy self-sufficiency, employment and the quality of water bodies and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This sustainable scenario combines new cropping systems tuned to farm types with a reorientation of subsidies, an increased workforce and banning food crop production on polluted soils. It can be used to understand the potential contribution of agriculture to sustainability issues and to help local decision makers define policies that will account for the spatial diversities of farms and fields in a landscape. Beyond the design of such a win-win scenario, MOSAICA-f has revealed trade-offs in the provision of services by agriculture.
... Crop production and related soil management implies a multitude of decisions and activities on soil tillage, crop choice, rotation design, nutrient supply, water supply and crop protection. Within each of these management categories, many options are usually available to farmers, and the choices to be made and the resulting outcomes are subject to a wide range of economic and environmental objectives and constraints (Hengsdijk & van Ittersum, 2002;Groot et al., 2012). Finding ways to maintain farm profitability while reducing undesirable emissions or maintaining carbon stocks is complicated by interactions and feedbacks among agricultural practices. ...
Crop production and soil fertility management implies a multitude of decisions and activities on crop choice, rotation design and nutrient management. In practice, the choices to be made and the resulting outcomes are subject to a wide range of objectives and constraints. Objectives are economic as well as environmental, for instance sequestering carbon in agricultural soils or reducing nitrogen losses. Constraints originate from biophysical and institutional conditions that may restrict the possibilities for choosing crops or using specific cultivation and fertilization practices. To explore the consequences of management interventions to increase the supply of organic C to the soil on income and N losses, we developed the linear programming model NutMatch. The novelty of the model is the coherent description of mutual interdependencies amongst a broad range of sustainability indicators related to soil fertility management in arable cropping, enabling the quantification of synergies and trade-offs between objectives. NutMatch was applied to four different crop rotations subjected to four fertiliser strategies differing in the use of the organic fertilisers cattle slurry, pig slurry or compost, next to mineral fertiliser. Each combination of rotation and fertiliser strategy contributed differently to financial return, N emissions and organic matter inputs into the soil.
... Ces modèles visent soit à évaluer les conséquences de politiques publiques sur l'activité agricole, soit à déterminer les localisations optimales des systèmes de cultures en fonction de critères à la fois économiques et environnementaux (Meyer-Aurich, 2005). Dans ce cadre, le couplage de modèles économiques avec des modèles agronomiques permet aussi de prendre en compte les caractéristiques pédoclimatiques des zones étudiées (Hengsdijk et van Ittersum, 2002, Staal, et al., 2002. Toutefois, le contexte économique dans ces travaux est majoritairement vu en terme macro-économique et prend peu en compte les interactions entre les agriculteurs et les entreprises qui achètent leurs productions. ...
My works concerned landscape management by the agricultural companies such as farms and cooperatives. At farm level I produced a conceptual model of management strategies that take into account the organization of the production, the constraint coming from landscape characteristics and objectives of landscape transformation. This framework is then used for several models that connect management sciences and agronomy. For the management of landscape by cooperatives the question of GM and non GM coexistence was a situation where it was possible to analyze the individual and collectives strategies that organized the landscape in order to minimize GM and non GM mixing. A model of cooperatives management strategies connected with gene flow model allows to evaluate the efficiency of the strategies and to show the necessity of cooperation between these companies in order to avoid a loss of value for all the agricultural companies.
... The management of this land has profound impacts on the quality of the wider environment through, for example, nutrient dynamics, water resources and biological diversity . Sustainable land resource management depends on the good assessment and planning of current landscapes (Caldiz et al., 2000a;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). ...
Sustainable land resource management depends on the good assessment and planning of current landscapes. This may be possible with application of multidisciplinary researches, as this study presented a multidisciplinary approach in a spatial database frame work using Geographic Information System. ' Agroecological zones' concept is used to integrating and characterizing homogenous spatial units. This approach combine theme layers include of available water resources, climate, terrain and soil conditions, associated with land use and settlement patterns. Climatic indices layers, including of growing degree days, aridity index, length of growing period and freezing period were created using the correlation between climatic parameter and digital elevation model. Using this approach the Borujen watershed was divided in 28 'agroecological zones' which defined 3 landscapes or agricultural regions. The most important constraints for developing agriculture in landscape I has topographic, climatic and soil constrains, landscape II has topographic and soil constrains and landscape III has the some limitations of soil. Landscape I and II are much less attractive from an agricultural perspective. Landscape III is suitable for agriculture but, the potential for rainfed cropping system is limited by a lack of growing period during which neither temperature nor moisture is limiting to plant production. In general, the case study of the Borujen watershed indicated that this approach can be used for different scales and adaptive to the particular planning.
... Esta cuantificación se realizó fijando rendimientos objetivo alcanzables para cada sistema de manejo de acuerdo al método explicado por Van Ittersum y Rabbinge (1997). Se definió la combinación óptima de insumos y manejo para obtener el rendimiento objetivo, asumiendo el principio de 'mejores prácticas de manejo' (Hengsdijk y Van Ittersum, 2002). Esta combinación de rendimiento objetivo, insumos y técnicas fue específica del ambiente físico de Canelones, caracterizado por el clima y los tipos de suelo de la región. ...
La sostenibilidad de la mayoría de los predios hortícolas familiares en el sur de Uruguay está amenazada por ingresosinsuficientes y por el deterioro de los recursos naturales. En este estudio se cuantificó el efecto de la inclusión de diferentesactividades de producción ganadera en la estructura y en los resultados económico-productivos y ambientales de diferentestipos de sistemas de producción (predios) hortícolas. Se realizó un estudio exploratorio a escala predial con modelos desimulación utilizando dos predios como estudio de caso. Los resultados sugieren que la inclusión de actividades de producciónganadera en los sistemas de producción hortícolas es un factor determinante para reducir la erosión promedio del áreacultivada. Para reducir la erosión el modelo diseñó predios que reducen el área de hortalizas al tiempo que expanden larotación forrajera. Como consecuencia de esto, también se redujo el ingreso familiar (IF) entre 12 % y 31 % según el casoestudiado. Sin embargo, pudimos diseñar sistemas de producción con erosión menor a la tolerable para el tipo de suelo e IFmayor al objetivo, en los dos predios. De las actividades ganaderas evaluadas las más apropiadas para incluir en predios hortícolasson el engorde de novillos o vaquillonas en ciclos de 14 a 18 meses, debido al menor costo para reposición de animales y al menoruso de concentrados, lo que disminuye las necesidades de capital y la dependencia de insumos externos.
... The Target Oriented Approach (TOA) has been developed for prospective studies when data are scarce about performance of specific alternative activities (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). In the TOA, the estimation of technical coefficients is based on potential production levels that are estimated for the local conditions (climate, soil, techniques) for all agricultural activities at the field level, and then the inputs (e.g. ...
Evaluating the impacts of the development of alternative agricultural systems, such as organic or low-input cropping systems, in the context of an agricultural region requires the use of specific tools and methodologies. They should allow a prospective (using scenarios), multi-scale (taking into account the field, farm and regional level), integrated (notably multicriteria) and participatory assessment, abbreviated PIAAS (for Participatory Integrated Assessment of Agricultural System). In this paper, we compare the possible contribution to PIAAS of three modeling approaches i.e. Bio-Economic Modeling (BEM), Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) and statistical Land-Use/Land Cover Change (LUCC) models. After a presentation of each approach, we analyze their advantages and drawbacks, and identify their possible complementarities for PIAAS. Statistical LUCC modeling is a suitable approach for multi-scale analysis of past changes and can be used to start discussion about the futures with stakeholders. BEM and ABM approaches have complementary features for scenarios assessment at different scales. While ABM has been widely used for participatory assessment, BEM has been rarely used satisfactorily in a participatory manner. On the basis of these results, we propose to combine these three approaches in a framework targeted to PIAAS.
... Econometric modelling allows for statistical testing of economic and/or technical relations, while mathematical programming models are systems of equations that replicate farm-level production possibilities and restrictions. The advantage of the econometric approach is that it can link decisions at small-scale level to a large scale level in a statistically consistent manner (Weersink et al., 2002 Rabbinge, 1997;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). ...
In Rwanda, land degradation contributes to the low and declining agricultural productivity and consequently to food insecurity. As a result of land degradation and increasing population pressure, there is urgent need to simultaneously enhance food security and agro-ecological sustainability. The main objective of this PhD thesis was to make an assessment of technology options and policy incentives that can enhance sustainable farming in Rwanda.
A multivariate analysis approach was used to clearly identify five types of farm households and their socio-economic characteristics. The main differences between the five farm types relate to gender, age, education, risk perception, risk attitude, labour availability, land tenure and income. A bio-economic model capable of analysing the impacts of soil erosion, family planning and land consolidation policies on food security in Rwanda was developed, and applied for one typical farm household. Calculations with the bio-economic model showed that a higher availability of good farm land would increase the farm income. Additionally, preserving soils against erosion and reducing risk would allow for using more marginal land which would increase food production for home consumption and for the market. Increasing the opportunities for off-farm employment can also increase farm household income. The simulation of crop yields under sustainable land management showed that predicted crop yields were distinctly higher than the actual yields for the current small-scale farming practices that are common in the region. Using the developed bio-economic model, model results showed that these sustainable agricultural technologies will clearly enhance food production (after a learning period) and income for all farm household types except the household with the largest farm for which cash at the beginning of the season is too restricted to switch to the new technologies. Provision of credit and availability off-farm activities have emerged as the most serious policies likely to affect the adoption of alternative technologies in all the farm households.
The bio-economic farm model and its applications developed in this study give more insights into the possibilities of transforming the current farming system towards more sustainable farming.
... technically efficient) level of inputs required to attain a certain yield level. The predefined target yield level is calculated according to the biophysical potential, and subsequently inputs are determined required for realizing these target yields (Hengsdijk & Van Ittersum, 2002). The TCG framework explicitly considers the synergies between inputs, and also includes the amounts of labour required or different production activities. ...
Strategies for poverty alleviation and sustainable natural resource management focus on technologies for improving yields. Increasing the returns to scarce factors requires input substitution. This flexibility can be seriously hindered by inadequate timing of input applications or when complementary inputs are not available. Such constraints apply when soil organic matter content is too low for enabling efficient nutrient uptake, or when soil structure limits water infiltration and moisture retention. This paper focuses attention on the importance of labour for soil conservation and input applications that enhance input efficiency in highland areas cropping systems in Eastern Africa. Given the inherent complementarities between labour and material inputs during critical phases of the plant growth process, input efficiency strongly depends on labour allocation. We present a stylised dynamic bio-economic modelling framework to discuss the available options for improving input efficiency in agricultural production. Input response equations are used that consider the returns per unit of land and labour as a function of certain combinations of material inputs and management practices. Critical trade-offs may arise when opportunity costs for labour are high and/or when complementary inputs appear as binding constraints. The model enables to assess feasible pathways for sustainable intensification in typical settings of the East-African highland region.
Final version published in 2006 in Agricultural Economics.
... Also, based on this knowledge, for each combination of physical environment and type of crops and animals, biophysical production possibilities can be estimated. These studies supply inputs into crop and animal growth simulation models that quantify biophysical production possibilities in different physical environments (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002). Many single crop growth models have been developed for many specific types of crops (e.g. ...
This article presents a new two-stage analytical framework to analyse the productive efficiency of crop production systems. In the first stage, crop growth and economic production models are estimated to calculate three measures of productive efficiency: (1) agronomic efficiency, as the ratio of actual yield to potential yield; (2) technical efficiency (TE), as the ratio of actual yield to best practice yield; and (3) agro-economic efficiency (AgEcE), as the ratio of best practice yield to potential yield. In the second stage, TE and AgEcE are analysed in relation to economic, institutional, social and technological factors that cause farm and spatial heterogeneity. The framework was illustrated through an empirical analysis of rice production in Sri Lanka.
... A north/south chain of old mountains lies west of study areas. used in modern agricultural applications for optimising landuse strategies with multiple objectives (Agrell et al., 2004; Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002; Nidumolu et al., 2007), for reservoir management (Chang et al., 1995), for trade-off analyses between agriculture, erosion and non-point-source pollution (Lakhsminarayan et al., 1995 ), for the optimisation of crop distributions (Groot et al., 2007; Gonçalvez et al., 2007), for flood control problems (Simonovic and Akter, 2006) and for incentives for the application of river buffer strips (Borin et al., 2010 ). They are scarcer for Latin American developing countries and for the Pampean Region; however several authors have searched for best alternatives of soil use with discrete multi-criteria for distinct regions of Chaco Salteño (Grau, 2003; Anton, 2006; Anton et al., 2010; Grau et al., 2007 Grau et al., , 2008 Grau et al., , 2009 Grau et al., , 2010). ...
Agro-areas of Arroyos Menores (La Colacha) west and south of Río Cuarto (Prov. of Córdoba, Argentina) basins are very fertile but have high soil loses. Extreme rain events, inundations and other severe erosions forming gullies demand urgently actions in this area to avoid soil degradation and erosion supporting good levels of agro production. The authors first improved hydrologic data on La Colacha, evaluated the systems of soil uses and actions that could be recommended considering the relevant aspects of the study area and applied decision support systems (DSS) with mathematic tools for planning of defences and uses of soils in these areas. These were conducted here using multi-criteria models, in multi-criteria decision making (MCDM); first of discrete MCDM to chose among global types of use of soils, and then of continuous MCDM to evaluate and optimize combined actions, including repartition of soil use and the necessary levels of works for soil conservation and for hydraulic management to conserve against erosion these basins. Relatively global solutions for La Colacha area have been defined and were optimised by Linear Programming in Goal Programming forms that are presented as Weighted or Lexicographic Goal Programming and as Compromise Programming. The decision methods used are described, indicating algorithms used, and examples for some representative scenarios on La Colacha area are given.
... 5.12.1. Agriculture and food (Babu et al., 2000), (Badini et al., 2007), (Bakker et al., 1998), (Bontkes and van Keulen, 2003), (Bosma et al., 1999), (Brossier and Jager, 1984), (Cabanilla et al., 2005), (Delgado and McIntire, 1982), (Dijk, 1997), (Groot and Coulibaly, 1994), (Haefele et al., 2003), (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002), (Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2003), (Hyman, 1991), ( Jaeger and Matlon, 1990), (Kaya et al., 2000), (Kruseman and Bade, 1998), (Langyintuo et al., 2005), (Roncoli et al., 2007), (Samake´, 2003), (Staatz et al., 1989), (Van Duivenbooden, 1993), (Van Duivenbooden, 1999), (Van Duivenbooden and Veeneklaas, 1993), (Vitale and Sanders, 2005). (Diallo, 2006), (Muuka and Mwenda, 2004), (Audibert and Etard, 2003). ...
There is considerable interest in the potential for using operational research (O.R.) in developing countries. One sign of this is the formation of new societies for O.R. scientists in countries and regions where no such society had existed. Since 2003, such societies have been formed in several parts of Africa. This paper focuses on West Africa, and presents a bibliography of papers relating to applications of O.R. in the nations of this part of the continent. The paper describes the way in which the bibliography was collated and discusses the overall picture that the list of papers presents of the state of O.R. in the 18 countries that are considered.
... All of these methods have been used in agricultural applications for optimising land-use strategies with multiple objectives (Agrell et al., 2004;Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002;Nidumolu et al., 2007). These applications include reservoir management (Chang et al., 1995); trade-off analyses between agriculture, erosion and non-point source pollution (Lakshminarayan et al., 1995); optimisation of crop distributions Gonç alvez et al., 2007); flood control problems (Simonovic and Akter, 2006); and incentives for the application of river buffer strips (Borin et al., 2010). ...
Soil erosion control is a major issue in agriculture. The no till system of soybean production has been widely adopted; however, soil erosion may increase due to pasture and forestry land convertion to cropland in the marginal Pampas, Argentina. The aim of this paper is to assess the conflicts and trade-off among environmental, economic and social interests by using three continuous multi-criteria approaches and a set of different weights. Different land uses, crops, pastures, forestry and soil and water conservation practices at the basin scale in the marginal Pampas were assessed. The basin (423Â km2) was discretised into 176 sub-basins to focus the management strategy on 5th and 6th order streams. Minimum basic information was obtained using intensive field observations and satellite images. The basin hydrology, soil erosion, sediment delivery and vegetated filter strip models and GIS were used to quantify the technical coefficients. Thirteen decision factors and six criteria (peak run-off, annual erosion, sediment, investment, gross margin and employment) were used in the optimisation trials. Weighted goal programming, lexicographic goal programming, compromise programming and a sensitivity analysis of weights were performed. The results showed a high impact of soil and water management practices on the environmental factors and a strong conflict between environmental and economic interests. The three multi-criteria approaches also showed that it is possible to obtain a good level of goal achievement with different plans. These plans should include: soil conservation practices; crop rotation (of a 2:1 soybean-to-corn ratio); gully and channel erosion control; regulation ponds; and pasture and agro-forestry areas. This goal achievement is mainly limited by public and private investment. Sensitivity analysis of the decision-maker weights shows differences among the values achieved by the criteria and their trade-off. Thus, the weight value of each criterium should be supported by the negotiation-consensus process.
... Qualitative assessment revealed opportunities for adoption of one or more components of the modified rice cultivation practices, depending on farm type, however, conducive government policy measures are needed to encourage more widespread adoption (Senthilkumar et al., 2009). Optimization models using multiple goal linear programming (MGLP) are useful in farm explorative studies (Mendoza et al., 1986; de Wit et al., 1988; Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002) and trade-offs between different biophysical and socio-economic objectives (Rossing et al., 1997; van Ittersum and Rabbinge, 1997; van Ittersum et al., 1998). To quantify trade-offs, objectives are individually optimized, with restrictions on the other objectives . ...
Improving water use and nitrogen efficiencies is of overall importance to society at large - to conserve scarce water resources and prevent environmental pollution. Efficient cultivation practices for rice which had no yield penalty were not adopted by farmers because of the open access to water free of charge. Well-chosen combinations of policy measures are thus needed to stimulate adoption of new cultivation practices. We developed a multi-objective linear programming (MGLP) model to explore the impact of: (i) modified rice cultivation including water-saving irrigation on farm profit; (ii) water pricing and water quota government policies on adoption of modified rice cultivation by farmers; (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii) to achieve the objectives of both farmers and society at large, and (iv) to study the trade-offs between income, water and nitrogen use. The analysis was carried out on four rice-based farm types for the state of Tamil Nadu, South India. Model results showed that observed farm profit of all four farm types could be increased using current practices simply by optimizing land use for specific crops. Adoption of modified rice cultivation further increased farm profit. Water-saving practices were selected only when water pricing was introduced. Farm profits were reduced even at low water prices but were compensated by farmers through adoption of modified rice cultivation. The combination of policies that stimulate adoption of modified rice cultivation was effective in achieving both increased farm income and water savings. The required water prices differed across farm types and seasons and impacted poor resource-endowed farmers the most. Providing water quotas could protect the poor resource-endowed farmers. The model helped to identify the optimal water price and water quota for each farm type to achieve both the objectives of farmers and society at large. Opportunities for reducing water use and avoiding environmental pollution at acceptable profits are available for all farm types, but need to be tailored to the farmers' resource endowments.
... To scientifically deal with sustainability in agriculture, it is generally accepted, that it is needed to integrate knowledge from more than one discipline (Lockeretz, 1991;Park and Seaton, 1996). Frameworks and models have been developed and proposed to meet the requirements of multidisciplinarity and to reveal sustainable forms of land use (Pacini et al., 2003;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002;Ten Berge et al., 2000;Zander, 2003). Many of the models use multiple criteria decision analysis to cope with the multifaceted issues of sustainable agriculture. ...
Within the Research Network on Agro-ecosystems Munich (Forschungsverbund Agrarökosysteme München, FAM) strategies to approach optimal land use have been investigated since 1990 in terms of minimization of environmental impacts and maximization of profit from agricultural lands. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the interactions of the economic and ecological demands on agricultural land use with model calculations for the integrated farm section of the research station of the Research Network, Klostergut Scheyern in Bavaria, Germany, with a whole farm modeling approach.For this purpose the model system MODAM was used. MODAM simulates agricultural land use at farm level, calculates the economic returns and environmental impacts and runs farm optimizations with a linear programming tool. The integration of agri-environmental indicators in the model framework enables a multi-criteria optimization and the calculation of trade-offs. Optimization runs for the experimental farm show the complex interactions which occur when the farm considers environmental concerns in the objective function. Trade offs and abatement cost curves illustrate the relationship between agri-environmental indicators and economic returns of the farm. Here, soil erosion, nitrogen balance, global warming potential and gross energy input were implemented as agri-environmental indicators in MODAM.
... Quantification of the relationships for current cropping systems is based on interpretation of survey data, whereas TechnoGIN simulates the information that is often not available from surveys, such as the amount of nutrients lost and water balances. Prospective or future-oriented cropping systems, however, are based on productionecological knowledge, technical insight and required objectives, warranting increased resource-use efficiency and yield levels as compared with those in current systems (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). Differences in efficiencies between production techniques can be ascribed to differences in farmersÕ management, knowledge (education), infrastructure (market for inputs and outputs), labour availability, etc. Key in calculating TCs for future-oriented cropping systems is the so-called Ôtarget-orientedÕ approach implying that first a target output (i.e., yield) level is determined, based on the biophysical conditions and the objectives for future crop production in the area under study. ...
Agricultural research in East and Southeast Asia is increasingly challenged by the search for land-use options that best match multiple development objectives of rural societies (e.g., increased income, food security, and reduced environmental pollution). In order to support the identification of sustainable land-use options and to support decision making with respect to land use, a tool was developed for quantifying inputs and outputs of cropping systems at the field level. TechnoGIN, the tool described in this paper, integrates systems analytical and expert knowledge and different types of agronomic data enabling the assessment of inputs and outputs of a broad range of cropping systems and the evaluation of their resource use efficiencies. By using methods of spatial aggregation in combination with linear programming, results can also be used to explore trade-offs in resource-use efficiencies at higher levels such as the farm household, municipality and province. New features in TechnoGIN compared with similar tools include the annual rotation of up to three crops, the distinction between aerobic and anaerobic growing conditions of crops, and the procedure for estimating crop nutrient uptake. TechnoGIN is illustrated with results from the Tam Duong district in North Vietnam. The design of TechnoGIN enables easy access to its data, parameters and assumptions, and rapid generation and evaluation of input–output relationships of cropping systems in order to add new information and to improve data. TechnoGIN raises awareness about the assumptions incorporated and thus supports data collection and setting of the research agenda with respect to agro-ecological processes for which knowledge is incomplete, and is relevant for showing trade-offs between production, economic and environmental impacts of different land-use systems.
... In the second approach, crop models, supplemented with empirical and expert knowledge, are used in so-called technical coefficient generators (TCGs) for production activities (e.g. Van Ittersum and Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). Crop models are then used to quantify a broad range of land use systems, which are subsequently aggregated to farm or regional scale using bio-economic optimisation models (e.g. ...
Since the pioneering work of C.T. de Wit in the 1960s, the Wageningen group has built a tradition in developing and applying crop models. Rather than focusing on a few models, diversity is its trademark. Here we present an overview of the Wageningen crop and crop-soil modelling approaches along three criteria. The first criterion relates to the production situations the models are dealing with (i.e. potential, water and/or nutrient-limited, and actual production situations including pests, diseases and weeds). Second, models differ as a result of the objectives of model development, and hence required scale and degree of detail and comprehensiveness. Third, models have at least three potential application domains, i.e. research, education and support of learning and decision making processes.
... Explorative land use studies consist of a theoretical design process that quantitatively evaluates production possibilities, not only current ones but in particular alternatives. Application of the production ecological concepts in part of the design process for livestock systems, i.e. in estimating inputs and outputs of alternative livestock production activities, ensures that the systems designed are based on the prevailing biophysical characteristics and up-to-date process knowledge and hence, are biophysically feasible (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). In addition, the necessary management measures can be identified. ...
The use of a hierarchy in growth factors (defining, limiting and reducing growth factors), as developed for plant production has shown its usefulness in the analysis and design of plant production systems. This hierarchy presents a theoretical framework for the analysis of biophysical conditions in plant production. We hypothesize that analysis and design of agricultural land use systems is facilitated by development of a similar set of production ecological concepts for animal production, as livestock is often part of such systems. In this paper we present such a hierarchy. We identify growth defining (temperature, daylength, animal genetic characteristics), limiting (water and feed quantity and quality) and reducing (diseases, pollutants and other conditions leading to sub-optimal wellbeing) factors, determining the production of an individual animal, in parallel to their definition for crop production, and aggregate this production to herd scale. We discuss how management intervenes with these factors. Application of the production ecological concepts in design of land use systems ensures that all production systems are based on the prevailing biophysical characteristics and that intrinsic system properties are taken into account. This approach also provides a valuable framework for yield-gap analysis, explaining current production levels, and identifying constraining factors, for setting the research agenda by identifying knowledge gaps and for educational purposes. We illustrate application of the concepts in the exploration and design of alternative animal and mixed plant–animal production systems with two examples. The first example relates to potential production in intensive dairy farming in a temperate climate and the second to feed-limited cattle production in the tropics.
... Expert systems: inputs and outputs of production systems For quantification of inputs and outputs of production systems two expert tools were developed, one for livestock systems and one for cropping systems, called TechnoGIN (Ponsioen et al., 2003Ponsioen et al., , 2006). TechnoGIN calculates for all specified cropping systems, on the basis of soil, crop and technology characteristics, relevant inputs and outputs , such as yield, crop residue production, nutrient and biocide use, labour and machinery requirements (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). Most inputs and outputs are expressed both in physical and monetary terms. ...
Both, poverty reduction and preservation of biodiversity are high on the global agenda on sustainable development. The relationships between poverty, biodiversity of agro-ecosystems and agricultural development are complex and poorly understood. In this paper, we present an integrated framework for analysis of agricultural development and natural resource management options at agro-ecosystem level, using Pujiang county, in Zhejiang province, China as a case study area to perform the analysis. A regional linear programming (LP) model is applied, maximizing regional economic surplus, given production and labour market conditions in Pujiang. We use the model to examine the consequences for a set of regional poverty and biodiversity indicators, of four so-called poverty reduction strategies, i.e., (i) intensification of production, (ii) diversification towards livestock production, (iii) land expansion, and (iv) an exit from agriculture. The analysis indicates that diversification is the most promising poverty reduction strategy, but requires efficient use of animal manure in cropping systems to avoid environmental problems. Improved nutrient management in cropping systems is effective in reducing the regional nitrogen surplus, but less effective in increasing per capita income. The exit strategy is effective in reducing poverty and achieving biodiversity goals, but may have important social consequences that are not addressed in this study. Further reduction in rural poverty is hampered by labour constraints during the harvesting period in high value crops such as vegetables and fruits, which calls for research and development in the field of agricultural mechanization.
... It is especially important to identify conflicting goals and to explicitly quantify the trade-offs among the multiple goals that contribute to sustainable agriculture (Romero and Rehman, 1989;Van Kooten, 1993). One such modelling technique is Interactive Multiple Goal Linear Programming (IMGLP) that has been widely used to integrate different types of information and to generate land use options (De Wit et al., 1988;Van Keulen, 1990;Rabbinge and van Latesteijn, 1992;Chuvieco, 1993;Van Keulen et al., 1998;Van Ittersum et al., 1998;Zander and Kächele, 1999;Sujith Kumar et al., 2001;Sarkar and Quaddus, 2002;Hengsdijk and van Ittersum, 2002;Lu et al., 2002Lu et al., , 2004Dogliotti, 2003;Kaur et al., 2004). In environmental applications, IMGLP and fuzzy linear programming methods integrated with Life Cycle Assessment approach have recently been reported (Najm and El-Fadel, 2005;Tan, 2005). ...
An Interactive Multiple Goal Linear Programming (IMGLP) model is developed that considers objectives of multiple stakeholders, i.e. different farmer groups, district agricultural officers and agricultural scientists for agricultural land use analysis. The analysis focuses on crop selection; considering irrigated and non-irrigated crops such as rice, sugarcane, sorghum, cotton, millet, pulses and groundnut. Interests of the most important stakeholders, farmers, policy makers and water users association are investigated. Important objectives of the farmers are increased income and retaining paddy area; of the policy makers (Agricultural Department) increased farmers' income, maintaining rural employment, improve water-use efficiency, reduce fertiliser and biocide use and discourage farmers from cultivating marginal lands; of the water users association optimising water use. Scenarios have been constructed by combining objectives and constraints. A Stakeholder Communication Matrix (SCM) indicating the level of communication and information flow among stakeholders in the district was generated after a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). Results of the scenarios generated with the IMGLP model were compared with the matrix. The relevance of analysing the results of the scenarios generated with the IMGLP model in the context of the SCM is illustrated for a sample set of scenarios. Scenario 1 (S1), where both the paddy area and the agricultural area are retained at the current level, is preferred by the farmers. However, the Agricultural Department would identify more easily with S10 in which the paddy area is reduced by 50% and the agricultural area by 20%, in accordance with the policy of limiting the area of high water-demanding crops and dissuading farmers from cultivating marginal lands, while the water users association would prefer S12, where water use is minimised by expanding the area of crops that are relatively less water-demanding. Income in S12 is 22% lower than in S1, while water use is 36% lower, and there is a significant reduction in biocide use. The conflict between S1 and S10 is compounded by the fact that communication between small-scale farmers and the Agricultural Department is relatively weak. Analysing the scenarios in the context of the SCM is useful to gain insight into the interactions among stakeholders in the system and take curative measures if required for improved communication. While the IMGLP model considers the bio-economics of the land use system, the SCM describes its social aspects, which may be critical for successful implementation of the IMGLP model.
... In TCMGAS, TCGs are specifically developed to quantify differences in resource use of conventional and future land-use options aimed at mitigating GHG emission. The TCMGAS quantifies the relationships of inputs and outputs based on interpretation of survey, experimental data, published literature, required objectives and yield levels (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). Key in calculating TCs in TCMGAS is the target-oriented approach implying that first a target output (i.e., yield) level is determined, based on the biophysical conditions and the objectives for future crop production in the area under study. ...
This study presents a modeling tool to assess emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) from the agricultural sector as affected by land-use and residue utilization options. The overall purpose of this tool is twofold: (i) a spreadsheet model for comprehensive compilation of the direct and indirect emissions from land management, residue-burning and fossil fuel consumption through on-farm and off-farm operations and (ii) a decision support tool to explore economically viable mitigation options through detailed cost–benefit analysis of different technological options. We developed TechnoGAS (technical coefficient generator for mitigation technologies of greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural sectors), which integrates analytical and expert knowledge with regional databases on bio-physical, agronomic and socio-economic features to establish input–output relationships (‘Technical Coefficients’) related to GHG emissions in agriculture. The approach includes emissions of methane (CH4) from rice fields, rice straw burning and cattle; carbon dioxide (CO2) from fossil fuel and soil organic carbon decline as well as nitrous oxide (N2O) from soil, rice straw burning and fertilizer use. To illustrate the approach of the spreadsheet model for comprehensive compilation of emissions, we applied TechnoGAS for an entire rice–wheat cropping cycle in the state of Haryana in northern India as a case study. Twenty technologies of rice production, which can be adopted by farmers, are analysed for their operation-specific emissions including their global warming potential (GWP). The technologies differ in terms of water regime, residue management/utilization, soil management and additives, which represent different mitigation options for GHG emissions. With the current farmers’ practice in various districts in Haryana, soil-borne emissions are the major source of GHG contributing 53% of the average GWP (3288 kg CO2 equivalent ha−1) in rice followed by burning of rice straw (13% of the GWP). Cattle, farm operations, off-farm and inorganic fertilizer contributes 12%, 10%, 10% and 2% of the GWP, respectively. Emissions from wheat are relatively low (1204 kg CO2 equivalent ha−1) as there is no CH4 emission and wheat straw is not burnt. Different mitigation technologies show pronounced effects on the GWP of the rice crop and varied between 1715 kg CO2 equivalent ha−1 with continuous flooding, urea and rice straw used for building materials and 10,020 kg CO2 equivalent ha−1 with continuous flooding, and application of nutrients through organic manure. Compared to current farmers’ practice, 13 technologies are found to have the potential to reduce the GWP by 8–51%, but they also reduce the net income of farmers. Upscaling of the estimates to the entire state of Haryana shows that the GWP with the current farmers’ practice in rice is 2617 Gg CO2 equivalent. Modification of water management from continuous flooding to alternate flooding or application of urea alone instead of urea plus FYM will reduce the GWP by 15% and 29%, respectively, while feeding of rice straw to cattle and supplying N through urea will reduce it by 41% compared to the current practice of burning rice straw and use of FYM. The study shows that the TechnoGAS tool can be used for estimating GHG emission from various land-use types and for identifying promising mitigation options. A detailed cost/benefit analysis is supplied by Wassmann and Pathak [Wassmann, R., Pathak, H., this volume. Introducing greenhouse gas mitigation as a development objective in rice-based agriculture: II. Cost–benefit assessment for different technologies, regions and scales.].
... The fully quantified activities i.e. the complete sets of agricultural inputs and outputs are assessed in FSSIM-MP on their contribution to the farmer's and policy goals considered. Alternative activities are new activities or currently not widely practised activities in the study area, and include technological innovations or newly developed cropping or husbandry practices (Van Ittersum and Rabbinge 1997;Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum 2002). Current activities are widely practiced in a sample region and their management operations and some of the associated outputs can be based on observed data and expert knowledge. ...
The aim of this chapter is to present a bio-economic modelling framework established to provide insight into the complex nature of agricultural systems and to assess the impacts of agricultural and environmental policies and technological innovations. This framework consists of a Farm System Simulator (FSSIM) using mathematical programming that can be linked to a cropping system model to estimate at field level the engineering production and environmental functions. FSSIM includes a module for agricultural management (FSSIM-AM) and a mathematical programming model (FSSIM-MP). FSSIM-AM aims to define current and alternative activities and to quantify their input output coefficients (both yields and environmental effects) using a cropping system model, such as APES (Agricultural Production and Externalities Simulator) and other sources (expert knowledge, surveys, etc.). FSSIM-MP seeks to describe the behaviour of the farmer given a set of biophysical, socio-economic and policy constraints and to predict its reactions under new technologies, policy and market changes. The communication between these different tools and models is based on explicit definitions of spatial scales and software for model integration.
The bio-economic modelling framework was designed to be sufficiently generic and flexible in order to be applied for all relevant farming systems across the European Union, easily transferable between different geographic locations, and reusable for different applications. For this chapter, it was tested for a set of farms representing the arable farming systems in two European regions (Flevoland [Netherlands] and Midi-Pyrénées [France]) in order to analyse the current situation and anticipate the impact of new alternative scenarios.
... Quantification of the input-output relationships for current cropping systems is based on interpretation of survey data, whereas TCGs simulate the information that is often not available from surveys such as nutrient emissions and water balances. Quantification of the input-output relationships of future-oriented cropping systems is based on production ecological knowledge, technical insight and required objectives warranting increased resource use efficiency and yield levels as compared to those in current systems (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002). ...
... The inputs and outputs are fully determined by the physical environment, the plant and animal types and the applied production techniques. Therefore, the production activities were derived from factorial combination of design criteria (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) that explicitly characterize the physical environment (here: soil fertility), types of plants and animals and production techniques (fertilizer application and harvesting regime). An overview of the design criteria and the variants per criterion is given in Table 1. ...
An integrated methodological framework for ex-ante evaluation and planning of public policies for sustainable agriculture at agro-landscape level is proposed. The components of the framework are to: (1) determine the private, i.e. farmers’, and public benefits associated to agro-landscapes, consisting of an agricultural land-use system, according to its performance for several market and non-market functions. Market forces determine the market benefits and preferences of society the non-market benefits; (2) explore and select potential sustainable agro-landscapes based on the private and public benefits associated with possible land-use alternatives; (3) define efficient public policy mechanisms for improving social net benefit of agro-landscapes. The framework is illustrated with a case study in a small dairy farming dominated agro-landscape in The Netherlands, with gross margin, landscape quality, nature value and environmental health as the analysed ecosystem functions. Alternative landscapes consisting of hedgerow configurations and grassland management practices were explored, yielding a set of alternatives representing the solution space in terms of change in private and public benefits. Policy mechanisms were defined to move from the current to a desired landscape based on changes in social net benefits. Moreover, the necessity of a modification in the current agri-environmental support was analysed for each landscape. The analysis considered all farmers in the agro-landscape jointly. The results for the case study showed potential prototypes of landscapes and their performance compared to the current landscape. Extension was the most efficient policy mechanism to promote the change to the socially optimum landscape alternative.
... The inputs and outputs are fully determined by the physical environment, the plant and animal types and the applied production techniques. Therefore, the production activities were derived from factorial combination of design criteria (Hengsdijk and Van Ittersum, 2002) that explicitly characterize the physical environment (here: soil fertility), type of plants and animals (vegetation and herd) and production techniques (fertilizer application and harvesting regime). An overview of the design criteria and the variants per criterion is given in Table 2. Combinations of variants were filtered for agronomic feasibility. ...
Dans le cadre du projet Seamless (System for Environmental and Agricultura- l Modelling Linking European Science and Society; Report n°4)
Whole-farm design models quantitatively analyze the effects of a variety of potential changes at the farm system level. Science-driven technical information is confronted with value-driven objectives of farmers or other social groupings under explicit assumptions with respect to exogenous variables that are important drivers of agricultural systems (e.g., market conditions). Hence, farm design is an outcome of objective specification and the potential of a system. In recent publications, whole-farm design modelling has been proposed to enhance (farm) innovation processes. A number of operational modelling tools now offers the opportunity to assess the true potential of whole-farm design modelling to enhance innovation. In this paper, we demonstrate that it is not trivial to find niches for the application of goal-based farm models. Model outcomes appeared not to match questions of farm managers monitoring and learning from their own and other farmers’ practices. However, our research indicates that whole-farm design modelling possesses the capabilities to make a valuable contribution to reframing. Reframing is the phenomenon that people feel an urge to discuss and reconsider current objectives and perspectives on a problem. Reframing might take place in a situation (i) of mutually felt dependency between stakeholders, (ii) in which there is sufficient pressure and urgency for stakeholders to explore new problem definitions and make progress. Furthermore, our research suggests that the way the researcher enters a likely niche to introduce a model and/or his or her position in this niche may have significant implications for the potential of models to enhance an innovation process. Therefore, we hypothesize that the chances of capitalizing on modelling expertise are likely to be higher when researchers with such expertise are a logical and more or less permanent component of ongoing trajectories than when these researchers come from outside to purposefully search for a niche.
This paper presents SysNet, a systems research network in South and South-east Asia, established to develop and evaluate methodologies for enhancing formulation of strategic land use policies. SysNet adopted theory and concepts from both natural and social science approaches. Multiple goal linear programming was used to integrate information on a broad range of alternative land use systems, resource availability and policy objectives, to reveal possibilities and limitations of agricultural resource use and trade-offs between policy objectives. The methodology was developed and applied in and with a network of researchers and stakeholders, for four case study areas in India, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. An application is presented for Haryana State (India), to illustrate the methodology and its components, as well as the type of questions that can be explored and subsequently discussed with stakeholders. We discuss lessons learnt on how to communicate LUPAS to stakeholders in interactive settings, with details for the Kedah-Perlis case region in Malaysia.
Soil loss, food insecurity, population pressure and low income of the rural population are interrelated problems in the Loess Plateau of northern China, and result in a spiral of unsustainability. This paper examines Ansai County as a case study to explore strategic land use options that may meet well-defined goals of regional development, using a systems approach that integrated the fragmented and empirical information on the biophysical, agronomic and socio-economic conditions. We used production ecological principles, simulation modeling and multiple goal linear programming as integrative tools. Four scenarios were explored, representing major directions of agricultural development in the region and views of national and local stakeholders, farmers and environmentalists. The results indicate that soil conservation, food self-sufficiency and income for the rural population can be substantially improved by efficient resource use and appropriate inputs. In the long-term, terracing and use of crop rotations with alfalfa may be the best options for soil conservation. The large rural population and the lack of off-farm employment opportunities could be the most important factors affecting rural development in Ansai. This study contributes to the understanding of regional problems and agricultural development potentials, and shows agro-technical possibilities for alleviating the unsustainability problems in this fragile and poorly endowed region. To promote actual development towards the identified options, on-farm innovation and appropriate policy measures are needed. The explored land use options enable a much more targeted innovation and development of policies.
Acceleration of economic, technological, social, and environmental change challenge decision-makers of various kinds to learn at increasing rates, and at the same time, the complexity of the dynamic systems in which we live is growing (Sterman 2000). In agriculture and international development contexts, there are often significant delays in the development and implementation of technologies and policies, and agriculture-based livelihood systems are in constant and sometimes rapid evolution. In order to make technologies and policies better match the future state of these systems, it is necessary to better understand the likely evolution of agricultural systems. The goal of these efforts should be to improve our understanding about which technologies and policies will be relevant for the state of the future systems so that work can begin on them now. In essence, researchers, policymakers and donors need an improved understanding of general behavioural tendencies for target systems 5 to 10 years hence. Moreover, modelling can be used to assess the impact of specific interventions over a relevant time horizon. Many modelling approaches are available that allow greater consideration of dynamic system characteristics, technology and policy options. These approaches have the potential to allow more dynamic, comprehensive and consistent ex ante evaluation of specific interventions, which in turn are one element in the specification of research priorities.
Increasingly, model-based approaches play a role in the design and development of new land use systems. Simulation modeling may play a role in the generation of land use systems for land units, and optimization modeling (e.g. linear programming ¿ LP) may be used in the upscaling to farm and region. In the quantification of new land use systems for land units, often equilibrium conditions with respect to soil resources are assumed, following a so-called target-oriented approach. This facilitates ex ante computation of inputs and emissions of nutrients and allows their use in static optimization models based on LP. The condition of equilibrium in soil resources is often not met, nor is it the ultimate aim. Hence, the dynamics in new systems are insufficiently dealt with. This paper presents an approach for the design of land use systems (crop rotations) and their quantification in terms of input and output coefficients, using particular yields and dynamics in soil resources as targets. Interactions between N input and output of succeeding crops are explicitly taken into account. A simple N-balance model is used describing major processes affecting soil N-dynamics. For the Koutiala region in Mali five crop rotations are evaluated that differ in target crop yield, crop choice, crop residue management and external N source. Modeled crop rotations aiming at high yields, in combination with incorporation of crop residues and legumes, result in depletion of soil N stock. Only in crop rotations aiming at high yields and with incorporation of crop residues combined with a supply of large quantities of animal manure, soil N depletion can be prevented. Four approaches are presented of how to use the dynamic input¿output coefficients of these systems in land use studies using LP: (i) use of average coefficients, (ii) use of discounted coefficients, (iii) use of pessimistic estimates of coefficients in an optimization of the land use allocation followed by a recalculation of the objective values for the optimized land use with optimistic coefficients, and (iv) a combined use of systems characteristics, i.e. cumulative N-inputs of land use systems over the time horizon and the magnitude of the soil N pool at the end of the time horizon, which can be used as filters for land use systems. Though none of the approaches completely captures the dynamics in input¿output coefficients, they enable a well-founded consideration of the consequences of dynamics in, for instance, soil N stocks in static optimization approaches for farm and regional studies.
The existence of multiple objectives in agriculture is a rule, rather than an exception. The issue of economic profitability is a part of the overall concern for agricultural sustainability.
The objective of this paper is to present the analytical structure, validation results, and applications of SIMOPT2:Maize, a simulation-multicriteria optimization software designed to optimize two conflicting objective functions simultaneously.
SIMOPT2:Maize is a coupling of the CERES-Maize model and the Pareto optimization algorithm. It is a tool to help identify a non-inferior fertilizer nitrogen application schedule in maize production, such that profit is maximized and nitrate leaching is minimized, subject to constraints in physical and biological resources and the natural environment.
Effects of weather factors, soil properties, genetic properties, and cultural management practices are simulated through the CERES-Maize model. Yield and amount of nitrate leaching are output of the simulation. Yield is converted into revenue and profit is calculated. Optimization is conducted to find the best trade-off fertilizer N application schedule with respect to profit and nitrate leaching.
The use of SIMOPT2:Maize has demonstrated that a set of feasible, efficient fertilizer N application schedules, which is an optimal compromise between maximum profit and minimum nitrate leaching, can be identified.
A generic methodology is presented for exploration of sustainable land use options at the regional level by quantifying trade-offs between socioeconomic and biophysical sustainability objectives. The methodology is called SOLUS (Sustainable Options for Land USe), and was developed over a ten year period of investigation in the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. SOLUS includes a linear programming model, technical coefficient generators for livestock and cropping activities and a geographic information system. The linear programming model maximizes regional economic surplus subject to a flexible number of resource and sustainability constraints. Economic sustainability indicators are economic surplus and labor employment, and biophysical ones include soil N, P and K balances, pesticide use and its environmental impact, nutrient losses and a proxy for trace gas emissions. The capabilities of the methodology are illustrated for the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. Though ample scope exists for reducing environmental effects and introducing sustainable production systems separately, pursuing both objectives simultaneously, considerably reduces economic surplus and agricultural employment. Agricultural area can be decreased and forested area increased without severely affecting the regional economic surplus.
The first premise of this book is that farmers need access to options for improving their situation. In agricultural terms, these options might be manage ment alternatives or different crops to grow, that can stabilize or increase household income, that reduce soil degradation and dependence on off-farm inputs, or that exploit local market opportunities. Farmers need a facilitating environment, in which affordable credit is available if needed, in which policies are conducive to judicious management of natural resources, and in which costs and prices of production are stable. Another key ingredient of this facilitating environment is information: an understanding of which options are viable, how these operate at the farm level, and what their impact may be on the things that farmers perceive as being important. The second premise is that systems analysis and simulation have an impor tant role to play in fostering this understanding of options, traditional field experimentation being time-consuming and costly. This book summarizes the activities of the International Benchmark Sites Network for Agrotechnology Transfer (IBSNAT) project, an international initiative funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). IBSNAT was an attempt to demonstrate the effectiveness of understanding options through systems analysis and simulation for the ultimate benefit of farm households in the tropics and subtropics. The idea for the book was first suggested at one of the last IBSNAT group meetings held at the University of Hawaii in 1993.
Most agriculture in the Sahel Region is carried out under rainfed conditions where low and uncertain soil moisture levels limit productivity. Improved soil, water and crop management practices are required to reverse the steady decline in per capita food production and sustain output over the long term. Several technological innovations and related farm management practices are evaluated in a case study of a typical farm in Mali. Through use of a soil-water balance model and a whole-farm economic model an optimal mix of these measures is identified. Compared to a base case where no modern inputs are utilized, the combination of animal traction (oxen team), low levels of NPK fertilizer, tied-ridges, traditional long-season food grain crops and early planting was most effective: food grain output was 35% higher than with the traditional base case; soil erosion was reduced by 72%; and even with residual future soil erosion damage capitalized into current income, net farm income was larger by a factor of almost 45.
The aims of the study were to describe 1) the overall relationship between additions of nitrogen (as fertilizer and manure) to the ground surface and the nitrate concentrations in groundwater and streams, as well as 2) the consequences of changes in agricultural management practices. A mathematical modelling system has been established, which comprise two models, 1) a physically-based rootzone model (DAISY) for simulation of the nitrogen dynamics in the rootzone, and 2) a physically-based and fully distributed catchment model (MIKE SHE) for simulation of the water and solute transport in a catchment. The modelling system includes the nitrate transformations in the rootzone and at the redoxcline in the aquifer. Nitrate movement is described from application on the field to its occurrence in the stream. The article describes the modelling system and the data requirements. The model was tested on the 425 km 2 Karup stream catchment. Inputs used and results of simulations with the system are given in part II (this issue).
A 5-year study was conducted from 1988 to 1992 at three sites in Niger to determine the effects of
crop rotation of a cereal and legumes and nitrogen fertilizer on chemical properties of the soil
(0–20 cm) and yield of pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum (L.) R.BR.), cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata (L.)
Walp.), and groundnut (Arachis
hypogea L.). Four N levels and rotation treatments including
continuous fallow were investigated. Soil samples taken from the top 20 cm depth at the end of the
experiment from treatments without nitrogen application which included continuous fallow,
fallow–millet rotation, groundnut–millet rotation, cowpea–millet rotation, and continuous millet
were analysed for soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen and exchangeable bases. Fertilizer N
significantly increased yield of pearl millet, cowpea and groundnut. Continuous monocropping of
pearl millet resulted in lower yields across N levels compared to legume–millet rotations. Legume
yields were also consistently lower in monoculture than when rotated with millet. There was a decline
in organic matter under continuous millet, cowpea–millet rotation and groundnut–millet rotation.
The fallow–millet rotation supplied more mineral N than the legume–millet rotations. Nitrogen
availability was greater in cowpea–millet rotation than continuous millet. Crop rotation was more
productive than the continuous monoculture but did not differ in maintaining soil organic matter.
The legume–millet rotation at 30 kg/ha N appears to be the most viable for millet production.
Research should focus on understanding the effect of legume/cereal intercrops and rotations on soil
productivity.
Issues of environmental sustainability, limits to growth and opportunity, introduction of new technology, and the economic and social costs of resource degradation have forced more proactive integration of biophysical and socio-economic data. Natural resources management, including soil, water and land quality, involve balancing the often conflicting objectives of food and fibre production under scenarios of increasing demand, while increasing economic efficiency and maintaining the quality of the environment. It involves integration of data from several disparate disciplines, scaling the data to make them compatible on input, identifying strategic indicators, criteria and thresholds with which to assess the state and performance of the system, and the application of biophysical and economic optimisation models to examine the impacts and trade-offs of alternate management options. However, some basic questions of scales and hierarchies still have to be resolved, e.g. how to scale-up the biophysical data to the level at which public policy is formulated without losing the integrity of the data. This paper examines these and related issues by discussing the theories and principles of spatial and temporal hierarchies and scales, and providing some examples of application.
This paper proposes a strategy of technology development for the semi-arid regions of two Sahelian countries. Improved agronomic practices, especially water conservation and increased soil fertility, are principal constraints in the semi-arid Sahel to increasing cereal yields. Previous concentration upon breeding rather than the dual constraints of water availability and soil fertility appears to be one explanation for the failure to date to develop new agricultural technologies in the Sahelian semi-arid region. Other requirements for these agronomic technologies are discussed and the interactions between the principal agroclimatic zones within the region are considered. Finally, the issue of the substitution between organic and inorganic fertilizers is evaluated with data on comparative costs.
A deterministic model for simulating beef cattle production under a wide range of management schemes and environments with cattle differing widely in genotypes for size, growth and milk production is described. In the model, genotypes are specified as production potentials, which are reached only if past and present planes of nutrition are adequate. Intake of forage and/or other feed is simulated as a function of the size and physiological status of the animals and the availability, digestibility and crude protein content of the feed. Animal performance is calculated from the nutrient intake and the animals' condition (fatness), degree of maturity and genetic potential. The model has been used for simulating beef cattle production under several widely differing sets of environmental and management conditions in Guyana, Colombia, Venezuela, Botswana, Texas and Mid-western United States and for simulating dairy-beef production systems in Colombia, Tanzania and Botswana. Results of simulations of existing conditions have coincided rather closely with actual production levels.
This paper describes two generic so-called technical coefficient generators, PASTOR (Pasture and Animal System Technical coefficient generatOR) and LUCTOR (Land Use Crop Technical coefficient generatOR), that quantify land use systems in terms of inputs and outputs based on the integration of systems-analytical knowledge, standard agronomic and animal husbandry data and expert knowledge. PASTOR quantifies livestock systems while LUCTOR is geared towards cropping systems. Main inputs quantified include costs, labour requirements, fertiliser use and application of crop protection agents. Outputs are production and a number of associated environmental indicators. Although both PASTOR and LUCTOR were developed to generate input data for land use models, they are also useful as stand-alone tools to explore the technical efficiency of land use systems, to perform cost-benefit analyses and to quantify the trade-off among socio-economic, agronomic and environmental indicators at the field level. PASTOR and LUCTOR are illustrated with data from the Northern Atlantic zone in Costa Rica. Tools such as PASTOR and LUCTOR integrate different types of knowledge, including non-documented knowledge from field experts and make that knowledge transparent and open to critical review and discussion by others.
A generic methodology is presented for exploration of sustainable land use options at the regional level by quantifying trade-offs between socio-economic and biophysical sustainability objectives. The methodology is called SOLUS (Sustainable Options for Land USe), and was developed over a ten year period of investigation in the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. SOLUS includes a linear programming model, technical coefficient generators for livestock and cropping activities and a geographic information system. The linear programming model maximizes regional economic surplus subject to a flexible number of resource and sustainability constraints. Economic sustainability indicators are economic surplus and labor employment, and biophysical ones include soil N, P and K balances, pesticide use and its environmental impact, nutrient losses and a proxy for trace gas emissions. The capabilities of the methodology are illustrated for the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. Though ample scope exists for reducing environmental effects and introducing sustainable production systems separately, pursuing both objectives simultaneously, considerably reduces economic surplus and agricultural employment. Agricultural area can be decreased and forested area increased without severely affecting the regional economic surplus.
It would have been very easy to expand on all the sections of the first edition but I decided to try to retain the relatively short, introductory nature of the book. Some new material has been added, particularly where it has been possible to update data, and there has been some change of emphasis in places, in order to reflect changing world conditions. The book retains its original purpose, however, of introducing systems thinking as applied to agriculture. I am grateful to Angela Hoxey for help in preparing this edition, especially in relation to the preparation of tables and figures. C. R. W. SPEDDING v Preface to the First Edition The agricultural systems of the world represent a very large subject. Their study involves a great deal of fairly detailed knowledge, as well as a grasp of the structures and functions of the systems themselves. This book has been written as an introduction to such a study and it concentrates on an overall view, rather than on the detail, partly because of the need to relate the latter to some larger picture in order to appreciate the relevance and significance of the detail. This problem-of seeing the relevance of component studies and the significance of physical, biological and economic detail, and indeed principles-is encountered by many agricultural students right at the beginning of their university careers.
Long-term explorations serve to widen the perspectives of decision makers. Biophysical and technical possibilities and constraints are confronted with the valuedriven objectives of stakeholders in Multiple Goal Linear Programming (MGLP) models. Two methodological aspects of long-term explorations are elaborated in this thesis: uncertainty in agro-ecological coefficients and temporal aspects of land use. The effects of these aspects on generated land use scenarios are studied using data from the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica (NAZ).Uncertainties in agro-ecological coefficients concerning nutrients and biocides were quantified. Only uncertainties caused by lack of knowledge of underlying biophysical processes or lack of data for quantification were considered. "Average", "pessimistic" and "optimistic" estimations of coefficients were generated, based on different perceptions of the influence of environmental factors. The estimations of the coefficients for various production activities are strongly correlated owing to the assumption of "best technical means" (i.e. inputs are used with the highest technical efficiency according to available knowledge and techniques). These coefficients were used in the single-period MGLP-model that was constructed for the NAZ. With the help of sensitivity analyses the effect of uncertainties on land use scenarios was determined for five tentative policy views, representing different perceptions of sustainability. It is concluded that, in long-term explorations, uncertainties in agroecological coefficients strongly affect the objective function values. However, they hardly affect the optimal land use allocation, because the ranking of production activities for the agro-ecological coefficients hardly changes when including uncertainties.In long-term explorations the following temporal aspects are relevant: 1. Growth and ageing of crops and livestock, 2. Fluctuations in coefficients caused by variation in weather conditions, 3. Interactions in time. After an inventory of possibilities and limitations to describe these temporal aspects in LP-models, a multi-period version of the single-period model was constructed. In theory, all temporal aspects can be described in multi-period MGLP-models, although location-bound temporal interactions pose serious problems owing to the limitations of the LP-technique. In most cases, the relevant types of temporal aspects can also be included in singleperiod models with the help of predefined cropping sequences and additional coefficients and variables. It is discussed, that in long-term explorations the use of a multi-period model may have added value only if large differences in coefficients between periods and growth stages occur and if strong bounds are put on fluctuations over periods.Based on the land use scenarios generated with the single-period and multi-period model it is concluded that there is considerable scope for policy in the NAZ. The differences between land use scenarios for the five policy views are large, regardless of the effects of the uncertainties in agro-ecological coefficients and the explicit inclusion of temporal aspects. By revealing the consequences and possibilities under particular land use objectives and constraints, this long-term exploration may help to structure and organize the discussion on desires for the future in the NAZ.
Technical options in crop and animal husbandry to reduce soil nutrient mining and other forms of natural resource degradation in the Sudano-Sahelian zone should be economically attractive, if they are to be adopted. A model is presented in which agronomic and economic information and goals are combined to explore possibilities for agro-ecologically sustainable and economically viable land use in three different climatic regions in Mali and for a situation of non-degraded soils. The time frame of the study is to the year 2010. For each region, an agro-ecologically sustainable land use system (a combination of crop, livestock and pasture production systems) that maximizes income of the agricultural sector and satisfies self sufficiency targets is identified. Special attention is given to the use of chemical fertilizer in crop activities. It is shown that use of chemical fertilizer is an important element of sustainable and economically viable land use, especially in higher rainfall regions. Population size has a marked effect on optimal land use systems in the regions, but self sufficiency is not endangered even if the population is 50% higher than estimated for 2010. It is argued that results should not be used to simulate the actual situation or future developments, but to define priorities for agricultural development in the Sudano-Sahelian region.
Definitions and concepts of production ecology are presented as a basis for development of alternative production technologies characterized by their input-output combinations. With these concepts the relative importance of several growth factors and inputs is investigated to explain actual yield levels and resource-use efficiencies. Differences between potential and actual levels are analyzed to open ways for improved production technologies. The basis of the analysis is knowledge of basic physical, chemical, physiological and ecological processes at soil, field and crop level. New production technologies and their input-output combinations can be used in studies aimed at the exploration of options for sustainable agricultural production systems and land use. The concepts allow a systematic analysis and quantification of input-output combinations and clearly discriminate between bio-physical possibilities and socio-economic constraints and objectives. They help in defining objectives and means for agricultural production and land use, and may be valuable as aids to communication between various disciplines involved in studying the possibility and feasibility of future production technologies and land use options. The concepts production level, physical environment, target-oriented approach, production technique, production activity, and production orientation are applied to identify new technologies and production systems at various levels of scale, each requiring different types of information. In this paper some examples of applications are given at field, farm and at regional level.
In the industrialized countries dramatic decreases in the number of people employed in agriculture have been made possible by a rise in soil and labour productivity. There is scope for these to improve further, particularly in developing countries. Potential yields are determined by the characteristics of the crop, local temperature and sunlight. Because the availability of nutrients and that of water are limiting for at least part of the growing season in most agricultural lands, attainable yields are lower than potential yields. Proper management of nutrient inputs, such that optimum use is made of each, can reduce this gap without causing negative environmental side-effects. Actual yields are lower than attainable yields because of growth-reducing factors, such as pests, diseases and weeds. For sustainable agriculture these should be controlled mainly by biological measures. There are many possibilities for this, thus biocides may be used as a last resort not as preventive insurance. Potential yields of rice and sugarcane can reach 30,000 kg ha-1 per year of consumable organic matter, sufficient to feed 120 people. Such yields cannot be achieved on all agricultural land, but it is estimated that world food production could support a population of 80 thousand million, if they were all vegetarian and required only 1500 m2 for non-food-related purposes. The green revolutions that occurred in the Western industrialized countries in the late 1940s and early 1950s and in Asia in the late 1960s and early 1970s need to be followed by a similar increase in agricultural productivity in Africa and West Asia to feed their rapidly growing populations. Better use of fertilizers and good water management require well-educated farmers with the financial means to implement long-term strategies. If these developments are managed properly, food production for the ever-increasing human population can be guaranteed and the burden on the environment and natural habitats reduced, enabling the development of sustainable agricultural systems.
This article critically assesses an interdisciplinary research effort to build a new tool for conducting farming systems analysis (FSA). It was envisioned that this new tool, named quantified farming systems analysis (QFSA), would overcome some of the problems that confront the classical FSA techniques. At the onset of this endeavour expectations were high and they have been presented at several international symposia (for example, at Bangkok, 1991, Colombo, 1992, and Wageningen, 1993). This article deals with one way of tackling the first phase of QFSA, i.e. the setting of research priorities for long-term development, which resulted in the farm level optimal resource allocation (FLORA) procedure. The manner in which this was accomplished and the extent to which the anticipated results were achieved are evaluated. It is concluded that, although the way in which FLORA was eventually developed differed from what had been envisaged, it offers a more objective and quantitative procedure for setting research priorities in view of long-term development goals.
The Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy (WRR) has explored possible future developments in rural land use within the European Community (EC) to support strategic policy making. Multiple goal linear programming (MGLP) was applied to evaluate different scenarios based on alternative policy views. For the MGLP-model, WRR needed information on agricultural production systems, specifically quantification of inputs like nutrients, water, pesticides, labour and machinery, and outputs like crop yields and environmental pollution. In this paper, the determination of inputs and outputs is described for a number of pre-defined cropping systems at regional level, using results of a land evaluation study for the EC. All cropping systems defined are based on the assumption that the best available production techniques are being used, taking into account that the explorations aim at possible agricultural developments in the next 25 years.
Trajectories over time of nitrogen use and yield show that the fertilizer is used as efficiently at the high end of the yield range, as at the low end. Apparently, any decrease in marginal returns as predicted by the law of diminishing returns is more or less compensated by the benefits of other technological changes. Main processes that govern such opposing trends are analyzed in this paper to contribute towards more efficient use of resources in agriculture. The analyses elaborate on the optimum law of Liebscher, formulated at the end of the 19th century. This law states that a production factor which is in minimum supply contributes more to production, the closer other production factors are to their optimum. With some reservations regarding the control of pests, diseases and weeds, this law is fully confirmed. Accordingly, no production resource is used less efficiently and most production resources are used more efficiently with increasing yield level due to further optimizing of growing conditions. Whether external means of production are used at all depends of course on their price, but as soon as the farmer can afford them, they should be used in such a way that the production possibilities of all other available resources are fully exploited. It thus appears that with further optimizing of the growing conditions an increasing number of inputs gradually lose their variable character and the number of fixed operations on the farm increase. This makes more and more inputs not a variable cost element, but a complementary cost element of the decision to farm a piece of land. Therefore strategic research that is to serve both agriculture and its environment should not be so much directed towards the search for marginal returns of variable resources, as towards the search for the minimum of each production resource that is needed to allow maximum utilization of all other resources.
This paper describes a method of investigating development possibilities for a region under various constraints and demands. Use is made of an interactive multiple goal linear programming technique. The method is illustrated with an example from a semi-arid zone in the Mediterranean Basin. It is concluded that the method can help to decide on feasible development pathways within a wide range of technical and socio-economic scenarios, and so explore the ‘margins for policy’. It enables communication between politics, planning and research and can therefore serve as a tool for more efficient development planning.
A large-scale, multi-objective single-time-period model for planning the development of reclaimed lands is proposed. The period considered is a typical year at the most developed stage of the agricultural complex. Given specific development goals and a set of resource constraints, the model determines the optimal land allocation for the integrated agricultural development of a region, including agricultural and livestock production as well as agriindustries.Linear Goal Programming is the multi-objective technique used for model formulation. The technique proposed for the solution is a multi-phase simplex algorithm which is based on the IBM-MPSX/370.
Most agriculture in the Sahel Region is carried out under rainfed conditions where low and uncertain soil moisture levels limit productivity. Improved soil, water and crop management practices are required to reverse the steady decline in per capita food production and sustain output over the long term. Several technological innovations and related farm management practices are evaluated in a case study of a typical farm in Mali. Through use of a soil–water balance model and a whole-farm economic model an optimal mix of these measures is identified. Compared to a base case where no modern inputs are utilized, the combination of animal traction (oxen team), low levels of NPK fertilizer, tied-ridges, traditional long-season food grain crops and early planting was most effective: food grain output was 35% higher than with the traditional base case; soil erosion was reduced by 72%; and even with residual future soil erosion damage capitalized into current income, net farm income was larger by a factor of almost 45.
Land evaluation for agricultural development Some explorations of land-use systems analysis with particular reference to Latin America. ILRI, Wageningen, 23 Uncertainty and temporal aspects in long-term explorations of sustainable land use; with reference to the northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica
- K J Beek
Beek, K.J., 1978. Land evaluation for agricultural development. Some explorations of land-use systems analysis with particular reference to Latin America. ILRI, Wageningen, 23. Bessembinder, J., 1997. Uncertainty and temporal aspects in long-term explorations of sustainable land use; with reference to the northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.
Manual sur les paˆ des pays saheí A study of the agroclimatology of the semi-arid areas south of the Sahara in West Africa
- H Breman
- N De Ridder
- Cta-Kar-Thala Acct
- Paris
- J Cocheme
- P Franquin
- Fao
- Unesco
- Wmo
- Agroclimatology Project
- Rome Fao
- J C Day
- D W Hughes
- W R Butcher
Breman, H., De Ridder, N., 1991. Manual sur les paˆ des pays saheí. ACCT-CTA-KAR-THALA, Paris, 481. Cocheme, J., Franquin, P., 1967. A study of the agroclimatology of the semi-arid areas south of the Sahara in West Africa. FAO/UNESCO/WMO interagency project on agroclimatology. FAO, Rome. Day, J.C., Hughes, D.W., Butcher, W.R., 1992. Soil, water and crop management alternatives in rainfed agriculture in the Sahel: an economic analyis. Agricultural Economics 7, 267–287.
Understanding options for agricultural pro-duction Concepts in production ecology for analysis and quantification of agricultural input–output combinations
- G Y Tsjui
- G Hoogenboom
- P K Thornton
Tsjui, G.Y., Hoogenboom, G., Thornton, P.K. (Eds.), 1998. Understanding options for agricultural pro-duction. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Van Ittersum, M.K., Rabbinge, R., 1997. Concepts in production ecology for analysis and quantification of agricultural input–output combinations. Field Crops Research 52, 197–208.
FAO development series 1. Food and Agriculture Organi-zation Response to the section 'Case studies of eco-regional approaches at the farm/enterprise level
- Rome Fernandez-Rivera
- S Hiernaux
- Von Kaufman
- R Turner
- M D Williams
FAO, 1993. Guidelines for land use planning. FAO development series 1. Food and Agriculture Organi-zation, Rome. Fernandez-Rivera, S., Hiernaux, P., Von Kaufman, R., Turner, M.D., Williams, T.O., 1995. Response to the section 'Case studies of eco-regional approaches at the farm/enterprise level'. In: Bouma, J., Kuyvenhoven, A., Bouman, B.A.M., Luyten, J.C., Zandstra, H.G. (Eds.), Eco-Regional Approaches for Sustainable Land Use and Food Production. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-drecht, pp. 409–413.
The transition to agricultural sustainability. National Academy of Sciences Collo-quium 'Plants and Population: Is there time?' UC Irvine Agricultural research and cereal technology introduction in Burkina Faso and Niger
- V W Ruttan
Ruttan, V.W., 1998. The transition to agricultural sustainability. National Academy of Sciences Collo-quium 'Plants and Population: Is there time?' UC Irvine, USA. Available at: http://www.lsc.psu.edu/ nas/ruttan%20ms.html. Sanders, J.H., 1989. Agricultural research and cereal technology introduction in Burkina Faso and Niger. Agricultural Systems 30, 139–154.
Health effects from pesticide use in Costa Rica: an epidemiologic approach
- C Wesseling
Wesseling, C., 1997. Health effects from pesticide use in Costa Rica: an epidemiologic approach. PhD
thesis, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
Un sistema de informacio´ suelos y tierras para la zona Atla´ de Costa Rica
- W G Wielemaker
- A W Vogel
- Catie Reposa
- Mag
- Wau
- Costa Rica H Gua´
- M K Hengsdijk
- Van
Wielemaker, W.G., Vogel, A.W., 1993. Un sistema de informacio´ suelos y tierras para la zona Atla´ de Costa Rica (Report No. 22). REPOSA, CATIE/MAG/WAU, Gua´, Costa Rica. H. Hengsdijk, M.K. van Ittersum / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 231–247
The transition to agricultural sustainability. National Academy of Sciences Colloquium ‘Plants and Population: Is there time?
- V W Ruttan
- Usa Irvine
Ruttan, V.W., 1998. The transition to agricultural sustainability. National Academy of Sciences Colloquium 'Plants and Population: Is there time?' UC Irvine, USA. Available at: http://www.lsc.psu.edu/
nas/ruttan%20ms.html.
A study of the agroclimatology of the semi-arid areas south of the Sahara in West Africa. FAO/UNESCO/WMO interagency project on agroclimatology
- J Cocheme
- P Franquin
Cocheme, J., Franquin, P., 1967. A study of the agroclimatology of the semi-arid areas south of the
Sahara in West Africa. FAO/UNESCO/WMO interagency project on agroclimatology. FAO, Rome.
Manual sur les paˆturagespaˆturages des pays saheíiens
- H Breman
- N De Ridder
Breman, H., De Ridder, N., 1991. Manual sur les paˆturagespaˆturages des pays saheíiens. ACCT-CTA-KAR-
THALA, Paris, 481.
Response to the section 'Case studies of eco-regional approaches at the farm/enterprise level
- S Fernandez-Rivera
- P Hiernaux
- R Von Kaufman
- M D Turner
- T O Williams
Fernandez-Rivera, S., Hiernaux, P., Von Kaufman, R., Turner, M.D., Williams, T.O., 1995.
Response to the section 'Case studies of eco-regional approaches at the farm/enterprise level'. In:
Bouma, J., Kuyvenhoven, A., Bouman, B.A.M., Luyten, J.C., Zandstra, H.G. (Eds.), Eco-Regional
Approaches for Sustainable Land Use and Food Production. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 409-413.
Land use systems analysis. Department of Soil Science and Geology
- P M Driessen
- N T Konijn
Driessen, P.M., Konijn, N.T., 1992. Land use systems analysis. Department of Soil Science and Geology,
Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.
Guidelines for land use planning. FAO development series 1. Food and Agriculture Organization
- Fao
FAO, 1993. Guidelines for land use planning. FAO development series 1. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
Response to the section ‘Case studies of eco-regional approaches at the farm/enterprise level’
- Fernandez-Rivera