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Use of Tobacco Seed Oil Methyl Ester in a Turbocharged Indirect Injection Diesel Engine
Abstract
Vegetable oils and their methyl/ethyl esters are alternative renewable fuels for compression ignition engines. Different kinds of vegetable oils and their methyl/ethyl esters have been tested in diesel engines. However, tobacco seed oil and tobacco seed oil methyl ester have not been tested in diesel engines, yet. Tobacco seed oil is a non-edible vegetable oil and a by-product of tobacco leaves production. To the author's best knowledge, this is the first study on tobacco seed oil methyl ester as a fuel in diesel engines.In this study, potential tobacco seed production throughout the world, the oil extraction process from tobacco seed and the transesterification process for biodiesel production were examined. The produced tobacco seed oil methyl ester was characterized by exposing its major properties. The effects of tobacco seed oil methyl ester addition to diesel No. 2 on the performance and emissions of a four cycle, four cylinder turbocharged indirect injection (IDI) diesel engine were examined at both full and partial loads. Experimental results showed that tobacco seed oil methyl ester can be partially substituted for the diesel fuel at most operating conditions in terms of performance parameters and emissions without any engine modification and preheating of the blends.
... The transesterification reaction of Zanthoxylum bungeanum seed oil was catalyzed by H 2 SO 4 , with methanol recovered at a rate of >94% in 12 h [43]. Under optimized reaction conditions, even when the reaction rate is excessively sluggish, SnCl 4 catalyzed the trans-esterification of Z. bungeanum seed oil with a higher CH 3 OH/oil molar ratio and obtained a 90-96% output at a reaction duration of 2-4 h [45][46][47][48][49][50]. Table 1 shows some homogenous catalysts used for FAME synthesis along with the yield, reaction conditions, and associated bottlenecks related to the use of this catalyst in FAME production. ...
... According to research, the quantity of seeds per hectare might reach 2500 kg, with the expectation that the current group of tobacco plants will be able to produce even more seeds. This seed contains a substantial quantity of oil (40-50% by weight) [48,49]. Although the seed oil does not contain nicotine [50], it is nevertheless inedible and can be employed in a variety of applications, including FAME synthesis [48]. ...
... This seed contains a substantial quantity of oil (40-50% by weight) [48,49]. Although the seed oil does not contain nicotine [50], it is nevertheless inedible and can be employed in a variety of applications, including FAME synthesis [48]. The quality and qualities of FAMEs synthesized from tobacco seed oil were investigated by Usta et al. [96], and the results revealed that only the iodine number and oxidation stability of the FAMEs synthesized were outside the prescribed international standard (European FAME-Standard-EN14214). Propyl gallate, butylated hydroxytoluene, pyrogallol, and butylated hydroxyanisole are some of the antioxidants that can be used to improve the oxidation stability [46]. ...
Biodiesel produced from vegetable oil has recently increased in popularity. However, these edible feedstocks (which are the apparent choice of triglycerides) will not be sufficiently sustainable, given the increasing demand for energy and food, and guaranteed inedible feedstocks are needed. Biodiesel can be generated from these alternative feedstocks using various catalysts. Current studies show that nanocatalysts are extensively used for this purpose and are more preferred than usual homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. These nanocatalysts exhibit many advantageous features, including efficient separation steps for both products and catalysts, elimination of the quenching process, high catalytic activity, and large surface area, and provide the possibility for reusability. According to recent reports, the use of nonedible oils and nanocatalysts, such as titanium-doped zinc oxide, magnesium oxide-doped magnesium aluminate, zirconium oxide and many others, are potent with an approximately 80-98 wt% yield of biodiesel under optimized conditions, suggesting that this approach is a suitable option for biodiesel synthesis. This review aims to explore the potency of nonedible feedstocks and nanocatalysts for fatty acid methyl ester synthesis. The findings of the most recent published studies are critically summarized. The catalytic reaction mechanism for biodiesel production is highlighted, focusing on the nanocatalysts. Some nonedible seeds have been reported, and their potency for biodiesel production has been assessed in detail.
... Il tabacco è una pianta erbacea della famiglia delle Solanacee, genere Nicotina, a cui appartengono più di 60 specie raggruppate in tre sottotipi: Rustica, Tabacum, Petumoides. La pianta raggiunge un'altezza di 90-180 centimetri (cm) e presenta grandi foglie ovali, fiori rosa e capsule verdi che contengono i semi (Usta, 2005(Usta, , 2011. La sua coltivazione avviene in circa 129 paesi nel mondo su un'area che supera 3,5 milioni di ettari (ha), e la sua produzione, nel 2017, è superiore ai 6,5 Mt (Drope et al., 2018;FAOstat, 2019). ...
... La specie più importante dal punto di vista economico è la Nicotiana Tabacum (ZdremŃan and ZdremŃan, 2006). Le sue foglie, prevalentemente utilizzate dalle industrie di trasformazione del tabacco per la produzione di sigarette, sono il principale prodotto commerciale, mentre i piccoli semi rappresentano un sottoprodotto (Usta, 2005). I semi della pianta del tabacco sono di taglia molto piccola di colore marrone, di forma ovale, con lunghezza media di 0,75 millimetri (mm), larghezza di 0,53 mm e spessore di 0,47 mm (Giannelos et al., 2002;ZdremŃan and ZdremŃan, 2006). ...
... Un concreto esempio è il tabacco denominato "Energy Tobacco Solaris" (ETS), utilizzato per la produzione di SAF ed impiegato per la prima volta nel luglio del 2016 dalle compagnie aeree South African Airways e Mango Airlines sulla rotta Johannesburg e Cape Town. Fonte: Bucciarelli et al., 2012;Camaggio et al., 2011;Cozzolino, 2016;Fogher et al., 2011;Giannelos et al., 2002;Keneni e Marchetti, 2017;Lagioia et al., 2014;Parlak et al., 2009;Poltronieri and D'Urso, 2016;Solmaz et al., 2012;Usta, 2005;Usta et al., 2011;ZdremNan and ZdremNan, 2006) brevetto internazionale PCT/IB/2007/053412) e perfezionata dal 2007 dalla società sempre italiana Sunchem. Questa società ha come principale mission la produzione integrata di biodiesel e SAF, di mangime e integratori per animali e di energia e biogas a partire dalla coltivazione dei semi brevettati (Grisan et al., 2016;Helmer, 2016;Poltronieri e D'Urso, 2016;Carvalho et al., 2019). ...
The aviation (air transport) is responsible for over 2% of global CO2 emissions representing approximately 13% of total emissions in whole transport sector, and 99% of them are due to fuel combination. Being environmental sustainability an increasing priority at global scale, national and international institutions have adopted several strategies destined to air transport development. Their final aim is to improve fuel efficiency reducing, at the same time, global emissions by at least 50% by 2050 (compared to 2005 data). In such context, one of the main actions related to air transport is the use of sustainable bio-jet fuels.
The aim of the present paper is the analysis of a Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) obtained from inedible oil seed of a nicotine and GMO-free tobacco plant called “Solaris”, tested and patented by an Italian company. This analysis will investigate its economic and environmental potential in an integrated biomass production system and its related opportunities of development.
... Tobacco oil was first examined for its potential as biodiesel by Giannelos et al. (2002) but the seed oil methyl or ethyl esters were further examined for their physical-chemical properties by Usta (2005). Tobacco is grown in over 119 countries in the world. ...
... Since the oil is non-edible, it is not used as a commercial product in food industry and most of it is usually left on the field. Usta (2005) reports that there are no statistical information on potential seed and seed oil production in the literature but contend that these can be estimated from using the harvesting area. The world seed and oil production estimates are given as 2.5m and 950, 000 tonnes, respectively (USDA 2004). ...
... The world seed and oil production estimates are given as 2.5m and 950, 000 tonnes, respectively (USDA 2004). Its potential as biodiesel has been confirmed by Usta (2005). ...
Across developing countries more than three-quarters of the poor and hungry are found in rural area; and it is mixed crop and livestock production on which a majority of rural households depend for their livelihoods. However, their livelihood portfolios have been evolving and may even change radically under new energy and economic development scenarios. Until the collapse of energy prices during 2008, markets and public policies spurred massive investments in biofuel production. While energy prices were high, global renewable energy investments rose from less than $20 billion during 2003 to $150 billion during 2007. Should energy prices continue to rise, further investments in renewable energy in general and biofuel production in particular can be expected.
Mixed crop-livestock farming systems are a major agricultural production model in much of Africa, Asia and Latin America. These systems are often based on starch staples (e.g. maize, rice, wheat, cassava, and sorghum) and various ruminants (e.g. buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep) and monogastrics (e.g. swine and poultry). Because bioenergy production and use plays such a key role in these systems, they are often referred to as crop-livestock-energy farming systems (CLEFS). The demand for biofuels could potentially impact CLEFS in various direct and indirect ways, not least through the supply and demand of biomass - but little is documented.
This study addresses this knowledge gap by illustrating the complex interactions between feed, food and fuel and the probable outcomes for livelihood and poverty in contrasting CLEFS.
... Their result indicated higher engine torque and brake power compared to diesel fuel. Usta [48] conducted the performance test of diesel engine powered with tobacco oil biodiesel and diesel blends. The tobacco oil biodiesel blend showed higher torque and power compared to diesel fuel. ...
... Cetane number of FIWOME (61) and B22.5 (53) conformed with the specifications of the EN 41,214 (51) and ASTM (47) however marginally higher those of Nachid et al. [95] (47.7) and B0 (48). This is advantageous as FIWOME has a tendency to decrease fuel consumption and enhance diesel engine performance in the vehicular engine [116,117]. ...
... This higher ET in B22.5 and B100 compared to diesel fuel are due to the oxygenated nature of the fuel, reduced mechanical loss coupled with higher viscosity and density [126,127]. Similar observations were indicated elsewhere [48,128]. ...
Unconventional biodiesel characterization techniques using thermophysical and transport properties have been receiving increasing attention due to its advantages over fundamental combustion and simulation of heat transfer in solving heat transfer, chemical, and bioenergy characteristics of biodiesel combustion. In this study, the optimum production yield of Food Industrial Waste Oil Methyl Ester (FIWOME, B100, FIWOB) was modelled using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) techniques. The basic properties of the fuel types were determined using ASTM test methods, while specific heat capacity (Cp), thermal diffusivity (TD), thermal conductivity (TC) and Prandtl number (Pr) were determined using standard methods. Diesel engine performance indicators such as Engine Torque (ET), Brake Power (BP), Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) and Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) were determined for different fuel types using a Perkins diesel engine. The estimated Coefficient of Determination (R²) of 0.9820, Root Mean-Square-Error (RMSE) of 1.7403, Standard Error of Prediction (SEP) of 0.0215, Mean Average Error (MAE) of 1.3790, and Average Absolute Deviation (AAD) of 1.6389 for RSM compared to those of R² (0.9847), RMSE (1.6071), SEP (0.0199), MAE (1.1425), and AAD (1.2583) for ANN exhibited the robustness of the ANN tool over the RSM technique. Optimal biodiesel-- diesel fuel (B0) blend was 22.5% volume ratio called as B22.5. The optimum yield of FIWOME of 92.5% was achieved at the methanol/oil molar ratio of 5.99, KOH of 1.1 wt.%, and a reaction time of 77.6 min. The basic properties of FIWOME determined complied with both ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 specifications. The values of Cp and TD increased and decreased respectively with biodiesel percent in fuel in a quadratic manner. The TC and Pr were correlated with the biodiesel fraction through linear regressions. The brake power, brake torque, and brake specific fuel consumption were observed to increase with an increase in biodiesel percentage level. The determined performance characteristics of B22.5, which is above B20 as recommended for powered diesel engine gave a good improvement in terms of BTE and Pr making FIWOME based biodiesel a viable substitute for fossil diesel.
... Basic catalysts like sodium methoxide (NaOMe) and potassium methoxide (KOMe) are highly effective. 48 The effectiveness of these catalysts for the transesterication of AF oil was evaluated, and the best catalyst concentration and activity were determined. We applied and used six different catalysts (KOH, NaOH, CaO, OCH 3 Na, CH 3 OK, and ZrO 2 ) to check which catalyst is more effective. ...
... At ambient temperature, the reaction almost completed, but took a long time. 48 Generally, the response plateaus at around the methanol boiling point (60-70 C) and atmospheric pressure. 53 Depending on the oil used, the transesterication reaction takes place at different temperatures. ...
Currently, the energy crisis is a hot topic for researchers because we are facing serious problems due to overpopulation and natural energy sources are vanishing day-by-day. To overcome the energy crisis, biofuel production from non-edible plant seeds is the best solution for the present era. In the present study, we select the non-edible seeds of Acacia farnesiana for biofuel production from different areas of Pakistan with better oil production results. Different kinds of analytical method, like the American Standard for Testing and Materials and techniques like Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, gas chromatography, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, were used to evaluate the chemical compositions. The maximum oil extraction rate (23%) was produced by petroleum ether. Potassium hydroxide exhibited the best conversion result of 96% fatty acid methyl ester. The transesterification method was used for the preparation of fatty acid methyl ester (96%) using potassium hydroxide and methanol. The viscosity and density of Acacia farnesiana seed oil biodiesel was comparable to American Standard for Testing Material biodiesel standards. By using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, five fatty acids were detected comprising palmitic acid (6.85%), stearic acid (2.36%), oleic acid (12.13%), linoleic acid (46.85%), and α-linolenic acid (1.23%). This study concludes that Acacia farnesiana seed oil biodiesel could be an intriguing raw material for yielding Acacia farnesiana seed oil methyl ester as an alternative fuel source.
... Table 11 highlights the properties of TSOME and other biodiesels. As noted, the KVI of TSOME (3.63 mm 2 /s) concurred with those of Usta [94] (3.5 mm 2 /s), Usta et al. [95] (4.23 mm 2 /s), and met the ranges of ASTM D6751 ...
... The density of TSOME (935.9 kgm -3 ) corresponded with those of Veljković et al. [90] (882 kg/m 3 ), Usta et al. [95] (888.5 kgm -3 ) and Usta [94] (886.8 kg/m 3 and agreed with the European Union (850-900 kgm -3 ) standard but slightly exceeded that of than B0 (850 kg/ m 3 ). The density of TSOME was detected to be 1.1 higher than diesel and might pave way J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f for the previous fuel to recompense for its lower heat energy to generate corresponding engine features as latter fuel [97], [98]. ...
Modelling and enhancing the production of green diesel in biodiesel industries have been hampered by the failure of the conventional approach to pursue space with continuous convergence velocity, being entombed in local minima, and maintaining unwavering resolutions. The study presented for the first time the optimization protocol for the development of biodiesel production from tobacco seed oil (TSO) on the batch reactor aided by the unique Grey Wolf Optimizer-Response Surface Methodology-Artificial Neural Network (GWO-RSM-ANN) techniques. Lower calorific value (LCV), higher calorific value (HCV), and specific heat capacity (Cp) correlations were postulated for tobacco seed oil methyl ester (TSOME/B100/TSOB) and diesel blends. RSM, ANN, and GWO approaches were used to model TSOME's main production yield. The ASTM test methods were used to examine the significant basic properties of the fuel categories, while the LCV and HCV were detected using standard procedures. Maximum TSOME yield (90.2%) was obtained at methanol/TSO molar ratio of 5.95, KOH content of 1.15 wt. %, and methylic duration of 77.6 min. The ANN model configuration (3-15-1) that was developed showed more adaptability and nonlinearity. The estimated coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9999, mean average error (MAE) of 0.00035, and RMSE of 0.00105 for the GWO model compared to those of R2 of 0.9825, MAE of 1.3145, and RMSE of 1.7087 for RSM model; and R2 of 0.9976, MAE of 0.2405, and RMSE of 0.6381 for ANN model vindicate the superiority of GWO model over the RSM and ANN models. The major fuel properties agreed with the ranges of the ASTMD6751 and EN 14214 specifications. The LCV, HCV, and Cp are also correlated with the TSOME fraction through the linear equations. There were excellent correlations between the analyzed and calculated values for the LCVs and HCVs. The maximum absolute error between the measured and estimated LCV and HCV are 0.108% for 20%TSOME (20% TSOME +80% diesel fuel), and 0.17% for pure diesel, respectively. The model and correlations can offer biodiesel and automobile industries with database information.
... Use of commercial crops for biodiesel production will lead to an increase in prices of food and commodities all over the world, which is a disadvantage to keep in mind and hence alternatives are to be found. Few alternative resources/substrates are jatorpha (Kumartiwari et al. 2007), Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) (Mohibbeazam et al. 2005), Madhuka indica (Kumari et al. 2007), and Nicotiana tobacum (Usta 2005). ...
... Nicotiana tobacum (tobacco) is a commercial shrub growing in many countries all over the world, and cigarettes and other products with tobacco are prepared from its foliage. Seeds contain oil between 36% and 41% by weight (Usta 2005). Seeds contain 17% by weight free fatty acids and linoleic (69.5%), oleic (14.5%), and palmitic (11.0%) acids. ...
Unchecked increase in population has put the energy resources under a tremendous pressure, and the world is reaching the brink of energy crisis. Hence, the scientists are looking towards natural renewable resources to fulfill the energy demands and also an alternative to fossil fuels. Biomass, especially agricultural biomass, is a good alternative to the problem. It is not only present in abundance all over the world, but also holds the potential to be the next generation fuel. Bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas are alternatives to petroleum, diesel, and natural gas respectively. Agriculture is the main occupation in majority of countries all over the world; in other words, agriculture holds a special place in world’s economy. There is no dearth of raw material, as agricultural wastes are produced along with crops and require no extra land or efforts. So far, agricultural waste has been treated as waste, which was either ploughed in fields or burnt away. But conversion of this waste into fuel/energy is not only a step toward a greener and sustainable future but also economical. Rich in lignocellulosic material, agricultural waste needs to be pretreated, and each kind has its own pros and cons, but in final terms the process is not only environment friendly but also will be pocket friendly in the long run. Using the biomass for energy generation will also put use to waste dumps all over the world, as this waste can also be used for energy generation. Not only use of agricultural waste will solve energy crises, but it will also use up waste which was till now dumped up adding to nuisance, but being environmental friendly, it will also help control pollution and give us a cleaner environment.
... Tobacco seeds, available as an unused byproduct of commercial leaf production in many countries around the world, can be a valuable source of natural products with biological activity and have been considered a source of glycerides as well as biodiesel (Frega et al., 1991;Popova et al., 2018;Xie et al., 2011). Specifically, tobacco is an oilseed crop with an oil yield ranging from 30% to 40% of seed dry weight, which is higher than that of some other common oilseed crops, such as corn (3% to 5%), cotton (16%), soybean (18%), and olive (18% to 25%) and close to that of mustard (37% to 39%), canola (37% to 41%), sunflower (25% to 47%), and safflower (38% to 48%) (Elbadawy et al., 2016;Giannelos et al., 2002;Methamem et al., 2015;Popova et al., 2018;Zheljazkov et al., 2011Zheljazkov et al., , 2012Zheljazkov et al., , 2013; this highlights the potential of tobacco seeds as a source of industrial and edible oils (Giannelos et al., 2002;Usta 2005). ...
... Moreover, these compounds cannot be synthesized in the human body and must be obtained through the diet; these results indicate that tobacco seed oil has a high nutritional value, even higher than that of some other common edible oils, such as peanut and cottonseed oil (Thakur et al., 1998). In addition, although tobacco seed oil is mostly used as a nonedible oil, it can be used in the drug and cosmetics industry and has been successfully tested as a biodiesel (Giannelos et al., 2002;Usta 2005). Because tobacco seed oil contains various biologically active substances (protein, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, etc.) and does not contain toxic and unpalatable nicotine, the seed cake remaining after the extraction or cold pressing of tobacco seed oil could potentially also be used in animal nutrition or as a delivery system for edible vaccines to animals (Rossi et al., 2013). ...
Tobacco is traditionally an industrial crop that is used for manufacturing cigarettes. However, due to health concerns and global tobacco control movements, alternative uses of tobacco are urgently needed to support tobacco farmers and vendors. Tobacco is also an oilseed crop with an oil yield ranging from 30% to 40 of its dry weight. However, there is still no information on the effects of nitrogen application on tobacco seed yield and seed oil production. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of N fertilization (90, 120, 150, and 180 kg·ha ⁻¹ N) on the seed yield, oil content, fatty acid composition, and seed germination characteristics of tobacco plants at two locations. The results showed that applying increasing amounts of N to tobacco plants significantly increased their total seed yields and oil content. Nitrogen application also modified the fatty acid composition of the seed oil, as more unsaturated fatty acids were produced under the increasing N application rate treatments than under the control. Moreover, increasing the N application rate generally significantly increased the yields of individual fatty acids as well. Nevertheless, the increased seed oil content and altered fatty acid composition did not affect seed germination traits, as the seed germination potential and rate showed no obvious change among treatments or the control. The height and size of the tobacco plants also increased with the increasing N application rate, which would be beneficial for increasing biomass production for bioenergy. This study shows for the first time the feasibility of increasing the seed and oil yields and modifying the fatty acid composition of tobacco plants by increasing N addition.
... Hence, the best results were obtained for a methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1 in the present work. These results are in line with the reports of Meher et al. [30] and Usta [31]. They obtained high yields of esters utilizing the molar ratio of 6:1 during the methanolysis of P. pinnata and tobacco seed oil, respectively. ...
The characteristics of peanut and rapeseed including high oil content, favorable fatty acid composition, low agricultural inputs, definable growing season, and uniform seed maturation rates makes them a good source for biodiesel production. Thus, the transesterification process to produce biodiesel from peanut oil and rapeseed oil was studied. This process gives yields of (95 % and 88 %) from peanut oil and (97 %, 92 %) from rapeseed oil using potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as a catalyst, respectively. Biodiesel yields were analyzed using the FTIR (Fourier Transform Mid-IR) spectroscopy method. Biodiesel yields from peanut oil and rapeseed oil at different conditions were investigated in order to optimize the process. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the process parameters of the transesterification reaction. The models showed a good agreement with the experimental results, demonstrating that this methodology was useful for optimization. The models were successful in explaining the variation of response with respect to the three process parameters studied. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced were compared with ASTM standards for biodiesel. Keywords: Biodiesel, Transesterification, Peanut oil, Rapeseed oil, Optimization, Response surface methodology.
... Usta [71,46] evaluated the performance and exhaust emissions of a turbocharged indirect injection diesel engine using 10%, 17.5% and 25% tobacco seed oil methyl ester blend (TSOME). The author found that the addition up to 25% in volume of TSOME did not cause any significant variation in the engine torque and power. ...
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has placed stricter controls on several aspects of global maritime transport operations to protect the environment. In light of this, the goal of this study is to examine and assess the different prospective paths and technologies that will assist the shipping industry in decarbonizing its operations.
We consider how the utilisation of various alternative energy sources reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from marine transportation and contributes to the promotion of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs). The complexities associated with maritime industry operations using alternative energy sources are also explored. Biofuel as an alternative energy source, including biomethanol and biodiesel, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the shipping industry by 25% to 100%. However, the current supply of biofuels can only meet about 15% of the total demand which is not sufficient to sustainably power the entire marine fleet. There are several issues associated with these biofuels, including oxidation, ecological consequences, feedstock availability, technical and operational constraints, and economic factors that must be addressed before their full potential may be achieved.
... ). Other popular unconventional oils used in biodiesel include Calophyllum inophyllum,desert date, Moringa oleifera, rubber seed, fish oil, jojoba, neem, Eruca sativa, Jatropha curcas, papaya seed oil, Pongamia pinnata, Madhuca indica, Salvadora oleoides, and tobacco apricot seed(Usta 2005, Godiganur, Suryanarayana Murthy et al. 2009, Avinash, Subramaniam et al. 2014, Anwar, Rasul et al. 2019. A biodiesel was produced by transesterification of three unconventional Sudanese oils (Sclerocarya birrea, melon bug and sorghum bug) using methanol and ethanol in the presence of sulfuric acid; the obtained biodiesel met the DIN specifications ...
The demand increased and the prices of edible oils increased as a result of the steady increase in the global population, which prompted the conduct of research to find alternative nontraditional sources of oils, especially in developing countries. Research has uncovered hundreds of unconventional plant seeds with oil suitable for edible or industrial purposes. Many of them are rich in polyunsaturated essential fatty acids, which prove useful as “healthy oils.” The present chapter will briefly summarize the methods of production and the uses of unconventional oil in food, biodiesel, and pharmaceutical. Overall, the chapter concludes that the uses of fruit seeds could not only contribute to health and wealth but also serve as an excellent way to reduce the waste disposal problem of agro-based industries.
... Nicotiana tobacum (tobacco) is a commercial shrub growing in many countries all over the world, and cigarettes and other products with tobacco are prepared from its foliage. Seeds contain oil between 36% and 41% by weight (Usta 2005). Seeds contain 17% by weight free fatty acids and linoleic (69.5%), oleic (14.5%), and palmitic (11.0%) acids. ...
... Studies (Kim and Choi 2010;Usta 2005) have shown that when biodiesel is used, CO emissions are reduced because of its higher oxygen content and lower carbon to hydrogen ratio in the structure of biodiesel compared to those of diesel fuel. With higher concentrations of pure biodiesel in the biodiesel-diesel mixture, the CO emission decreases. ...
The global energy transition has started and the mankind actively looking for new way to replace the fossil fuels based technology. This paradigm change is quite hard to accomplished due the many drawbacks related to a complete rethinking of the engines. So, a solid solution could be represented by the use of oil derived analogue fuels produced using renewable sources known as drop-in fuels. In this field, the thermal conversion of fats has played a main role due the easily conversion in hydrocarbon mixture very close to diesel fraction.
... Studies (Kim and Choi 2010;Usta 2005) have shown that when biodiesel is used, CO emissions are reduced because of its higher oxygen content and lower carbon to hydrogen ratio in the structure of biodiesel compared to those of diesel fuel. With higher concentrations of pure biodiesel in the biodiesel-diesel mixture, the CO emission decreases. ...
Conventional fossil fuel sources are limited and their combustion leads to emissions. For these reasons, more eco-friendly alternative fuels are needed. Biodiesel has been known as a suitable alternative fuel for the last few decades. This fuel is produced from various sources including vegetable oils, animal fats, and waste oils, which are all renewable. The use of biodiesel in conventional diesel engines leads to a considerable reduction in PM, HC, and CO emissions. The use of biodiesel results in a significant reduction in PM, HC, and CO emissions, along with an insensible power loss, increase of fuel consumption, and rise of NOx emission in conventional CI engines. Besides, the engine performance parameters, including brake thermal efficiency, brake-specific fuel consumption, and braking power, are virtually maintained. This chapter properly examines the impacts of using biodiesel fuel in CI and LTC engines on the main parameters, such as combustion phase, combustion characteristics, fuel consumption, and power output. It is noteworthy that the use of the LTC combustion strategy is more useful compared to other methods. This method can significantly reduce PM and NOx production by up to 98% and 95%, respectively, while the reduction of the engine performance is inconsiderate. The most efficient mode of LTC combustion is the RCCI strategy. Using the RCCI combustion model may increase the level of CO and HC pollutants, but this can be simply controlled with some existing technologies. In general, the combination of biodiesel and RCCI combustion is useful both in terms of improving RCCI engine performance and in terms of solving the NOx challenge in biodiesel combustion.
... Studies (Kim and Choi 2010;Usta 2005) have shown that when biodiesel is used, CO emissions are reduced because of its higher oxygen content and lower carbon to hydrogen ratio in the structure of biodiesel compared to those of diesel fuel. With higher concentrations of pure biodiesel in the biodiesel-diesel mixture, the CO emission decreases. ...
Rapid economic growth, especially in developing countries, directly impacts transport fuel demand, waste generation and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Hence, there is an increasing need to supplement fossil fuel demand with sustainable alternative options while also addressing solid waste and GHG emissions. India generates the highest amount of annual municipal solid waste (MSW) (277 million tonnes out of the global 2.01 billion tonnes); this is estimated to double by 2050. This high MSW generation rate, inadequate management, unscientific landfilling and inefficient disposal practices is a serious concern to health and the environment. The organic fraction of MSW generated in India is estimated to be in the range of 40–60% and contains huge potential fuel value for waste to energy (WtE) options. Owning to the large availability of MSW and its associated environmental and social burdens, MSW for fuel production to support the nations’ sustainability commitments looks attractive, if done scientifically. Considering India as the case study, this chapter reviews the possible routes for converting MSW to useful automobile fuels. Additionally, through life cycle assessment (LCA), this chapter discusses the amount of fossil fuel substitution in the total mobility fuel mix by the MSW derived fuel. LCA evaluation revealed a net 85.03 kg CO2 eq. global warming potential, 0.184 mol H⁺ eq. acidification potential, 7.794 × 10–3 mol of N eq. eutrophication potential and 4.873 CTUh human toxicity potential, respectively, for ethanol production from 1 tonne of organic fraction of MSW. The findings can help assess the MSW utilization in a more scientific way wherein the benefits are assessed in terms of mitigation of GHG and environmental costs averted, in addition to foreign savings through the reduced import of fossil fuels. Few successful pilot projects as case studies will help getting several stakeholders together, which will be essential for taking this waste utilization option to a useful scale.
... Although the second-generation feedstocks are mainly low-value non-edible oils, their processing to biodiesel may add extra cost and time. Non-edible feedstocks, also called energy crops, include: jatropha [84][85][86][87], jojoba [88], tobacco seed [89], salmon oil [90], and sea mango [91]. Biodiesel generated through energy crops is a clean alternative fuel to petrodiesel; however, the supply of this feedstock in large quantities is unfortunately not sustainable [92]. ...
Biodiesel is a biodegradable, renewable, and carbon-neutral alternative to petroleum diesel that can contribute to the global effort of minimizing the use of fossil fuels and meeting the ever-growing energy demands and stringent environmental constraints. The aim of this work was to 1) review the recent progress in feedstock development, including first, second, third, and fourth-generation feedstocks for biodiesel production; 2) discuss recent progress in lipase research and development as one of the key factors for establishing a cost-competitive biodiesel process in terms of enzyme sources, properties, immobilization, and transesterification efficiency; and 3) provide an update of the current challenges and opportunities for biodiesel commercialization from techno-economic and social perspectives. Related biodiesel producers, markets, challenges, and opportunities for biodiesel commercialization, including environmental considerations, are critically discussed.
... Evsel atık su kirliliğinin % 25'ini bitkisel atık yağların kanalizasyon şebekesine deşarjı oluşturmaktadır (Türkay, 2007;Öztürk, 2004). Araştırmalar atık yağın 1 L'sinin 1 000 000 L suyu kullanılamaz ve 5 000 000 L suyu ise içilemez duruma getirdiğini göstermiştir (Usta, 2005). ...
Birleşik Devletler Çevre Koruma Kurumu (USEPA) tarafından belli konsantrasyonlarda birincil çevresel risk olarak kabul edilen bitkisel atık yağların arıtılmayan veya yeterince arıtılmamış olan evsel ve endüstriyel atıkların nehir sularına deşarjı veya birikmesi ile nehirlerdeki pekçok canlı yok olma tehlikesi ile karşı karşıya gelmektedir. Yağ tüketimi ortalama olarak dünyada kişi başına 15 kg yıl-1 iken ülkemizde 20 kg yıl-1 dir. Ülkemizde yılda yaklaşık 1.5 milyon ton kadar bitkisel yağ kullanılmakta olup bunun yaklaşık 350 bin ton kadarı atık yağ olarak açığa çıkmaktadır. Bitkisel atık yağların % 2’lik kısmı ancak toplanmakta olup son yıllarda çevre bilincinin artması ve lisanslı toplayıcılar ile bu oran ancak % 5’lere çıkarılabilmektedir. Maalesef geri kalan % 95’lik kısım ise kontrolsüz olarak çevreye bırakılmaktadır. Çoğu ülkelerde ve ülkemizde atık yağların çevreye doğrudan salınımı çevresel düzenlemeler ve ağır cezalar ile yasak hale getirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada, bitkisel atık yağların denizel ekosisteme ulaşmadan önce bertaraf edilerek değerlendirilmesi (biyodizele dönüştürülmesi) ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalar derlenmiştir.
... Due to their accessibility and low cost, the emphasis has now turned towards second-generation biodiesel production from non-edible vegetable oils [13,14]. Some popular second-generation feedstocks include beet sugar, apricot seeds, desert date, sunflower, papaya seeds, sugar cane, orange peels, corn, curry leaves, soybean, sugar grass, calophyllum inophyllum, cassava, jatropha curcas, grape seeds, karanja, cottonseed, tobacco, rubber seed, sal, jojoba, neem, moringa oleifera, animal fat, pork lard, beef tallow, fish oil and waste cooking oil [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. Various ethanol separation methods from the feedstock, including fermentation [27] and the use of various microorganisms like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora uvarum and Starmerella bacillaris have been implemented [28,29]. ...
Fossil fuel depletion and strict government regulations have necessitated the finding of alternatives to conventional fuel sources. The growing population and better transport are increasing the need for energy every day. The pollution and disposal of agriculture and food waste are still serious problems to be tackled. Bioethanol has proved an alternative to S.I. engine diesel and gasoline. 10% ethanol blending is widely used by passenger cars worldwide and countries such as India have announced the implementation of a 20% ethanol blending in petrol. As a result, demand for ethanol is growing and there is inadequate bioethanol supply to meet demand. This paper portrays the extraction of ethanol from the waste pomegranate fruits and effect of its different blends on the spark ignited engine performance. Ethanol was extracted using fermentation and steam distillation processes from waste pomegranate fruit. Four blends were prepared on volumetric basis and tested for various performance and emission parameters at a constant compression ratio of 10:1 and wide-open throttle at various engine speeds. Indicated power, volumetric efficiency, and mechanical efficiency were improved by ethanol enrichment. Enrichments of ethanol decrease emissions of HC, CO and CO2, however increase nitrogen oxide emissions. The engine performance was found optimal for WPFE15 among all fuel blend studied. This study recommends the use of waste pomegranate fruits as a source for production of second-generation ethanol if after treatments be performed to reduce NOx emissions. This study proposes the use of waste pomegranate fruits for second-generation ethanol processing, if NOx pollution after treatment is carried out.
... They show the lower thermal efficiency occurred with B50 fuel due to the lower heating value of the fuel. Similar results are also observed in the past experiments [24], [19] and [16]. The variation of brake specific fuel consumption with load for different fuels is presented in (Fig 2).For all fuels tested, brake specific fuel consumption is found decreased when there is an increase in the load. ...
In the present day scenario the cost of fuel has become a great menace to Indians. In Indian cities automobile pollution has become a pressing issue. The vehicular population is continuously increasing and pollution is increasing rapidly. The percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the temperature. This paper aims to provide an alternate solution for petroleum based fuels. It suggests that biodiesel produced from inedible animal fat (goat & sheep) to be used as an alternate fuel. In this study biodiesel is produced from fats of sheep and goat obtained from meat stalls in and around Hosur Taluk, Krishnagiri District, Tamilnadu and South India. The objective of the present study is to investigate the effects of petro diesel and biodiesel blends on the performance and emission characteristics on a four stroke single cylinder diesel engine. The engine was operated at constant speed. The readings of the important parameters were noted at different loads. Detailed analysis was done on the performance and emission parameters of biodiesel blends and diesel. At maximum load condition, the specific fuel consumption of 50% biodiesel is 0.36 kg/kW-hr is more than that of diesel 0.35 kg/kW-hr. It was observed that the thermal efficiency of biodiesel fuel was less than that of petro diesel. The maximum brake thermal efficiency obtained is about 26% for B10 which is slightly higher than that of diesel (23%). For various percentages of biodiesel blends, there is an increase in brake thermal efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency. The engine experimental results showed that exhaust emissions including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), hydro carbons (HC) and smoke emissions were reduced for all biodiesel mixtures .The emissions of the engine running on B10 were reduced by 2%, 8%, 13% and 22% for smoke density, HC, CO and CO 2 respectively as compared to petro diesel at various loading conditions. However, an increase in oxides of nitrogen (NO x) emission was experienced for biodiesel mixtures. B10 has NO x emission of 8.6% at maximum load.
... Biodiesel is a biofuel which is getting unique identity due to its nontoxicity, biodegradability and can be produced from varieties of renewable resources [2]. Vegetable oils have additional benefits such as renewability, high calorific value (>38 MJ/kg), and low net emission of harmful gases like SO 2 , CO and CO 2 , unburnt hydrocarbon [3]. Currently, more than 95% of biodiesel is being produced from edible vegetable oils, which may affect the sustainability of biodiesel industries and also causes a crisis on food versus fuel [4,5]. ...
In this work, physicochemical properties and rheological behaviour of waste cooking oil (WCO), castor oil (CO), rubber seed oil (RSO) and their methyl esters (ME), as well as ME blends (5, 10 and 15 vol%) with diesel fuel were investigated. Rheological properties of samples were measured in the range of 25–80°C temperature and 5–300 s–1 shear rate. Similarly, rheological behaviour of WCO, CO and RSO based methyl esters (WCOME, COME, ROSME) and its blends (5, 10, and 15 vol%) with diesel fuel were also studied. Power law model was used to study the flow behaviour of all the samples. The viscosity behaviour of oils (WCO, CO and RSO), methyl esters (WCOME, COME and RSOME) and their blends with diesel fuel showed Newtonian nature in the temperature range of 25–80 °C. The viscosity values of the chemically modified oil samples (via transesterification) were found to be lower than the original oil samples. However, WCO, CO and their methyl esters showed a slight deviation from Newtonian behaviour between shear rate intervals of 5–100 s–1. The dynamic viscosity of RSO (25.58 mPa.s) was less than that of WCO (49.91 mPa.s) and CO (338.08 mPa.s). At 40°C, the kinematic viscosity values of RSOME (3.81 mm²/s) and WCOME (3.36 mm²/s) were lower than the value of COME (10.59 mm²/s). The dynamic viscosities of the samples were found to be dependent on fatty acids chain length, unsaturation and temperature. According to fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties of the oils samples, WCO, CO and RSO are suitable for substituting edible feedstock to make biodiesel production sustainable. The fuel properties of the methyl esters and their blends with diesel were estimated as per ASTM D6751 biodiesel standards.
... The tobacco plant is readily available as it is abundant in over 118 nations globally (Usta, 2005). There is a remarkable growth in tobacco cultivation. ...
Among the modern computational techniques, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) are preferred because of their ability to deal with non-linear modelling and complex stochastic dataset. Nondeterministic models involve some computational complexities while solving real-life problems but would always produce better outcomes. For the first time, this study utilized the ANN and ANFIS models for modelling tobacco seed oil methyl ester (TSOME) production from underutilized tobacco seeds in the tropics. The dataset for the models was obtained from an earlier study which focused on design of the experiment on TSOME production. This study is an an exposition of the influence of transesterification parameters such as reaction duration (T), methanol/oil molar ratio (M:O), and catalyst dosage on the TSOME/biodiesel yield. A multi-layer ANN model with ten hidden layers was trained to simulate the methanolysis process. The ANFIS approach was further implemented to model TSOME production. A comparison of the formulated models was completed by statistical criteria such as coefficient of determination (R 2), mean average error (MAE), and average absolute deviation (AAD). The R 2 of 0.8979, MAE of 4.34468, and AAD of 6.0529 for the ANN model compared to those of the R 2 of 0.9786, MAE of 1.5311, and AAD of 1.9124 for the ANFIS model. The ANFIS model appears to be more reliable than the ANN model in predicting TSOME production in the tropics.
... Tobacco leaves have non-structural sugar content comparable to switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) and miscanthus (Miscanthus L.) while their lignin content is low [3]. Moreover, tobacco seeds contain about 40% oil, which can be used as a diesel fuel in turbocharged, indirect injection engines [4]. The yield of tobacco seeds is, however, insignificant (about 400-600 kg/ha according to the authors' knowledge). ...
The present pilot study examined the potential of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) as an energy source. The fresh matter of whole tobacco plants, the yield of dry matter of stems and leaves, as well as the higher heating value and methane production potential from tobacco biomass were determined. The yield of tobacco leaves was on average 4.69 Mg ha−1 (dry matter) and 76.90 GJ ha−1 yr−1 (biomass energy yield). Tobacco stems yielded on average 8.55 Mg ha−1 and 150.69 GJ ha−1 yr−1, while yields of whole tobacco crops were (on average) 13.24 Mg ha−1 and 227.59 GJ ha−1 yr−1. Methane potential of tobacco plants was (on average) 248 Nm3 Mg−1 VS (volatile solids). The tobacco plants tested in the study could be used as energy crops as their dry matter and energy yields are similar to those of the most popular energy crops being currently used in biomass production in Poland and the European Union. Nevertheless, further studies to choose the Nicotiana species and varieties most suitable for energy production and to assess the cost-effectiveness of tobacco biomass production are needed.
... In most of the cases, it is kept less than the boiling point of alcohol [45,182]. For methanol, the reported operating temperature is in the range 60− 65 • C, although some researchers have also reported much lower temperatures of 30 • C and 50 • C [157,166,171,175,[183][184][185]. It is also revealed from the literature that virgin oils give a higher yield of 97 % as compared to waste frying oils, which give a yield of 92 % [98]. ...
Due to the dwindling crude oil resources and the detrimental environmental effects of toxic emissions from conventional diesel, biodiesel has gained importance over the last few years as a clean, sustainable, and renewable energy resource. As projected by the Energy Outlook review, a blend of 30 % biodiesel with petro-diesel (B30), is expected to be promoted as an alternative to petro-diesel by the year 2030. From the global perception, biodiesel is estimated to form 70 % of transport fuel which will be in demand by the year 2040. Since biodiesel is produced exclusively by vegetable oil, animal fat, microbial oil, and waste oil, it is renewable and biodegradable. Even though it has various benefits over conventional diesel fuel, yet numerous technical challenges need to be resolved. Among them are the cost of oil, selection of appropriate catalysts, and the development of a suitable technique for economical and efficient synthesis of biodiesel fuel from the vast range of available feedstocks. As 60–80 % cost of biodiesel is due to its feedstock, selection of low cost and sustainable feedstock from the vast varieties of available sources is the most challenging task to be achieved. In this article, the literature of the last twenty years was thoroughly studied and reviewed to examine the status of biodiesel. The present paper discusses the availability of different biodiesel feedstocks and summarises how their characteristics affect biodiesel properties along with the criteria of their selection for sustainable and low-cost production of biodiesel. The transesterification route is considered the most appropriate way for processing triglycerides of lipids into biodiesel which can take place with or without a catalyst. Different catalysts can homogeneously or heterogeneously catalyze the transesterification reaction depending on their solubility in the reaction mixture. The paper reviews the research on biodiesel production with different types of catalysts (alkaline, acidic, and enzymatic), their properties, preferred operating conditions, their suitability, and limitations. Work done on some of the latest intensification techniques for biodiesel production that are capable of managing the mass transfer restrictions of oil and alcohol phases namely, microwave irradiation, ultrasonication, and the co-solvent method are also reviewed. Some other intensification techniques that reduce biodiesel production cost by efficient separation, mixing, purification, and reaction like membrane reactor, motionless mixer, reactive distillation, and in-situ method have also been discussed along with their scope for commercialization in the context of the research work done till date. The review concludes with future perspectives and suggestions regarding the selection criteria of feedstocks, catalysts, and production techniques to make the production of biodiesel cost-effective, fast, energy-efficient, more cleaner, less complex, and sustainable.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is facing extreme gas emissions challenges in the energy and transport sector. So, it is always preferred to use fuels that should be derived from waste to energy resources that are available abundantly without harmful environmental emissions. This experimental study uses neat diesel, and waste fat chicken oil blends to investigate the performance and emissions parameters in high-pressure common-rail multi-cylinder diesel engines. The tested fuel blends are prepared with the ratios of 10% biodiesel–diesel 90% (DB10), 15% biodiesel–diesel 85% (DB15), and 20% biodiesel–diesel 80% (DB20). The experimental results showed that, at 2000 rpm, torque and brake power produced by DB10 is 7.93% and 6.1% greater than the other diesel fuel due to its high heating value and density. The decrease in CO (16.66%), CO2 (10.79%), and HC (10.79%) emissions of DB10 compared to other diesel fuels was due to better ignition quality, higher oxygen content, and proper combustion. DB10 showed a slight increase in NOx emission (0.39%) compared to DF. Therefore, it is concluded from the performance and emission results that the DB10 is the most suitable alternative fuel compared to diesel, DB15, and DB20, and it can be used in the KSA without any modification in diesel engines.
In response to the increasing demand for diesel fuel and its shortage, biodiesel has emerged as a potential alternative. This review thoroughly examines the physicochemical characteristics of biodiesel from several generations using a variety of feedstocks. The study reveals that biodiesel with low concentrations of poly-unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and long-chain saturated FAME exhibits favorable characteristics, including improved performance, oxidation stability, and operability at low temperatures. Many technologies have been used to produce biodiesel, but the transesterification process has proven to be the most cost-effective and efficient approach, producing the maximum amount of biodiesel, making it the technique of choice for commercial bio-production. The paper presents an in-depth examination of biodiesel production methods, explaining production patterns influenced by elements such as reactant mass transfer restrictions, feasibility in upstream processes, and downstream processing ease. Furthermore, third generation feedstocks, especially algae-based sources, outperform their predecessors due to their higher energy content, significant oil content, and ecologically harmless characteristics. The article additionally covers a variety of catalysts, including ionic liquid catalysts, enzyme catalysts, nano catalysts, and heterogeneous and homogeneous acid/base catalysts. Following a detailed evaluation of various reactor designs, the research concludes that using a supercritical method has tremendous promise for biodiesel synthesis. This comprehensive overview not only examines the benefits and drawbacks of various biodiesel production methods, but it also contributes to a better understanding of the factors influencing biodiesel production trends, thereby encouraging the development of sustainable and efficient biodiesel technologies.
In the current state of affairs, the demand for renewable energy is increasing dramatically because of the availability and pollution problems associated with non-renewable energy resources. Energy from bio is the foremost important renewable source, because bioenergy plays a dynamic role in environmental protection through waste to energy conversion thus encouraging agricultural and scale back the foreign exchange. Biodiesel is a gift fuel obtained from a biosource for diesel engines. But, the use of biodiesel in diesel engines has some problems, like lower brake thermal efficiency, higher fuel consumption, more emissions of nitrogen oxides, etc. To avoid these problems researchers are working to find a solution that helps to make pleasant use of biodiesel blends in diesel engines. The addition of fuel additives to the diesel–biodiesel blend is the most attractive solution to improve the performance, combustion and emission characteristics. Recent studies revealed that the introduction of nanotechnology into internal combustion engines is extensive as nanoparticles play a vital role in altering the physical and chemical properties of fuel, considered as coolant in internal combustion engines and acting as a combustion catalyst. Many researchers used different nanoparticles as fuel additives with diesel–biodiesel blends and claimed that the addition of nanoparticles to diesel–biodiesel blends tends to better thermal efficiency and a reduction in tailpipe emissions. This paper summarizes the role of various nanofuel additives with diesel–biodiesel blends on the performance, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of diesel engines.
In the present study, optimization studies of process variables for biodiesel production from crude Tobacco Seed Oil (TSO) using Tungstophosphoric acid (TPA) as catalyst was investigated. TSO was extracted using tobacco seeds by employing solvent extraction method and the methyl esters produced by single stage transesterification reaction. TPA quantity, alcohol/oil ratio, process duration and temperature of the reaction were optimized. The highest yield of TSOME (87.5%) was achieved using 4.4 wt% catalyst loading at 6:1 alcohol/oil ratio, 65 °C for 4 h. The catalyst showed appreciable catalytic activity for repeated use. The fuel properties of the TSO and TSOME were tested as per American Standard Testing Methods (ASTM). Performance and exhaust emissions showed that the TSOME is a better alternate fuel with reduced NOx emissions when compared with diesel.
The present study experimentally examines the performance of a diesel engine with biodiesel blends. Different biodiesels are produced through transesterification and mixed with conventional diesel fuel. Vegetable oils are selected because of the availability of the feedstock and their price. The range of representative measures of performance and engine emission characteristics are analyzed. It is proved that increasing the biodiesel concentration inside the blends would improve the brake power brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) while increasing smoke production, and CO and CO2 emissions as well. An artificial neural network (ANN)-based sensitivity analysis is also implemented to evaluate the role of different parameters toward variability of performance and emission characteristics.
This study aims to investigate the performance characteristics of an IDI engine with a novel dual swirl chamber and using biodiesel from waste chia seed oil blended with diesel. To the author’s best knowledge, this is the first study on waste Chia seed oil as a fuel in IDI engine. The injection pressure and CR of the test engine were increased from their recommended values. Biodiesel blends BC05 to BC25 with diesel in volumetric ratios of 5% to 25% respectively with 5% increments were used for experiment purpose. The results showed that biodiesel blends have lesser BTE (from 2.2% to 5%) and higher BSFC (from 3.5 to 5.2%) compared with diesel due to lower CV. With the increase in injection pressure and CR, the difference in BTE and BSFC got reduced because of better atomisation and mixing. The CO and NOx emissions are 9.26% and 27% lesser for the BC20 blend.
Biodiesel is a promising substitute for fossil fuel and is mostly prepared by transesterification of vegetable oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst. Catalyst plays a vital role in the biodiesel production process. Various catalysts like homogeneous, heterogeneous, and enzyme catalysts are used in the preparation of biodiesel. In this chapter, biodiesel production using homogenous acid and the base‐catalyzed reaction is reviewed. Homogeneous base catalysts result in a good yield of biodiesel with a shorter reaction time at ambient temperature. Transesterification reaction of vegetable oil with high free fatty acid content is preferable by the acid catalyst. Its major drawback is the slow reaction rate and requirement of high temperature. Alternatively, esterification of oil with high free fatty acid followed by transesterification is recommended for good quality biodiesel production. However, oil with low free fatty acid can be transesterified directly by the homogeneous base catalyst. The biodiesel produced by homogeneous acid and base catalysts shows comparable fuel properties to that of diesel and meets the limits prescribed in the international standards.
Biodiesel, a promising alternative fuel to diesel, has recently attracted worldwide attention due to its low toxicity, biodegradability, and eco-friendly nature. This fuel can solely be used in diesel engines or blended with diesel without complicated modifications to the engine. Generally, biodiesel is produced from edible and non-edible oil crops, lipidic wastes, and algae. Previous reports indicate that more than 75% of the overall cost of biodiesel production is related to feedstock. In this regard, feedstock selection for biodiesel production is of significant importance. Therefore, this chapter aims to provide an overview of biodiesel production through esterification and/or transesterification from diverse lipid-rich resources, especially the low-cost wastes. The potential of biodiesel production from various feedstocks and the impact of fatty acids profiles on biodiesel quality are discussed. The effect of different process conditions such as pretreatment and downstream processing for enhanced production of biodiesel is reviewed. Finally, the economic feasibility of biodiesel production from wastes is estimated and discussed.
Few publications came into being on safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica) as their oils are being utilized as raw material for biodiesel. These plants are from daisy group and also the members of the family Compositae. Though many taxonomists group these plants in family Compositae, few taxonomists consider them under Asteraceae since they are homologous families and their characteristics are synonymous. These plants are normally cultivated either as a horticultural crop or as an oil seed crop. Some are weeds and uninvited partners of garden.
The family Solanaceae with 3000 species often referred as night shade family or potato family comprises annual herbs, shrubs, trees of rainforest or lianas. They occur world-wide and include many agro-crops, medicinal plants and spices. Few members of the family produce alkaloids in which some are highly toxic. Many are being cultivated as olericulture crops (tomatoes, potatoes, egg plants and bell and chilli peppers). Fruit is either capsule or berry. Seeds are endospermic. The tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum is dealt in this chapter as its seeds are oil bearing.
Environmental pollution and depleting fossil fuel reserve is a matter of apprehension throughout the world. biodiesel is a potential renewable fuel which can be used as a replacement to diesel. Many researchers have found that the emission of nitrogen oxide (NOx) from biodiesel fuelled vehicle is more than that of conventional diesel fuelled vehicle. This NOx emission from the motor vehicles can be suitably reduced within the permissible limits using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technique. The current article is a review of biodiesel fuelled compression ignition (CI) engine with and without the use of EGR. It particularly emphasizes upon the performance, emission, and combustion characteristics. It reveals that use of biodiesel with exhaust gas recirculation reduced carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), soot emission, and also NOx emission from CI engine. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is increased, and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) decreased slightly with exhaust gas recirculation implementation. In addition, the exhaust gas temperature is found to reduce significantly with EGR use.KeywordsVegetable oilBrake specific fuel consumptionBrake thermal efficiencyExhaust gas recirculationEmissions
Alternative fuels are still needed to compensate for the energy shortages caused by fossil fuel depletion. The paper aims to brief the types of alternative fuels used for the past 30 years. Moreover, it includes the recent types of biofuels (especially biodiesel) and their blends with studies on the performances and the exhaust emissions for different engines. In this study, previous studies were analysed, the challenges faced by the researchers were examined, and incentives for using biodiesel fuel in engines were discussed. The engine performance and emissions when using biodiesels and their blends in different engine models were also surveyed. All biodiesels and their blends have demonstrated the ability to reduce emissions such as carbon oxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter (PM) and hydrocarbon (HC) under various operating conditions, as well as the ability to improve the performance of the gas turbine. It is necessary to understand the combustion properties of fuels for their use in an engine. The contribution of this review is to help the engine manufacturers and researchers develop further research relating to readjusting and optimising the biodiesel engine and its relevant system.
The energy demand of the world is skyrocketing due to the exponential economic growth and population expansion. To meet the energy requirement, the use of fossil fuels is not a good decision, causing environmental pollution such as CO2 emissions. Therefore, the use of renewable energy sources like biofuels can meet the energy crisis especially for countries facing oil shortages such as Pakistan. This review describes the comparative study of biodiesel synthesis for various edible oils, non-edible oils, and wastes such as waste plastic oil, biomass pyrolysis oil, and tyre pyrolysis oil in terms of their oil content and extraction, cetane number, and energy content. The present study also described the importance of biodiesel synthesis via catalytic transesterification and its implementation in Pakistan. Pakistan is importing an extensive quantity of cooking oil that is used in the food processing industries, and as a result, a huge quantity of waste cooking oil (WCO) is generated. The potential waste oils for biodiesel synthesis are chicken fat, dairy scum, WCO, and tallow oil that can be used as potential substrates of biodiesel. The implementation of a biodiesel program as a replacement of conventional diesel will help to minimize the oil imports and uplift the country’s economy. Biodiesel production via homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification is more feasible among all transesterification processes due to a lesser energy requirement and low cost. Therefore, biodiesel synthesis and implementation could minimize the imports of diesel by significantly contributing to the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although, waste oil can meet the energy needs, more available cultivation land should be used for substrate cultivation. In addition, research is still needed to explore innovative solvents and catalysts so that overall biodiesel production cost can be minimized. This would result in successful biodiesel implementation in Pakistan.
Today, the use of renewable energies is constantly increasing, for that reason, Universities must constantly provide update to their students with innovative techniques that allow a compression of the concepts of biofuel production, in our case, will start with the production of biodiesel. The current document shows the production of biodiesel using the transesterification technique. All this with the help of equipment and materials available to the University, as a chemical reactor. This equipments will be reactivating and repairing for the good future functioning. In order to establish production condition chords to the chemical reactor, facilities and equipment of the university, has been tested with new vegetable oil to later scale the conditions to the use waste vegetable oil. The importance of producing biodiesel are in contribution of emission reduction from combustion and making use of the waste of vegetable oil.
Tobacco seeds, which holds oil in it was one of the major by-products of tobacco leave production in India. India was second largest producer of tobacco. Cigars, Hookah, Snuffs and Chewing tobacco are the major products of tobacco plant. Its seeds are found to be prominent source of non-edible oil. Extraction process have proved that seeds hold almost 41% of oil in its weight basis. In this work the physical as well as chemical properties of the tobacco seed oil and its methyl ester were investigated. Results were compared against other vegetable oil and their respective methyl esters. This work concludes that tobacco seed oil methyl ester might be an appropriate alternate fuel for diesel engines. Extraction of oil and its trans-esterification process were analysed in this study. The yield of oil in native and grounded seeds at different temperature was also studied in this work.
Diminishing oil reserve, escalating energy dependence, and the environmental impact of fossil fuel utilization has led to research on renewable energy resources with a cleaner carbon footprint. Biofuel, especially biodiesel, has become a feasible substitute for petroleum diesel as it can be directly used in existing transport infrastructure without significant alteration. This paper starts by discussing some critical physicochemical properties and their effect on engine performance and emission. The research then proposes a ranking scheme to select the most suitable biodiesel based on six vital physicochemical properties: density, viscosity, heating value, flash point, cetane number and oxidation stability. The solution developed is independent of supervision, contrary to popular learning algorithms and can operate on the only intelligence whether an attribute is favourable by its higher/lower values. The novelty of the work consists in ensuring that the rarer properties pick up the greater weights and in establishing a simple ranker based on descriptive statistics. This scheme first generates transactions against each biodiesel which helps in association rule mining, which is later used to score/rank the biodiesels. The three phases and their subordinate sub-steps have been carried out using the platforms: Python, R and Tableau, respectively. The study endorses Brassica juncea, Cardoon (Cynara cardunculu), and poppyseed oil as the most desirable biodiesel feedstocks. On the other hand, cedar, castor and hiptage were ranked as least desirable in the list of 71 feedstocks based on the proposed ranking scheme. The proposed ranking scheme will help decision-makers such to analyze and obtain tailored biodiesel feedstock for their purposes.
Biodiesel is the most widely accepted complement fuel for diesel engines due to its characteristic properties, environmental and strategic advantages. In recent years, the high cost of biodiesel and the competition with food has been reduced by using non-edible feedstocks. However, if further cost reduction is to be achieved, new methods of production should be adopted. In this study, an attempt has been made on cost reduction by producing biodiesels from non-edible oils (hemp seed oil and tobacco seed oil) in the laboratory using a domestic blender. Parametric studies were conducted to determine the optimal conditions such as KOH dosage (0.5–1.5 wt%), reaction duration (50–100 min). and methanol to oil molar ratio (4.0–8.0) for low fatty acid hemp seed oil methyl ester (HSOME) and tobacco seed oil methyl ester (TSOME) production and to establish density and viscosity correlation for the HSOME and TSOME with diesel blends. Regression models were adopted in predicting the basic properties of HSOME and TSOME, and their blends with diesel fuel. Optimum conditions of 0.9 wt% of KOH and 1.1 wt% of KOH and reaction time of 70 and 80 min were obtained with more than 95% conversion for both HSOME and TSOME with methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1. The cost estimation for HSOME and TSOME was conducted and the commercial value detected as (1.35 USD/l) and TSOME (1.36 USD/l). The respective energy efficiencies for HSOME and TSOME were 0.044 × 10−3 g/J and 0.0396 × 10−3 g/J. The fuel properties correlated with a high regression coefficient with biodiesel fraction and were similar to those found in literature and complied with both ASTM D6751 and EN 1421 standards.
In the present review, eucalyptus called as a primary biodiesel and used as alternative fuel because of its lower viscosity and the secondary fuel is biodiesels. Eucalyptus oil blends are non-edible oils, easily available in large quantity all over the country with secondary biodiesel that will reduce the viscosity of secondary biodiesel. Whereas the reduction in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) for CI engine is achieved, In order to improve the BTE, diesel engine with low heat rejection (LHR) engine using eucalyptus oil as primary fuel and biodiesel as secondary fuel. The density and cetane index of the eucalyptus oil is higher as compared with diesel. To overcome these problems, diethyl ether (DEE) is added with above blend. Hence, a detailed present review has been carried out to improve the BTE equivalent and reducing the emissions from eucalyptus oil, biodiesel and additive in LHR engine as compared with diesel.
The research described in this document is focused on the utilization of vegetable and animal non-edible triacylglycerols to prepare value added products. Triacylglycerols appeared to be an excellent source to substitute petroleum since they come from distinct renewable sources and have various interesting chemical and physical properties. Nevertheless, although they are renewable, their utilization as starting materials to produce chemicals can cause some concerns. On the one hand, edible triacylglycerols compete directly with food and feed. To overpass these concerns, two distinct sources of non-edible triacylglycerols were used such as non-edible animal fat from slaughterhouses and vegetable oil from a Chinese three crop (Vernicia fordii) known as tung oil. On the other hand, some of the chemistal procedures involved in the preparation of bio-based products have negative effects on the environment since high amount of wastes are generated and high temperatures and hazardous reagents are commonly employed. To overcome these issues, the present work takes advantage of the milder conditions and reusability of biocatalyst such as immobilized lipases and resting cells. Additionally, non-hazardous chemicals, low generating waste practices and cheap reagents were a priority to complete the transformation of non-edible animal fat and tung oil.
One of the challenging tasks for the researchers is to identify alternative renewable energy feedstocks which can be used as a substitute for fossil fuel to meet the increasing demand for energy, reduce the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and eliminate the increasing concerns of environmental impact. The 2nd generation poppy (Papaver somniferum) seed oil (PSO) can be considered as one of the feedstocks which would be low cost and does not compete with food crops for biodiesel production. In this study, biodiesel production was conducted in 2 stage processes which consist of acid and base–catalysed esterification and transesterification to reduce the free fatty acid (FFA) content of poppy seed oil (PSO) and to increase the yield of poppy seed oil methyl ester (PSOME), respectively. To determine the maximum yield of methyl ester, different parameters that influence the production of methyl ester, namely the molar ratio of methanol to oil (5.0:1–7.0:1), catalyst loading (0.5–1.5 wt.%), reaction temperature (40–80 °C) and time (60–120 min) were investigated under the transesterification reaction. The results found that methanol to oil molar ratio of 6.0:1, catalyst loading of 1.0 (wt.%), reaction temperature of 60 °C and reaction time of 90 min were observed to be the optimum process parameters for maximising the yield of PSOME at a constant speed of 720 rpm. In these conditions, the maximum methyl ester yield was found to be about 93 %. The gas chromatography (GC) analysis was conducted to evaluate the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) composition of the PSOME. Furthermore, the physico-chemical properties of the PSOME were evaluated and characterised using ASTM and EN standards for biodiesel. It was found that PSO can be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production as most of the physico-chemical properties are within the ASTM and EN standards.
On a basic level, outflow diminishment of harmful substances in fumes gas of compression-ignition (CI) diesel
engine can be accomplished at three spots: previously, in and after the CI engine. The normal approach is the
presentation of reactant depletes frameworks, valve timing, fuel blend readiness and burning displaying, and also
utilizing energizes, the synthetic synthesis of which gives the possibility to lessening. The last choice appears to be the
least difficult; however it isn't really the main choice that would be taken into thought. Because of the distinctive
properties of fuels, it is important to advance singular frameworks of the inner burning engine; else, it might happen
that the lessening of discharges of dangerous substances is missing as a coveted impact, or, in the contrary outrageous,
inadmissible execution of the engine may come about. This paper gives an elaboration on the utilization of bio fuels as
rapeseed methyl esters - bio diesel, as far as execution and the requirement for improvement of singular frameworks on
inward ignition engines. That is a precondition for the compelling utilization of bio energizes as the main fuel, and there
is likewise a probability of advancing the engine framework keeping in mind the end goal to accomplish the most ideal
relative execution on the off chance that both non-renewable energy source and bio fuel are utilized.
The shortage of fossil fuel resources and the dramatic increase in population have raised many concerns about fuel supply in the years ahead. Researchers are now focusing on renewable fuels, and biodiesel is one of those renewables. Four generations of biodiesel have been reported today and many studies have been done to optimize and enhance their performance. The present review article examines the physical and chemical properties of three generations of biodiesel. It was observed that the physical and chemical properties of the biodiesel vary based on the feed stocks and have a significant effect on the dynamic characteristics of emission level and performance of engine. All properties have the highest and lowest ranges for each feed. All the oils that have been studied for three generations to date have been fully reported, and these properties have been studied and compared for each of the three generations.
The primary problems associated with straight soybean oil as a fuel in a compression ignition engine are due to high fuel viscosity. Transesterification provides a significant reduction in viscosity, thereby enhancing the physical properties of the fuel to improve engine performance. Methyl, ethyl, and butyl esters of sobybean oil revealed fuel properties similar to diesel fuel. Engine wear, deposits, performance, and emissions are reported for each of the ester fuel's and reference diesel fuel's 200-hour engine tests. Analysis of lubricating oil samples are also presented as well as complete fuel injection system test results.
The use of waste cooking oil (WCO) as an alternative to diesel in engines has advantages from both economic and environmental standpoints. Typical of vegetable oils, WCO has a higher viscosity, leading to a general perception that its use is likely to have an adverse effect on the fuel injection system and consequent combustion process. In the present investigation, tests were carried out to determine engine performance and combustion analysis as well as emissions for both WCO and diesel. It was observed that because of the shorter ignition delay the premixed combustion phase of WCO was less intense than that of diesel. However, because of the corresponding smaller combustion volume, the peak pressures were on average 1.5 bar higher and occurred 1.1°-3.8° earlier than for diesel. This early peaking characteristic requires careful attention to ensure that, while running with WCO, the peak pressure takes place marginally after top dead centre for efficient operation. In terms of emissions of CO, NO and SO2, the level was higher for WCO compared with diesel.
Neat vegetable oils pose some problems wizen subjected to prolonged usage in CI engine. These problems are attributed to high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated character of the neat vegetable oils. These problems are reduced to minimum by subjecting the vegetable oils to the process of transesterification. Various properties of the biodiesel thus developed are evaluated and compared in relation to that of conventional diesel oil. These tests for biodiesel and diesel oil include density, viscosity, flash point, aniline point/cetane number, calorific value, etc. The prepared biodiesel was then subjected to performance and emission tests in order to evaluate its actual performance, when used as a diesel engine fuel. The data generated for various concentrations of biodiesel blends were compared with base line data generated for neat diesel oil. It was found that 20 percent blend of biodiesel gave the best performance amongst all blends. It gave net advantage of 2.5 percent in peak thermal efficiency and there was substantial reduction in smoke opacity values. This blend was chosen for long term endurance test. The engine operating on optimum biodiesel blend showed substantially improved behaviour. A series of engine rests provided adequate and relevant information that the biodiesel can be used ns an alternative, environment friendly fuel in existing diesel engines without substantial hardware modification.
New results were obtained on pollutants evolution during the combustion of four oxygenated fuels, whichwere compared with n-tetradecane and n-octane combustion. Three different techniques were adopted on a single cylinder direct injection diesel engine, equipped with optical accesses: two-colour pyrometry for the measurement of in-cylinder soot loading, high speed cinematography for the visualization and analysis of spray and combustion, fast sampling valve for the measurements of in-cylinder combustion products. In particular, the sampling line downstream of the fast sampling valve was adapted for the in-cylinder aldheydes measurements. Heat release analysis and fast sampling valve have shown that CO2 formation rate and heat release rate during the diffusion phase of combustion increase with the fuel oxygen content. Acetylene concentrations are influenced by fuel cetane number and oxygen content but, at the same fuel cetane number, they decrease when oxygen content increases. In-cylinder aldheydes concentrations are connected with premixed phase fraction of combustion and then influenced by fuel cetane number. In comparison with n-tetradecane fuel combustion, high burning rate and low visible flame distribution were observed through high speed cinematography tests, when oxygenated fuels were burned. Investigation on in-cylinder soot loading showed a great difference between the combustion behavior of ethers and glycolethers. The glycolethers show lower soot loading at the same fuel oxygen content.
Pure palm oil may be employed in diesel engines as an alternative fuel. Engine performance and emissions were influenced by basic differences between diesel fuel and palm oils such as mass based heating values, viscosity, density and molecular oxygen content. The high viscosity of palm oil resulted in poor atomisation, carbon deposits, clogging of fuel lines and starting difficulties in low temperatures. When heated at 100 °C palm oil presented lower viscosity, better combustion and less deposits. Tests were conducted in a naturally aspirated MWM 229 direct injection four-stroke 70 kW diesel-generator fueslled with 100% palm oil.
Three principal variables, molar ratio of methanol to oil, amount of catalyst, and reaction temperature, affecting the yield of acid-catalyzed production of methyl ester (biodiesel) from crude palm oil were investigated. The biodiesel was then used as an extractant in batch and continuous acetone–butanol–ethanol fermentation, and its fuel properties and that of the biodiesel–ABE product mix extracted from the batch culture analyzed. The optimized variables, 40:1 methanol/oil (mol/mol) with 5% H2S04 (vol/wt) reacted at 95°C for 9 h, gave a maximum ester yield of 97%. Biodiesel preferentially extracted butanol, and enhanced its production in the batch culture from 10 to 12 g l−1. The fuel properties of biodiesel and the biodiesel–ABE mix were comparable to that of No.2 diesel, but their cetane numbers and the boiling points of the 90% fractions were higher. Therefore, they could serve as efficient No. 2 diesel substitutes. The biodiesel–ABE mixture had the highest cetane number.
Experiments were performed in an optically-accessible DI Diesel engine to investigate the effects of the addition of two oxygenated blending compounds to Diesel fuel, dimethoxymethane (DMM) and dimethylcarbonate (DMC). The focus of the study was to determine whether the structure of the oxygenated compound affects the production of soot. Laser light extinction was used to measure soot variation during combustion as well as exhaust soot levels. NOx, CO2 and CO concentrations in the engine exhaust were also measured using gas analyzers. Each oxygenated compound was blended into the base Diesel fuel to obtain 2% and 4% oxygen by mass. Heat release analysis showed that modifications of the heat release characteristics from those of the base fuel were significant, with increases of up to 1.7° in ignition delay and increases in the amount of premixed burn. The addition of the oxygenated compounds decreased the peak level of soot during combustion as well as the exhaust soot levels. For each level of oxygen addition, DMM was more effective than DMC at reducing soot. Reductions in NOx of 5 to 17% were also observed; no changes in CO levels were observed.
Vegetable oils may be used with dilution modification technique as an alternative diesel fuel. In this study, a used sunflower oil-diesel fuel blend (20:80 v/v%) was investigated in a PancarMotor E-108-type diesel engine to observe engine characteristics and exhaust emission. The effect of the compression ratio on ignition delay characteristics and smoke emissions of blend fuel was determined in this CFR engine. The results of fuel blends were compared with the reference grade No. 2-D diesel fuel.
Fatty acid composition of 14 different vegetable oils obtained from sunflower (Helianthus annuus L). safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L). soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). corn (Lea mays L.). peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). cotton (Gossypium hirsitum L.), rape (Brassica napus L.). poppy (Papaver somniferum L). tabacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.). cephalaria (Cephelaria syriaca L). flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and camalia (Camalina sativa L.) seeds and olive (Olea europea L.) were compared in this study. The position effects in safflower. different seed colours in sesame and poppy, seed development stages in rape and different ecological local varieties in sesame were investigated in order to determine the variations of fatty acids according to some morphological and physiological properties and ecological regions. The results indicated that there were characteristic differences among the oilseed plants for their fatty acid compositon. However, specific composition of each one was not permanent and exposed to continuous changes under effects of various internal and external factors.
The alkyl monoesters of fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, known as biodiesel, are attracting considerable interest as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Biodiesel-fueled engines produce less carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate emissions than diesel-fueled engines. However, biodiesel has different chemical and physical properties than diesel fuel, including a larger bulk modulus and a higher cetane number. Some of these properties can be affected by oxidation of the fuel during storage. These changes can affect the timing of the combustion process and potentially cause increases in emissions of oxides of nitrogen. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of injection and combustion timing on biodiesel combustion and exhaust emissions. A John Deere diesel engine was fueled with two different biodiesel fuels, one of which had been deliberately oxidized, and with their 20% blends with No. 2 diesel fuel. The engine was operated at three different timings and two loads at a single engine speed of 1400 rpm. The engine performance of the biodiesel was similar to that of No. 2 diesel fuel with nearly the same thermal efficiency. The range of injection timings studied produced changes of 50% and 34% in the CO and HC emissions, respectively. A reduction in NOx emissions of 35% to 43% was observed for a 3° retarded injection timing compared with a 3° advanced injection timing. A common linear relationship was found between the start of injection and the NOx emissions for all the fuels studied. When compared at the same start of combustion, the neat biodiesel produced lower NOx emissions than the No. 2 diesel fuel.
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines consisting of the alkyl monoesters of fatty acids from vegetable oils or animal fats. Most of the biodiesel that is currently made uses soybean oil, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst. The high value of soybean oil as a food product makes production of a cost-effective fuel very challenging. However, there are large amounts of low-cost oils and fats such as restaurant waste and animal fats that could be converted to biodiesel. The problem with processing these low cost oils and fats is that they often contain large amounts of free fatty acids (FFA) that cannot be converted to biodiesel using an alkaline catalyst. In this study, a technique is described to reduce the free fatty acids content of these feedstocks using an acid-catalyzed pretreatment to esterify the free fatty acids before transesterifying the triglycerides with an alkaline catalyst to complete the reaction. Initial process development was performed with synthetic mixtures containing 20% and 40% free fatty acids, prepared using palmitic acid. Process parameters such as the molar ratio of alcohol, type of alcohol, acid catalyst amount, reaction time, and free fatty acids level were investigated to determine the best strategy for converting the free fatty acids to usable esters. The work showed that the acid level of the high free fatty acids feedstocks could be reduced to less than 1% with a 2-step pretreatment reaction. The reaction mixture was allowed to settle between steps so that the water-containing alcohol phase could be removed. The 2-step pretreatment reaction was demonstrated with actual feedstocks, including yellow grease with 12% free fatty acids and brown grease with 33% free fatty acids. After reducing the acid levels of these feedstocks to less than 1%, the transesterification reaction was completed with an alkaline catalyst to produce fuel-grade biodiesel.
This paper confirms a structure for the soot formation process inside a burning diesel jet plume of oxygenated fuels. An explanation of how the soot formation process changes by the use of oxygenated fuel in comparison with that for using a conventional diesel fuel, and why oxygenated fuel drastically suppresses the soot forma- tion has been derived from the chemical kinetic analy- sis. A detailed chemical kinetic mechanism, which is com- bined with various proposed chemical kinetic models including normal paraffinic hydrocarbon oxidation, oxy- genated hydrocarbon oxidation, and poly-aromatic hy- drocarbon (PAH) formation, was developed in the present study. The calculated results are presented to elucidate the influence of fuel mixture composition and fuel struc- ture, especially relating to oxygenated fuels, on PAH for- mation. The analysis also provides a new insight into the initial soot formation process inside a diesel flame sheath in light of the temperature realm of PAH forma- tion.
The influence of oxygenated hydrocarbons as additives to diesel fuels on ignition, NOx emissions and soot production has been examined using a detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanism. N-heptane was used as a representative diesel fuel, and methanol, ethanol, dimethyl ether and dimethoxymethane were used as oxygenated fuel additives. It was found that addition of oxygenated hydrocarbons reduced NOx levels and reduced the production of soot precursors. When the overall oxygen content in the fuel reached approximately 25% by mass, production of soot precursors fell effectively to zero, in agreement with experimental studies. The kinetic factors responsible for these observations are discussed.
The objective of the present study is to reveal the effects of pure coconut oil and coconut oil–diesel fuel blends on the performance and emissions of a direct injection diesel engine. Operation of the test engine with pure coconut oil and coconut oil–diesel fuel blends for a wide range of engine load conditions was shown to be successful even without engine modifications. It was also shown that increasing the amount of coconut oil in the coconut oil–diesel fuel blend resulted in lower smoke and NOx emissions. However, this resulted in an increase in the BSFC. This was attributed to the lower heating value of neat coconut oil fuel compared to diesel fuel.
For different types of vegetable oils of Turkish origin (sunflower, com, soybean, and olive oil) were blended with grade No. 2-D diesel fuel at a ratio of 20/80 (v/v). The effect of the compression ratio on exhaust emissions is investigated in an American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)-cooperative fuel research (CFR) engine working with the mentioned fuel blends and a baseline diesel fuel. A decrease in soot, CO, CO2, and HC emissions and an increase in NOx emissions have been observed for fuel blends compared to diesel fuel.
Using vegetable oils as fuel alternatives has economic, environmental, and energy benefits for Turkey. The present work provides insight to the status of vegetable oil fuels in Turkey. A brief historical background of the issue, as well as an up to date review of the research carried out on vegetable oil fuels, is given and the future of their production and application is discussed.
Diesel engines provide the major power sources for marine transportation and contribute to the prosperity of the worldwide economy. However, the emissions from diesel engines also seriously threaten the environment and are considered one of the major sources of air pollution. The pollutants emitted from marine vessels are confirmed to cause the ecological environmental problems such as the ozone layer destruction, enhancement of the greenhouse effect, and acid rain, etc. Marine diesel engine emissions such as particulate matter and black smoke carry carcinogen components that significantly impact the health of human beings. Investigations on reducing pollutants, in particular particulate matter and nitrogen oxides are critical to human health, welfare and continued prosperity. The addition of an oxygenating agent into fuel oil is one of the possible approaches for reducing this problem because of the obvious fuel oil constituent influences on engine emission characteristics. Ethylene glycol monoacetate was found to be a promising candidate primarily due to its low poison and oxygen-rich composition properties. In this experimental study ethylene glycol monoacetate was mixed with diesel fuel in various proportions to prepare oxygenated diesel fuel. A four-cylinder diesel engine was used to test the engine performance and emission characteristics. The influences of ethylene glycol monoacetate ration to diesel oil, inlet air temperature and humidity parameters on the engine’s speed and torque were considered. The experimental results show that an increase in the inlet air temperature caused an increase in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide emission, and exhaust gas temperature, while decreasing the excess air, oxygen and nitrogen oxide emission concentrations. Increasing the inlet air humidity increased the carbon monoxide concentration while the decreased excess air, oxygen and nitrogen oxide emission concentrations. In addition, increasing ethylene glycol monoacetate ratio in the diesel fuel caused an increase in the BSFC while the excess air and oxygen emission concentrations decreased.
The influence of oxygenated fuels on the soot formation process inside a burning diesel jet plume was examined using a detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanism. Normal heptane was selected as a representative diesel fuel, and methanol, ethanol and dimethyl ether were used as oxygenated fuels. It was found that the production of soot precursors, such as small unsaturated hydrocarbons and PAHs, are dramatically reduced by the use of oxygenated fuels, leading to “soot-free” diesel jet flame. Furthermore, there are remarkable differences in soot suppression effects between oxygenated fuels, which have the same molecular formula but different structures of atomic bonded oxygen.
Dimethyl ether reaction kinetics at high temperature were studied in two different flow reactors under highly dilute conditions. Pyrolysis of dimethyl ether was studied in a variable-pressure flow reactor at 2.5 atm and 1118 K. Studies were also conducted in an atmospheric pressure flow reactor at about 1085 K. These experiments included trace-oxygen-assisted pyrolysis, as well as full oxidation experiments, with the equivalence ratio (ϕ) varying from 0.32 ≤ ϕ ≤ 3.4. On-line, continuous, extractive sampling in conjunction with Fourier Transform Infra-Red, Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (for CO and CO2) and electrochemical (for O2) analyses were performed to quantify species at specific locations along the axis of the turbulent flow reactors. Species concentrations were correlated against residence time in the reactor and species evolution profiles were compared to the predictions of a previously published detailed kinetic mechanism. Some changes were made to the model in order to improve agreement with the present experimental data. However, the revised model continues to reproduce previously reported high-temperature jet-stirred reactor and shock tube results. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Chem Kinet: 32: 713–740, 2000
This paper proposes a structure for the diesel combustion process based on a combination of previously published and new results. Processes are analyzed with proven chemical kinetic models and validated with data from production-like direct injection diesel engines. The analysis provides new insight into the ignition and particulate formation processes, which combined with laser diagnostics, delineates the two-stage nature of combustion in diesel engines. Data are presented to quantify events occurring during the ignition and initial combustion processes that form soot precursors. A framework is also proposed for understanding the heat release and emission formation processes.
Vegetable oils have chances to be used in Diesel engines as alternative fuels contributing to the solution of some agricultural, environmental and economical problems. Direct use of them has some technical problem yet but as blended fuels with diesel fuel or esters they have places on the application area. In this paper the effect of the compression ratio on ignition delay is investigated in an ASTM-CER engine working with four different types of vegetable oil of Turkish origin (sunflower, corn, soybean, and olive oil) blended with grade No.2-D diesel fuel at a ratio of 20/80 (v/v) and the results are compared with baseline diesel fuel. Longer ignition delay periods have generally been obtained for blend fuels ranking from olive oil to sunflower oil as compared to diesel fuel.
Four different types of vegetable oils of Turkish origin (sunflower, com, soybean, and olive oil) were blended with grade 2-D diesel fuel at a ratio of 20/80 (v/v). Blends were investigated in a diesel engine with a precombustion chamber at speeds between 1200 and 2100 rpm. Vegetable oils, diesel fuel, and fuel blends were characterized according to standard test methods. It was found that for short-term use, the fuel blends have engine characteristics similar to the, baseline diesel fuel. Fuel blends also display less smoke emissions than diesel fuel.
Vegetable oils may be used with dilution modification technique as an alternative diesel fuel. In this study, a used sunflower oil-diesel fuel blend (20:80 v/v%) was investigated in a Pancar Motor E-108-type diesel engine to observe engine characteristics and exhaust emission. The effect of the compression ratio on ignition delay characteristics and smoke emissions of blend fuel was determined in this CFR engine. The results of fuel blends were compared with the reference grade No. 2-D diesel fuel.
This paper presents the results of experimental work carried out to evaluate the exhaust emissions characteristics of ordinary Malaysian coconut oil (COCO) blended with conventional diesel oil (OD) fueled in a diesel engine. This project complies with Malaysian Government strategy on biofuel research activity. The results showed that the addition of 30% COCO with OD produced higher brake power and net heat release rate with a net reduction in exhaust emissions such as HC, NOx, CO, smoke and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Above 30% COCO blends, such as 40 and 50% COCO blends, developed lower brake power and net heat release rate were noted due to the fuels lower calorific value; nevertheless, reduced emissions were still noted.
Exhaust emission and performance characteristics were evaluated in a Toyota van, powered by a 21 indirect injection (IDI) naturally aspirated diesel engine, operating on vegetable based waste cooking oil methyl ester (WCOME).
Tests were performed on a chassis dynamometer and the data were compared with previous results conducted on the same vehicle using mineral diesel fuel. The data obtained includes smoke opacity, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxide (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and brake power. Engine lubricating oil samples were also taken. Results from this study indicated a difference of approximately 9% in brake power between the two fuels. WCOME developed a significant lower smoke opacity level and reduced CO, CO2, SO2 emissions. However, O2, NO2 and NO levels were higher with the vegetable oil based fuel. Power values were comparable for both fuels. Lubricating oil analysis gave little change of viscosity and wear metal concentrations after 2887km were: Silicon 35ppm, Chromium 3.3ppm, Iron 33.8ppm, Copper 14.1ppm and lead 78.6ppm.
The effects of using blends of methyl and isopropyl esters of soybean oil with No. 2 diesel fuel were studied at several steady-state
operating conditions in a four-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine. Fuel blends that contained 20, 50, and 70% methyl soyate
and 20 and 50% isopropyl soyate were tested. Fuel properties, such as cetane number, also were investigated. Both methyl and
isopropyl esters provided significant reductions in particulate emissions compared with No. 2 diesel fuel. A blend of 50%
methyl ester and 50% No. 2 diesel fuel provided a reduction of 37% in the carbon portion of the particulates and 25% in the
total particulates. The 50% blend of isopropyl ester and 50% No. 2 diesel fuel gave a 55% reduction in carbon and a 28% reduction
in total particulate emissions. Emissions of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons also were reduced significantly. Oxides
of nitrogen increased by 12%.
Fatty acids of C18 chainlength as well as their methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and n-butyl esters were injected into a constant-volume combustion apparatus suitable for collecting material from the fuel spray
prior to the onset of ignition. The collected material from this precombustion phase of the injection event was analyzed by
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Compounds identified as forming during the precombustion phase were straight-chain and
branched alkanes, alkenes, and cyclic hydrocarbons, as well as aldehydes, ketones, esters, substituted benzenes, and other
species, such as furans. Some of the compounds formed during precombustion have low cetane numbers (CN). Low-cetane aromatic
compounds were found more prominently for more unsaturated fatty compounds. Thus, the low CN of the intermediary precombustion
species may constitute a possible partial explanation why some compounds, for example the more unsaturated fatty compounds,
have relatively low CN.
Transesterification reaction variables that affect yield and purity of the product esters from cottonseed, peanut, soybean
and sunflower oils include molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil, type of catalyst (alkaline vs acidic), temperature and
degree of refinement of the vegetable oil. With alkaline catalysts (either sodium hydroxide or methoxide), temperatures of
60 C or higher, molar ratios of at least 6 to 1 and with fully refined oils, conversion to methyl, ethyl and butyl esters
was essentially complete in 1 hr. At moderate temperatures (32 C), vegetable oils were 99% transesterified in ca. 4 hr with
an alkaline catalyst. Transesterification by acid catalysis was much slower than by alkali catalysis. Although the crude oils
could be transesterified, ester yields were reduced because of gums and extraneous material present in the crude oils.
Methyl esters were produced by transesterification of palm oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst (KOH). The rate
of transesterification in a batch reactor increased with temperature up to 60°C. Higher temperatures did not reduce the time
to reach maximal conversion. The conversion of triglycerides (TG), diglycerides (DG), and monoglycerides (MG) appeared to
be second order up to 30 min of reaction time. Reaction rate constants for TG, DG, and MG hydrolysis reactions were 0.018–0.191
(wt%·min)−1, and were higher at higher temperatures and higher for the MG reaction than for TG hydrolysis. Activation energies were 14.7,
14.2, and 6.4 kcal/mol for the TG, DG, and MG hydrolysis reactions, respectively. The optimal catalyst concentration was 1%
KOH.
Most common analytical methods in FA chemistry can be categorized as yielding either structure or quality indices. Quality
indices often describe components in fats and oils arising from processing, storage, and naturally occurring, nonfatty materials.
Common structure indices are the iodine value (IV), the saponification value, and the hydroxyl value. Although modern analytical
methods yield more detailed and reliable information, structure indices are still widely used. The IV, which indicates total
unsaturation, has even been included in some standards for industrial products such as biodiesel. However, the IV index is
too general to allow the correlation of physical and chemical properties with FA composition. The IV is treated in a theoretical
fashion regarding biodiesel- and oxidative stability-related issues. That the concept of IV as a structure index is unsatisfactory
is shown by the development of a quaternary composition diagram (QCD). The QCD demonstrates the derivation of a specific IV
from varying FA compositions. Improved correlations are possible among the structure indices. Alternative indices for the
IV are developed. Possible alternatives are the allylic position equivalent (APE) and the bisallylic position equivalent (BAPE)
which better relate structure and amount of common component FA in vegetable oils to observed properties. The APE and BAPE
indices are based on the number of reactive positions in oxidation.
The exhaust emissions of a Diesel direct injection Perkins engine fueled with waste olive oil methyl ester were studied at several steady-state operating conditions. Emissions were characterized with neat biodiesel from used olive oil and conventional Diesel fuel. Results revealed that the use of biodiesel resulted in lower emissions of CO (up to 58.9%), CO2 (up to 8.6%, excepting a case which presented a 7.4% increase), NO (up to 37.5%), and SO2 (up to 57.7%), with increase in emissions of NO2 (up to 81%, excepting a case which presented a slight reduction). Biodiesel also presented a slight increase in brake-specific fuel consumption (lower than 8.5%) that may be tolerated due to the exhaust emission benefits. Combustion efficiency remained constant using either biodiesel or Diesel fuel. The proposed alternative for Diesel fuel could significantly decrease the enormous amount of waste frying oil, furthermore becoming less dependent on fossil oil imports and decreasing environmental pollution.
Experimental studies on effects of oxygenated fuels in conjunction with single and split fuel injections were conducted at high and low loads on a Caterpillar SCOTE DI diesel engine. At high loads, a significant beneficial effect of oxygenated fuels was seen to reduce soot emissions with little or no penalty on NOx emissions. Also, at high loads, split injection had an additional favorable effect on soot emissions as compared to single injections, but the soot reducing influence of the oxygenates was not as marked as that seen with the single injection cases. This result indicates that the soot reduction due to the addition of oxygenate to the fuel is most effective in rich combustion as split injections are known to be effective at leaning-out the charge. In fact, at low engine loads when the overall mixture is further leaned-out, the oxygenated fuels had only a slight effect on particulate emissions. Split injections were effective in reducing particulate emissions at low loads particularly at advanced fuel injection timings when overall temperatures would be expected to be higher.
In this work various methods of using vegetable oil (Jatropha oil) and methanol such as blending, transesterification and dual fuel operation were studied experimentally. A single cylinder direct injection diesel engine was used for this work. Tests were done at constant speed of at varying power outputs. In dual fuel operation the methanol to Jatropha oil ratio was maintained at 3:7 on the volume basis. This is close to the fraction of methanol used to prepare the ester with Jatropha oil.Brake thermal efficiency was better in the dual fuel operation and with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil as compared to the blend. It increased form 27.4% with neat Jatropha oil to a maximum of 29% with the methyl ester and 28.7% in the dual fuel operation. Smoke was reduced with all methods compared to neat vegetable oil operation. The values of smoke emission are 4.4 Bosch Smoke Units (BSU) with neat Jatropha oil, with the blend, with methyl ester of Jatropha oil and in the dual fuel operation.The Nitric Oxide (NO) level was lower with Jatropha oil compared to diesel. It was further reduced in dual fuel operation and the blend with methanol. Dual fuel operation showed higher hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions than the ester and the blend.Ignition delay was higher with neat Jatropha oil. It increased further with the blend and in dual fuel operation. It was reduced with the ester. Peak pressure and rate of pressure rise were higher with all the methods compared to neat Jatropha oil operation. Jatropha oil and methyl ester showed higher diffusion combustion compared to standard diesel operation. However, dual fuel operation resulted in higher premixed combustion. On the whole it is concluded that transesterification of vegetable oils and methanol induction can significantly enhance the performance of a vegetable oil fuelled diesel engine.
Combustion studies on both diesel fuel and vegetable oil fuels, with the standard and advanced injection timing, were carried out using the same engine and test procedures so that comparative assessments may be made. The diesel engine principle demands self-ignition of the fuel as it is injected at some degrees before top dead centre (BTDC) into the hot compressed cylinder gas. Longer delays between injection and ignition lead to unacceptable rates of pressure rise with the result of diesel knock because too much fuel is ready to take part in premixed combustion. Alternative fuels have been noted to exhibit longer delay periods and slower burning rate especially at low load operating conditions hence resulting in late combustion in the expansion stroke. Advanced injection timing is expected to compensate these effects. The engine has standard injection timing of 30°C BTDC. The injection was first advanced by 5.5°C given injection timing of 35.5°C BTDC. The engine performance was very erratic on this timing. The injection was then advanced by 3.5°C and the effects are presented in this paper. The engine performance was smooth especially at low load levels. The ignition delay was reduced through advanced injection but tended to incur a slight increase in fuel consumption. Moderate advanced injection timing is recommended for low speed operations.
The result of the investigation on methyl esters obtained on the basis of heated refined sunflower oil and used frying oils are given in the paper. Transesterification reaction conditions that affect yield and purity of the product esters including oil quality, molar ratio of methanol to vegetable oil, type and concentration of alkaline catalyst, temperature and reaction time were examined. The methanolysis of different oils at 25 °C with 0.5–1.5% potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide were studied. The effect of molar ratio 4.5:1, 6:1 and 9:1 on ester yield and its quality were investigated. With 1% potassium hydroxide, temperature at 25 °C, molar ratio 6:1 and 30 min, all investigated oils were sufficiently transesterified and could be used as fuel in diesel engines.
The concept that engine design is all important in the use of vegetable oils as a diesel fuel has been pointed out by many researchers. One hundred percent of vegetable oil can be used safely in an indirect injection engine, but not in a direct injection engine due to the high degree of atomization required for this type. This problem is related to increasing droplet size on injection into the cylinder that results in poor combustion. This in turn, causes the formation of deposits in the combustion chamber, together with oil dilution due to introduction of unburnt fuel into the crankcase. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of increasing fuel inlet temperature on viscosity and performance of a single cylinder, unmodified diesel engine. The overall results showed that fuel heating increased peak cylinder pressure and was also beneficial at low speed and under part-load operation. The high combustion temperature at high engine speed becomes the dominant factor, making both heated and unheated fuel to acquire the same temperature before fuel injection.
Three fatty materials, soy-bean oil, used frying oil and tallow, were transformed into two different types of biodiesel, by transesterification and amidation reactions with methanol and diethylamine respectively. The ignition properties of these types of biodiesel were evaluated calculating the cetane index of the transesterification products, and the blending cetane number of the amide biodiesel blended with conventional diesel. Amide biodiesel enhances the ignition properties of the petrochemical diesel fuel, and it could account for the 5% market share that should be secured to biofuels by 2005.
Tobacco seed is a byproduct of tobacco leaves production in Greece. This oil seed was evaluated in the present study, as a renewable and potential source of energy. Successive tobacco seed oil extraction indicated that almost 38% of the seed was oil. The major constituents observed by GC analysis were linoleic acid (18:2), oleic acid (18:1) and palmitic acid (16:0). The physical, chemical and fuel related properties of tobacco seed oil were investigated in this work. These properties were comparable to those of other vegetable oils and to current European specifications for automotive diesel fuel. This study suggests that this non edible oil may be an appropriate substitute for diesel fuel. The environmental advantages of tobacco seed oil as a fuel can be exploited for specific niche markets such as inner city vehicles or tractors. On the other hand, tobacco seed oil as a fuel represents one possible hope for the future of EU tobacco agriculture.
Vegetable oils are produced from numerous oil seed crops. While all vegetable oils have high energy content, most require some processing to assure safe use in internal combustion engines. Some of these oils already have been evaluated as substitutes for diesel fuels. The effects of vegetable oil fuels and their methyl esters (raw sunflower oil, raw cottonseed oil, raw soybean oil and their methyl esters, refined corn oil, distilled opium poppy oil and refined rapeseed oil) on a direct injected, four stroke, single cylinder diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions was investigated in this paper. The results show that from the performance viewpoint, both vegetable oils and their esters are promising alternatives as fuel for diesel engines. Because of their high viscosity, drying with time and thickening in cold conditions, vegetable oil fuels still have problems, such as flow, atomization and heavy particulate emissions.
Transesterifications of six vegetable oil samples in supercritical methanol were studied without using any catalyst. Methyl esters of vegetable oils have several outstanding advantages among other new-renewable and clean engine fuel alternatives. The variables affecting the methyl ester yield during the transesterification reaction, such as molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil and reaction temperature, were investigated. Compared to no. 2 Diesel fuel, all of the vegetable oils are much more viscous, while the methyl esters of vegetable oils (biodiesels) are slightly more viscous.
In the present investigation the high viscosity of the jatropha curcas oil which has been considered as a potential alternative fuel for the compression ignition (C.I.) engine was decreased by blending with diesel. The blends of varying proportions of jatropha curcas oil and diesel were prepared, analyzed and compared with diesel fuel. The effect of temperature on the viscosity of biodiesel and jatropha oil was also studied. The performance of the engine using blends and jatropha oil was evaluated in a single cylinder C.I. engine and compared with the performance obtained with diesel. Significant improvement in engine performance was observed compared to vegetable oil alone. The specific fuel consumption and the exhaust gas temperature were reduced due to decrease in viscosity of the vegetable oil. Acceptable thermal efficiencies of the engine were obtained with blends containing up to 50% volume of jatropha oil. From the properties and engine test results it has been established that 40–50% of jatropha oil can be substituted for diesel without any engine modification and preheating of the blends.
Rape methyl ester (RME) is a suitable substitute for mineral diesel in existing compression–ignition engines. Its use as an alternative transport fuel will result in decreased emissions of atmospheric pollutants (particularly SO2, hydrocarbons and smoke) from this source. However, to encourage such a trend in the UK, the Government needs to adopt the European Union’s recommendation of a reduction of excise duties on biofuels to 10% of the rate applied to lead-free petrol to ensure its economic short-term competitiveness in the UK market. Such a subsidy will not be required by the year 2004. The available resource base for rape-seed oil in the UK limits the production of RME, so it could satisfy only up to 4% of demand on fuel by road vehicles powered by diesel engines in the UK. This suggests that it should be used preferentially in urban areas and waterways where its environmental benefits would be maximised.
The cetane number, a widely used diesel fuel quality parameter related to the ignition delay time (and combustion quality) of a fuel, has been applied to alternative diesel fuels such as biodiesel and its components. In this work, the cetane numbers of 29 samples of straight-chain and branched C1–C4 esters as well as 2-ethylhexyl esters of various common fatty acids were determined. The cetane numbers of these esters are not significantly affected by branching in the alcohol moiety. Therefore, branched esters, which improve the cold-flow properties of biodiesel, can be employed without greatly influencing ignition properties compared to the more common methyl esters. Unsaturation in the fatty acid chain was again the most significant factor causing lower cetane numbers. Cetane numbers were determined in an ignition quality tester (IQT) which is a newly developed, automated rapid method using only small amounts of material. The IQT is as applicable to biodiesel and its components as previous cetane-testing methods.
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel consisting of the alkyl monoesters of fatty acids from vegetable oils or animal fats. Previous research has shown that biodiesel-fueled engines produce less carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate emissions compared to diesel fuel. One drawback of biodiesel is that it is more prone to oxidation than petroleum-based diesel fuel. In its advanced stages, this oxidation can cause the fuel to become acidic and to form insoluble gums and sediments that can plug fuel filters. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of oxidized biodiesel on engine performance and emissions. A John Deere 4276T turbocharged DI diesel engine was fueled with oxidized and unoxidized biodiesel and the performance and emissions were compared with No. 2 diesel fuel. The neat biodiesels, 20% blends, and the base fuel (No. 2 diesel) were tested at two different loads (100 and 20%) and three injection timings (3° advanced, standard; 3° retarded). The tests were performed at steady-state conditions at a single engine speed of 1400 rpm. The engine performance of the neat biodiesels and their blends was similar to that of No. 2 diesel fuel with the same thermal efficiency, but higher fuel consumption. Compared with unoxidized biodiesel, oxidized neat biodiesel produced 15 and 16% lower exhaust carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, respectively. No statistically significant difference was found between the oxides of nitrogen and smoke emissions from oxidized and unoxidized biodiesel.