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Plant conservation: Old problems, new perspectives
Abstract
Nature conservation has changed from an idealistic philosophy to a serious technology(J. Harper, 1992)A review is given of the major conceptual changes that have taken place during the last 50 years in our understanding of the nature of plant conservation and of the principal methodological advances in undertaking conservation assessments and actions, largely through the incorporation of tools and techniques from other disciplines. The interrelationships between conservation and sustainable use are considered as well as the impact of the development of the discipline of conservation biology, the effects of the general acceptance of the concept of biodiversity and the practical implications of the implementation of the Convention on Biological diversity. The effect on conservation policy and management of the accelerating loss or conversion of habitats throughout the world and approaches for combating this are discussed.
... Among these, approximately 15,000 species are threatened due to extinction from overharvesting and habitat destruction (Bentley, 2010), whereas 20% of their wild resources have already been exhausted with the increasing human population and plant consumption (Ross, 2005). The accelerated loss of plant species and habitat destruction worldwide has increased the risk of extinction of medicinal plants, especially in China (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003), India (Hamilton, 2008), Kenya (Hamilton, 2008), Nepal (Hamilton, 2008), Tanzania (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012), and Uganda (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012). ...
... This requires habitat management as the key factor in managing species populations (Ellenberger, 1999). Although this threat has been known for decades, the accelerated loss of species and habitat destruction worldwide has increased the risk of extinction of medicinal plants, especially in China (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003;Nalawade et al., 2003), India (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003), Kenya (Hamilton, 2008), Nepal (Hamilton, 2008), Tanzania (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012) and Uganda (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012). ...
... This requires habitat management as the key factor in managing species populations (Ellenberger, 1999). Although this threat has been known for decades, the accelerated loss of species and habitat destruction worldwide has increased the risk of extinction of medicinal plants, especially in China (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003;Nalawade et al., 2003), India (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003), Kenya (Hamilton, 2008), Nepal (Hamilton, 2008), Tanzania (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012) and Uganda (Zerabruk and Yirga, 2012). ...
This book is an effort to throw light on the importance of biologically active molecules which are isolated from different plants, their biological activity, extraction from natural sources and their in vivo production to preserve the biodiversity of medicinal plants.
... Reinforcement and reintroduction plans entail the translocation of new individuals inside a species indigenous range, while introduction involves moving a species to areas where it is currently not observed (Bottin et al., 2007;IUCN/SSC, 2013). While many translocation attempts have been successful (Bottin et al., 2007;Maschinski et al., 2004;Maschinski & Duquesnel, 2007;Ramsay & Stewart, 1998), they also commonly do not reach the expected results (Bottin et al., 2007;Drayton & Primack, 2012;Heywood & Iriondo, 2003). For instance, according to , who analyzed 249 plant species reintroduction plans worldwide, survival, flowering, and fruiting rates are often low following reintroduction, on average 52%, 19%, and 16%, respectively. ...
... For instance, according to , who analyzed 249 plant species reintroduction plans worldwide, survival, flowering, and fruiting rates are often low following reintroduction, on average 52%, 19%, and 16%, respectively. The reasons that led to these failures include: i) a lack of understanding of primary ecological and biological grounds that caused the decline in population sizes in the first place Heywood & Iriondo, 2003); ii) a deficit of biological and ecological understanding of the species under scrutiny (Bottin et al., 2007;Guerrant & Kaye, 2007;Menges, 2008); iii) a lack of experimental, scientific and integrated approaches (Seddon et al., 2007); and iv) an insufficient quantitative overview of the parameters that lead to failures (Drayton & Primack, 2012;. ...
... We based our study on the hypothesis that examining local ecological factors to identify suitable reintroduction and introduction sites increases the probability of plant establishment success (Maschinski & Haskins, 2012). Indeed, it has been argued that failures in reintroductions and introductions are often the consequence of a lack of ecological data (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003). In our case, soil variables showed a narrower range of values in native sites (e.g., pH, soil organic matter, CN ratio) than reintroduced population sites and were also correlated to changes in population fitness traits. ...
To withstand the surge of species loss worldwide, (re)introduction of endangered plant species has become an increasingly common technique in conservation biology. Successful (re)introduction plans, however, require identifying sites that provide the optimal ecological conditions for the target species to thrive. In this study, we propose a two‐step approach to identify appropriate (re)introduction sites. The first step involves modeling the niche and distribution of the species with bioclimatic and topographical predictors, both at continental and at national scales. The second step consists of refining these bioclimatic predictions by analyzing stationary ecological parameters, such as soil conditions, and relating them to population‐level fitness values. We demonstrate this methodology using Swiss populations of the lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium calceolus L., Orchidaceae), for which conservation plans have existed for years but have generally been unfruitful. Our workflow identified sites for future (re)introductions based on the species requirements for mid‐to‐sunny light conditions and specific soil physico‐chemical properties, such as basic to neutral pH and low soil organic matter content. Our findings show that by combining wide‐scale bioclimatic modeling with fine scale field measurements it is possible to carefully identify the ecological requirements of a target species for successful (re)introductions. This paper addresses the question of how to select appropriate reintroduction sites for restoring the populations of endangered plant species. To this end, we developed a two‐steps approach mixing modeling tools and field surveys to identify suitable (re)introduction sites.
... The cultivation of pharmaceuticals guarantees a steady and regular supply of real medications. 10. Cultivation can be used to regulate and minimize the monopolies on the manufacture of crude pharmaceuticals as well as their prices. ...
... Overexploitation, indiscriminate collection, unchecked deforestation, and habitat degradation all impact species rarity, but they are insufficient to explain individual species vulnerability or resilience to harvest pressure. Many biological traits, including habitat specialization, distribution range, population size, species variety, growth rate, and reproductive system, are correlated with the danger of extinction [10]. ...
Over thousands of years, nature has given us better environments for the growth and development of medicinal plants. Plants have been used as medicines since ancient times because people thought they were safe and had benefit. Even now, 80% of the world’s population relies mostly on alternative medicine systems for their primary healthcare needs. Several kinds of secondary metabolites, also known as bioactive plant elements, are found in plants and are what give them their medical value in nature. For the growth of a greater quantity of secondary metabolites from the plants and their by-products, scientific agriculture allows the application of modern technical elements like mutation, polyploidy, and hybridization. Simple approaches are required for the cultivation, gathering, and preservation of medicinal plants in order to maintain their therapeutic potential. Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, resins, volatile oils, and other bioactive phytochemicals are only a few examples of the phytochemicals that play a major role in the pharmacological actions of medicinal and aromatic plants. The physical environment, including sunshine, temperature, rainfall, and soil type, has a significant impact on the growth and development of medicinal plants as well as the secondary metabolites that result from those processes. The world’s most significant sources of herbal goods are medicinal plants, yet they are vanishing quickly. We stressed the need for sufficient consideration of resource management and conservation techniques for the sustainable use of medicinal plant resources, including in situ and ex situ conservation and growing approaches. We advise applying biotechnological methods (such as tissue culture, micropropagation, synthetic seed technology, and techniques based on molecular markers) to increase production and alter the potency of medicinal plants. The numerous innovations employed in farming methods are described in this article.
... However, scientific literature also suggests that indigenous people are usually monitored to conserve natural resources for their benefit (Araia & Chirwa, 2019a;Thomson et al., 2020). Hence, Salafsky et al. (2002) and Heywood & Iriondo (2003) emphasized that the utilization and conservation of natural resources are interlinked and inextricable. Indigenous knowledge is defined as applied, cumulative knowledge and attributes inherited and passed through generational patterns (Mavhura et al., 2013;Bamigboye et al., 2017;Nkwanyana, 2018;Suwardi et al., 2020). ...
... The notion that conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources are inextricable and interlinked is widely accepted (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Tshisikhawe, 2016). Global interest in indigenous knowledge research, significantly these involving utilization and conservation, is growing immensely (Kunz et al., 2012;Tareen et al., 2016;Ndhlovu et al., 2019;Astutik et al., 2019;Setshego et al., 2020). ...
Scientific evidence suggests that threatened plants are disappearing at an alarming rate. Over the last decades, government spending in the fight against species extinction risk has immensely increased, exceeding US$7.1 billion annually. However, the rate of species extinction worldwide is rapidly increasing, with no indications of slowing down soon. Scientific scholars, including botanists, ethnobotanists, economic-botanists, conservationists, and anthropologists, share a mutual interest in using indigenous knowledge for livelihoods, scientific and economic growth. As a result, there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge research, particularly the research fields involving plant species utilization and conservation. Given that recent scientific evidence suggests that such studies are lacking in South African Biosphere Reserves, there is a burning need to critically review the literature about threatened plant species utilization, conservation status, and distribution in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve. The literature search was conducted using various keywords in various electronic databases. The review findings demonstrate that Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Prunus africana, Rhychosia vendae, and Warbugia salutaris were being utilized for medicinal purposes in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, and their conservation status range from Vulnerable to Critical Endangered. So far, none of the literature studies conducted in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve has specified the ailments that P. africana, R. vendae, and W. salutaris treat. The results revealed that many literature studies had reported on the distribution of threatened plant species in the Vhembe Region, at the national level or elsewhere. However, none of these studies have incorporated spatial information related to the exact locality of the species, except for B. zanguebarica. This review provides insights above utilized threatened plant species, their conservation statuses, and distribution in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve.
Keywords: Conservation status; Extinction; Indigenous knowledge; Threatened plant utilization; Vhembe Biosphere Reserve.
... Since then, milestones of the outmost importance have been reached in terms of integrating and analyzing information from different disciplines such as taxonomy, ecology, physiology, agronomy, geography, climatology, edaphology, and even from the social sciences to define both general and particular approaches to the biological conservation, as well as the use of technologies that are necessary to support increasingly robust conservation proposals (e.g., Bojórquez-Tapia et al. 1995, Álvarez-Buylla et al. 1996, Heywood & Iriondo 2003, Heywood & Dulloo, 2005, Lascuráin et al. 2009, Costedoat et al. 2015, Brooks et al. 2016, Larkin et al. 2016, Hayano-Kanashiro et al. 2017, List et al. 2017, Pfaff et al. 2017. ...
... There are various methods and techniques for ex situ conservation, such as seeds, pollen and tissues cryopreservation, gene banks, botanical gardens, and arboreta (Lascuráin et al. 2009). To date, it is widely accepted that ex situ conservation activities can play a very relevant role and complementary to the in situ approach, which integrates some conservation procedures such as the recovery and reintroduction of species and ecological restoration (Heywood & Iriondo 2003, IUCN/SSC 2014, Dávila-Aranda et al. 2016, Heywood 2017. ...
Twenty-one years have elapsed of the 21st Century and within the framework of the celebration of the 100th volume of Botanical Sciences, it is relevant to assess the progress of the research on conservation and on the activities undertaken for protecting the plants of Mexico, including the complementary in situ and ex situ approaches. By means of a systematic search of scientific articles related to the conservation of the Mexican flora on the Web of Science database, for the 2000–2021 period, we identified different scientific inputs, all showing specific objectives for undertaking conservation activities. The publications that resulted from this search were classified into six categories: (a) Regions and Ecoregions; (b) Communities or Ecosystems; (c) Taxonomic Groups; (d) Species and Populations; (e) Botanical Gardens; and (f) Seed Banks. For these categories, the results are presented under the headings “in situ conservation” and “ex situ conservation.” Additionally, we assessed by a random examination, the bibliography used to support touristic development projects. The results show that, despite the wide temporal range considered in this review, and even though there is a vast number of publications related to the characterization of the Mexican biodiversity, the production of scientific work oriented to the development of plant conservation strategies and activities is still scarce. Also evident is the lack of connection and communication among researchers of different disciplines, highlighting the disciplinary or multidisciplinary activities that they undertake. Finally, ten conclusions are presented, and some future research activities are suggested for conserving the Mexican flora.
... Since the relationship that people have with their environment is complex and locally specific, changes in environment need to be dealt at the local scale so that remedies can be designed in ways that are culturally, socio-politically, and environmentally suited to each local context (Thomas 2011). Agricultural biodiversity also includes habitats and species outside of farming systems that benefit agro-ecosystem (Heywood and Iriondo 2003). In addition, other components of agrobiodiversity also look vital because of their contributions to ecosystem services such as pollination (Klein et al. 2007), control of greenhouse gas emissions, and soil dynamics (Frison et al. 2011). ...
... The ex situ approaches enable the preservation of certain samples of genetic diversity of populations over a prolonged period of time, which better facilitates the study of anatomical, physiological, and biochemical features of a preserved material. Ex situ conservation can be accomplished both traditionally (in seed banks and in living collections under the conditions of introduction) and using more complicated approaches, such as in vitro cultivation and other advanced biotechnological interventions (Heywood and Iriondo 2003;Coates and Dixon 2007). Modern biotechnology has already been found influencing the genetic diversity of crops and animals cultivated and managed in their natural habitats wide-spread introduction of novel species through in vitro technology. ...
Agriculture in the neoteric period not only deals with traditional farming practices along with rearing animals; it integrates modern techniques as well as biotechnological advances with the purpose of (a) providing food security (b) enhancing environmental quality as well as natural resources, (c) making the most efficient use of both non-renewable and on-farm resources, (d) sustaining the economic viability of farming activities, and (e) improving living standard of farmers and society as a whole. But, intensive agricultural practices and ever-changing nature of climate gradually exploit the symmetry of agrobiodiversity. Loss of genetic diversity and fragmentation of natural habitats are looking so prominent nowadays to make a stable agro-ecosystem vulnerable. Therefore, the conservation of biodiversity has been considered as a global concern, and several strategies have been implicated in understanding and conserving plant diversity throughout the world. As it is known that restoring genetic variability is the main perquisite of the survival of any living entities in their natural habitats, study of ancestral relationship along with typical breeding pattern looks so crucial. Modern biotechnological interventions (marker technology, DNA fingerprinting, RNAi, molecular farming) have already achieved ample appreciations in the field of agrobiodiversity conservation.
... To plan effective conservation measures when needed for plants of conservation interest, basic information about the distribution ranges, ecological requirements, population numbers, population sizes, and, if possible, demographic patterns (i.e., vital rates) is required [14,15,21,69]. However, omitting the complex studies of population dynamics, plant population monitoring programmes are also particularly scarce because they are time-and resource-consuming and are therefore restricted to a few threatened species [11,23,24,70]. Thus, the knowledge about the biology, ecology, and conservation status of most plant species remains remarkably poor; this lack of knowledge is even more relevant in the case of plants neglected, recently described, typical or exclusive of dynamic or peculiar habitats, such as ecotones, or in the case of plants restricted to small ...
... To plan effective conservation measures when needed for plants of conservation interest, basic information about the distribution ranges, ecological requirements, population numbers, population sizes, and, if possible, demographic patterns (i.e., vital rates) is required [14,15,21,69]. However, omitting the complex studies of population dynamics, plant population monitoring programmes are also particularly scarce because they are time-and resource-consuming and are therefore restricted to a few threatened species [11,23,24,70]. Thus, the knowledge about the biology, ecology, and conservation status of most plant species remains remarkably poor; this lack of knowledge is even more relevant in the case of plants neglected, recently described, typical or exclusive of dynamic or peculiar habitats, such as ecotones, or in the case of plants restricted to small and scattered populations, growing on microhabitats difficult to access, such as rocky sites [14,23,24,68]. ...
Narrow endemic plants constitute a pivotal group for conservation, being often reduced to a small contingent of individuals and frequently threatened. However, effective conservation actions require reliable basic information about distribution range, ecological requirements, and population traits. Nevertheless, such knowledge results are incomplete or even completely missing for some neglected or recently described plants, such as Cirsium alpis-lunae, a thistle exclusive to the N-Apennines (Italy). To fill this gap, all sites where C. alpis-lunae grow were monitored, and data on the site and population traits were collected. Our results indicated that this plant is restricted to 16 scattered sites, varied in surface area and number of individuals. Reproductive and juvenile plants showed to be affected by roughly the same variables, in particular the surface of the site, the slope aspect, and the canopy cover. The narrow ecological niche of C. alpis-lunae was mainly determined by the canopy cover, and where coverage increases, the number of individuals decreases. The individuals only grow at forest edges, where the peculiar ecological conditions are limiting factors for the development of forestry cover; some other factors (i.e., high inclination and instability of the substrate) contribute to limiting the development of forestry vegetation and guarantee the persistence of these ecotones. Despite the great difficulties in accessing the sites where this species grows, this study presents, for the first time, a complete picture of the C. alpis-lunae population and yielded important data to identify effective conservation measures.
... In recent decades botanic gardens have been engaged in the process of reconstituting themselves as organizations of plant biodiversity conservation [33][34][35][36]. This shift began in the 1970s in response to the rise of environmental movements of the 1960s. ...
A burgeoning body of scholarship identifies and discusses botanic gardens as increasingly important centres of biodiversity conservation and sustainability. Notwithstanding the high quality and richness of this literature, it encompasses relatively autonomous fields of expertise that are neither designed nor expected to promote cross-disciplinary, integrative, accounts of botanic gardens as institutions of conservation and sustainability. Bridging key aspects of the botanic garden literature, this article brings into conversation historical accounts with contemporary scholarship on the matter. In so doing, it unveils dilemmas and challenges faced by botanic gardens as they grapple with their historic legacies, but also renew their relevance in nurturing sustainable socio-environmental futures. The article proceeds by covering three focal points. First, it summarizes the scholarly literature on the history of botanic gardens. Second, it presents accounts of current scientific and biodiversity conservation endeavours as reflexive engagements with their historical legacies. Third, it addresses the recent emergence of socio-cultural missions at botanic gardens as a significant step beyond their historical focus on plants and plant ecosystems.
... In recent decades, botanic gardens have been reconstituting themselves as organizations of plant curation, scientific research, and biodiversity conservation [26,[51][52][53]. This shift began in the 1980s in response to the rise of environmental movements of the 1960s and 1970s. ...
Botanic gardens are increasingly important agents of plant research and conservation. A large number of botanic gardens have been established throughout the globe since the mid-20th century to pursue new socio-environmental missions. Others, with histories that span centuries, have also undergone a deep transformation in the context of growing attention to matters of sustainability. Bridging key aspects of the scholarly literature on the genesis of the botanical garden institution in Europe and its legacy, this article presents the re-invention of these gardens as institutions of conservation, sustainability, and social engagement as they renew their relevance in the contemporary world. This article proceeds by covering three focal points. First, it summarizes the scholarly literature on the emergence of botanical gardens in Europe and their association with the rise of modern science, the nation-state, colonialism, and empire-building. Second, it presents accounts of current scientific and biodiversity conservation endeavours as reflexive engagements with these historical legacies, decolonization initiatives, and new socio-environmental missions. Third, this article points beyond its focus on the historical transformation of the European botanical garden institution, by identifying a more widely encompassing body of scholarship that puts forth frameworks for understanding the current role of botanic gardens on a global scale.
... The rapid loss in floristic diversity and changing patterns of vegetation necessitated the qualitative and quantitative assessment of vegetation (Negi et al., 2024). Several attempts have been made worldwide for evaluation of species rarities and status of threatened species (Gaston, 1994;Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Kruckeberg & Rabinowitz, 1985;Liu et al., 2007;Lozano & Schwartz, 2005;Pilgrim et al., 2004;Rabinowitz, 1981Rabinowitz, , 1986. This kind of study is limited in the Himalayan region (Rana & Samant, 2010;Rawal & Dhar, 1997;Rawal et al., 2018;Rawal et al., 2023;Negi et al., 2024). ...
... Among them, 15,000 species are in danger of going extinct due to habitat loss and overfishing [12], and 20% of their wild resources have already been almost completely depleted due to the growing human population and plant consumption [13]. The risk of extinction of medicinal plants has increased globally, despite the fact that this apprehension has been known for years, particularly in China [14], India [15], Kenya [15], Nepal [15], Tanzania [16], and Uganda [16]. Numerous studies have been conducted on the preservation and sustainable usage of medicinal plants [17,18]. ...
On October 20 to 22, 1994, an interim annual meeting was hosted by the American Society of Pharmacognosy in San Jose, Costa Rica. During the symposium, subject experts from all over the nation shared their insights on issues adjoining intellectual property rights in kith and kin of drug development from naturally derived compounds, plant conservation, and international conventions on bioprospecting. To guarantee that the genomic assets of all nations will be developed for the benefit of human race and observant of recent current stratagems for the benefits, scientific collaboration will be warranted. The core issue of the conferences, the fair and justifiable sharing of the compensations of bioprospecting, was articulated from a variety of opposing standpoints, as can be seen from the summaries of presentations. These divergent belvederes are the consequence of various explanations. Different viewpoints to the larger society are formed by the multiplicity midst the world, particularly those in developing nations. Additionally, a lot of the discussion and negotiations around access to resources wherever they are discovered are clouded and perplexed by the excessive emphasis on the unearthing, expansion, and business of medications as the inimitable outcome of the exploitation of genetic resources. It should be underlined that academic and research institutions would fail, due to a successful outcome from bioprospecting product. Instead, it is critical to understand that other vital goals may also be achieved, particularly in the fields of technology transfer and capacity building. The symposiums help advance research on intellectual property rights (IPR), naturally occurring bioactive substances, and resource conservation for the moral use of conventional medicines, as well as for the development of a country’s economy and healthcare system. In light of the foregoing information, an effort has been made in this chapter to disseminate recent scientific advancement and to comprehend the interrelationship between IPR, bioactive of natural origin, and conservation of resources in order to establish a smooth avenue for traditional drugs and medicine thereof.
... Microsatellites are frequently used to create genetic maps of many species, determine genetic diversity and genetic diseases, population genetic studies, linkage analysis, fingerprint analysis, genotyping, and parental determination. It also provides useful information in determining the gene flow patterns and the rate of genetic drift (Buiteveld et al., 2001;Balloux & Lugon-Moulin, 2002;Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Bandelj et al., 2004;Slavov et al., 2004;Varshney et al., 2005;Oliveira et al., 2006;Vieira et al., 2016). ...
... Conservation of natural resources is a continuous conservation and protection activity that is carried out so that ecological processes are maintained. Conservation is carried out to deal with the biodiversity crisis (Heywood & Iriondo 2003). Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature shows that all Ficus species found in this study have Least Concern conservation status (IUCN 2022), which means all species have been evaluated except F. pisifera and F. callosa which do not has a conservation status because it has not been evaluated (Table 5). ...
Bantimurung Bulusaraung National Park is an area that has the largest karst ecosystem in Indonesia. Karst is prone to damage and difficult to reuse, so it requires conservation efforts. One of the plant species that can maintain this sustainability is Ficus which acts as key species in karst ecosystems. However, at this time the species is experiencing disturbances, one of which is due to the experience of invasive plants that can threaten the existence of Ficus because the weeds can colonize habitats and are dominant which can change species diversity. This study aimed to analyze the diversity and distribution of Ficus, compare species composition, and analyze environmental factors that affect Ficus spp. in Pattunuang Resort and Bantimurung Resort. Vegetation analysis method with nesting plots placed by purposive sampling and supported with environmental and soil data measurements to determine the factors that indicate the habitat preference of Ficus. We found 18 plant species of Ficus spp. in total. At Resort Pattunuang we found 14 Ficus species with the highest abundance being Ficus sundaica (27.55%), while we recorded 15 Ficus species at Resort Bantimurung with the highest abundance being Ficus ampelas (29.23%). Ficus species were uniformly distributed with a relatively high ratio of species composition in both resorts. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that the presence of Ficus in Pattunuang Resort is influenced by wind speed, soil temperature, air temperature, soil moisture, soil pH, and air humidity. In Bantimurung Resort, the existence of Ficus is influenced by wind speed, soil temperature, soil moisture, and air humidity.
... Plant species are progressively being harvested in large numbers, mostly from wild populations. In recent decades, demand for wild resources has grown by 8-15% per year in Asia, Europe, and North America ( Heywood and Iriondo 2003). There is a point where a plant species' reproductive ability irrevocably diminishes ( Semwal et al. 2007). ...
... Due to habitat fragmentation and illegal collection from the wild, most medicinal plants are under severe threat, and P. polyphylla, a medicinally important endangered plant [31], is not an exception. Depleting this plant in the natural habitat afects plant dispersal, gene fow, and endogamy, and as a result, the capacity of competition and adaptation of a species is infuenced badly [110]. It has been reported that unorganized collection, overexploitation, and illegal trade of the plant part, i.e., rhizome, low viability, and long dormancy of seeds are the major problems that need a proper solution for the conservation and efective utilization of the plant. ...
Paris polyphylla Smith (family: Melanthiaceae), a high-value medicinal herb endemic to the Himalayan region, has drawn much attention recently due to its immense use in the traditional healthcare system since ancient times. In the present review, an extensive database on P. polyphylla was systematically searched from databases such as Medline/PubMed, Scopus, the Web of Science, and the online service E-library.ru and SCImago (https://www.scimagojr.com/). Information on species, ecology, distribution, trade, ethnopharmacology, pharmacology, biotechnology, and molecular biology was gathered from 1979 to 2023 using 116 research publications. Major steroidal saponins such as Paris saponin I, V, VI, VII, and H have been found substantially efective in anticancer activity, abnormal uterine bleeding, dysfunctional uterine bleeding, and menorrhagia. Traditional breeding and propagation techniques cannot keep up with the world's growing demand for herbal drugs. Terefore, it is critically necessary to take conservation measures and develop novel techniques for growing and cultivating this economically signifcant and highly valuable therapeutic herb. Te advanced biotechnological approaches like micropropagation and genetic analysis introduced long back are either rare or lacking in the case of P. polyphylla. It contains a wealth of information that will serve as a baseline data source for various stakeholders, researchers working on various research aspects, and policymakers to defne appropriate utilization and conservation plans for a high-value commercial medicinal plant called P. polyphylla. Te review provides an updated overview and critical assessment of secondary data regarding the past and recent applications and interventions of P. polyphylla.
... Today, botany is a science that integrates longstanding traditional research lines with the most updated knowledge and tools. This integration allows us to understand plant evolution [1][2][3] and is the background for good conservation practices [4][5][6], especially for what concerns endemic plants, which have a high evolutionary significance in any given territory [7][8][9]. Endemic taxa tend to be particularly prone to extinction risks, and they hence represent fundamental targets of conservation efforts, from the regional to local scale [10,11]. ...
Scientific research is the main driver to push forward and disseminate botanical knowledge. Despite many institutions have this fundamental aim as core activity, many of them do not have a complete set of facilities, expertise, staff and resources to cover all the steps involving the study, management, conservation and popularization of plant diversity. Accordingly, we propose a workflow formalizing the cooperation between a botanical garden and a botanical research center, focused on the study plant endemic species. Specifically, the cooperation was implemented between the PLANTSEED Lab of the Department of Biology and the Botanic Garden and Museum of the University of Pisa. We present seven representative case studies (Armeria arenaria complex, Bellevalia webbiana, Crocus etruscus and C. ilvensis, Dianthus virgineus complex, Pulmonaria hirta complex, Santolina chamaecyparissus complex) to disentangle approaches and opportunities arising from cooperative approaches, from laboratory to cultivation. We analyze the emerging properties deriving from this synergistic cooperation, by promoting open research questions and answering them using a comprehensive approach to improving endemic plant species research, conservation, and popularization in the botanical garden. In this manuscript we show how a cooperative approach between heterogeneous botanical institutions can constitute an effective and easy to implement approach to achieve the goals of each partner involved in the cooperation.
... The protection of monumental trees, which play an important role in natural ecosystems, is a form of biodiversity protection that enables maintaining the richness and diversity of living organisms from all ecosystems and ecological complexes, together with the diversity of the physical conditions of the habitats in which they occur [1]. The most commonly used method of ex situ conservation of genetic resources is the storage of seeds in gene banks, which allows the long-term storage of genetic resources of plant species, mainly in the form of seeds that tolerate desiccation (orthodox category) [2]. ...
The conservation of the genetic resources of old trees is crucial to their ecological role but is extremely difficult, especially for oak species (Quercus spp.) displaying recalcitrance in seed and vegetative propagation methods. Our study aimed to assess the regenerative potential of Quercus robur trees of different ages (up to 800 years) during micropropagation. We also aimed to determine how in vitro conditions can influence in vitro regeneration responses. Lignified branches collected from 67 selected trees were cultivated ex vitro in culture pots at 25 °C to obtain epicormic shoots (explant sources). The explants were cultivated on an agar medium supplemented with 0.8 mg L−1 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) for at least 21 months. In a second experiment, two different shoot multiplication conditions (temporary immersion—RITA® bioreactor and agar medium) and two culture medium formulations (Woody Plant Medium and modified Quoirin and Lepoivre medium) were tested. The results showed that the mean length of the epicormic shoots obtained in a pot culture was a function of donor age and was similar among the group of younger trees (ca. 20–200 years), and varied between older trees (ca. 300–800 years). The efficiency of in vitro shoot multiplication strictly depended on the genotype. A sustainable in vitro culture (defined as survival after 6 months) was only possible for half of the tested old donor trees, even when they survived the first month of in vitro growth. A continuous monthly increase in the number of in vitro cultured shoots was reported in younger oaks and in some old oaks. We found a significant effect of the culture system and the macro- and micronutrient composition on in vitro shoot growth. This is the first report demonstrating that the in vitro culture can be successfully applied to the propagation of even 800-year-old pedunculate oak trees.
... However, the unprotected forests of Myanmar have yet to be studied. A substantial portion of the biodiversity in Myanmar and the tropics remains outside of protected areas [31,32]. Recent years have seen an increase in the importance of biodiversity conservation outside protected areas in the global conservation debate [33,34]. ...
The Zalon Taung National Park (ZNP) in Banmauk township, northwest Myanmar, is a recently established protected area to protect the area’s cultural value, ecosystems, native flora, and wildlife. This research examined the vegetation structure, tree species diversity, and composition within (ZNP) and outside (the Banmauk unclassified forest (BUCF)) the park to inform conservation and resource utilization for sustainable management. We conducted the vegetation survey in April-May of 2022 by setting up 34 sample plots (40 × 40 meters) using a random sampling approach. We used stand density, basal area, Shannon–Wiener diversity index, Simpson index, Pielou's evenness, Fisher’s α diversity, and Importance Value Index (IVI) to determine the forest structure and tree diversity. A total of 116 tree species (≥10 cm·dbh), representing 87 genera and 48 families, were identified. The ZNP sample plots had a slightly higher stand density (201 individuals ha−1) and basal area (20.6 m2·ha−1) than BUCF (stand density: 191 individuals ha−1 and basal area: 15.0 m2·ha−1), which is accessible to collect firewood and timber extraction by residents. The reverse J-shaped pattern of the population structure indicated that the stands’ populations were progressive and healthy. BUCF featured the most Verbenaceae (12.9%) and the ZNP the most Euphorbiaceae (7.2%) families. Protium serratum had the highest IVI in the BUCF (26.91%) and Dipterocarpus alatus (18.39%) in the ZNP. Dipterocarpus alatus and Dalbergia oliveri (IUCN Red List-endangered species) dominate in BUCF and require special attention in conservation planning. In the ZNP, previous logging activity dramatically reduced the relative density and the IVI values of commercially important species such as Tectona grandis, Dalbergia oliveri, and Protium serratum. According to the NMDS ordination, differences in tree species compositions were significantly linked with elevation, the intensity of logging, and distance to the village and road. The results will help park managers plan effective land use to promote biodiversity conservation and local livelihoods.
... Seeds should be harvested from all the populations, to keep a genetic pool representing E. groenewaldii as diversely as possible. These seeds must be germinated under greenhouse conditions close to the natural conditions of the species, and seed obtained can be stored in a seed bank for future propagation (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Lee et al., 2006). Should population numbers start to drop quickly for one or another reason, these new cultivated seedlings of E. groenewaldii can be used to restock the depleted populations (Pfab & Witkowski, 2000). ...
... Research on plant species richness and floristic conservation value in relation to components of cultural landscape can be a useful tool for spatial planning and management taking into account environmental, social, and economic aspects [77,[84][85][86][87]. ...
This study aimed to show the influence of cultural landscape structure on species richnessand the conservation value of vascular flora.The analyses are based on 3201 original floristic lists (relevés) and 83,875 floristic data collected since 1994 within Gopło Millennium Park (Nadgoplański Park Tysiąclecia) in a rural area in central Poland. Descriptions of landscape composition in grid cells (0.5 km × 0.5 km) include land use structure, mean deviation of uneven proportions of various land use types, and Shannon index of diversity (H’). Vascular plant diversity was described using total species richness and contributions of groups of native and alien species. Assessment of floristic conservation value was based on qualitative and quantitative floristic index (Wfj and Wfi), mean coefficient of conservatism (C), and floristic quality index (FQI). Floristic analyses were conducted in relation to the whole study area and within grid cells, basing on numbers of species and number of floristic data. The results suggest that species richness in grid cells depends more strongly on diversity and evenness of contributions of land use types, irrespective of which land use types were present. Species richness is strongly dependent on land use structure. Larger contributions of arable fields and built-up areas are linked with a decrease in species richness of nonsynanthropic native plants and species of floristic conservation value. Regularity in this respect is very well illustrated by indices excluding the influence of species richness on floristic value (quantitative floristic index Wfi and mean coefficient of conservatism C). According to the algorithm of FQI, the most valuable floras are characterized by a large number of species with a high contribution of conservative ones. In the study area, this condition was met by floras of surface waters and wetlands.
... A recommended conservation strategy for endangered plants, in addition to in situ conservation, is the establishment of ex situ gene banks for each population in both the field and laboratory. Although this species is not listed as an endangered wild plant under legal protection in Korea [73], it is a serious challenge that most of its populations are adjacent to limestone quarries, including dolomites, villages, and roadsides, and are prone to destruction. Given this current situation, we believe that ex situ conservation of this species should be considered. ...
Zabelia tyaihyonii (Nakai) Hisauti and H. Hara is a perennial shrub endemic to Republic of Korea that grows naturally in only a very limited region of the dolomite areas of Gangwon-do and Chungcheongbuk-do Provinces in the Republic of Korea. Given its geographical characteristics, it is more vulnerable than more widely distributed species. Despite the need for comprehensive information to support conservation, population genetic information for this species is very scarce. In this study, we analyzed the genetic diversity and population structure of 94 individuals from six populations of Z. tyaihyonii using a genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach to provide important information for proper conservation and management. Our results, based on 3088 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), showed a mean expected heterozygosity (He) of 0.233, no sign of within-population inbreeding (GIS that was close to or even below zero in all populations), and a high level of genetic differentiation (FST = 0.170). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that the principal molecular variance existed within populations (84.5%) rather than among populations (17.0%). We suggested that six management units were proposed for conservation considering Bayesian structure analysis and phylogenetic analysis, and given the various current situations faced by Z. tyaihyonii, it is believed that not only the in situ conservation but also the ex situ conservation should be considered.
... Scientific evidence suggests that conservation and sustainable development could still go hand-by-hand (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003;Pool-Stanvliet, 2013;Tshisikhawe, 2016;Pool-Stanvliet et al., 2018). South Africa has signed the 17 th United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Sustainable Development Goals that foster to balance its environmental and economic needs by the year 2030 (Rosado-González et al., 2020;Pool-Stanvliet and Coetzer, 2020). ...
... Therefore, evaluating genetic diversity and population differentiation is vital for species conservation (Carvalho et al. 2019). There are two complementary conservation strategies for plant species: in situ (on-site) conservation that protects species in their native habitat, while ex situ (offsite) protects endangered species outside their natural habitat in artificial environments, e.g., botanical gardens, arboreta, Fig. 2 a The uppermost hierarchical level of genetic structure of Cerastium alpinum using STRU CTU RE software (Pritchard et al. 2000); the optimal K value generated by Structure Harvester: b K = 5 and c K = 7 ◂ or as a germplasm collection in gene banks (Maunder et al. 2001;Schoen and Brown 2001;Heywood and Iriondo 2003;Guerrant et al. 2004;Havens et al. 2006;Hardwick et al. 2011;Miller et al. 2016). The general concept of in situ conservation is the conservation of living resources in the surroundings where they have developed and to maintain certain species in a dynamic relationship with the natural habitat (Edwards and Kelbessa 1999). ...
Babia Góra massif is the only site of occurrence of the Cerastium alpinum L. in Poland, an arctic-alpine perennial plant with a wide distribution in North America, northwestern Asia, and Europe. To determine whether the isolated Polish populations are genetically distinct, we have performed an evaluation of C. alpinum from Babia Góra with the use of iPBS markers. A total number of 133 individuals of C. alpinum from seven populations representing four localizations of the species were analyzed, i.e., from Babia Góra (Poland), Alps (Switzerland), Nuolja massif (Sweden), and Kaffiøyra (Svalbard, Norway). Genetic analysis of all C. alpinum samples using eight PBS primers identified 262 bands, 79.4% of which were polymorphic. iPBS markers revealed low genetic diversity (average H e = 0.085) and high population differentiation (F ST = 0.617). AMOVA results confirmed that the majority of the genetic variation (62%) was recorded among populations. The grouping revealed by PCoA showed that C. alpinum from Svalbard is the most diverged population, C. alpinum from Switzerland and Sweden form a pair of similar populations, whereas C. alpinum from the Babia Góra form a heterogeneous group of four populations. Results of isolation by distance analysis suggested that the spatial distance is the most probable cause of the observed differentiation among populations. Although significant traces of a bottleneck effect were noted for all populations of C. alpinum from Babia Góra, the populations still maintain a low but significant level of genetic polymorphism. These results are of great importance for developing conservation strategies for this species in Poland.
... In this framework, numerous conservation responses have been implemented to try to halt plant declines: from general large-scale measures, such as the designation of protected areas and international legislation aimed at protecting species, to local species-specific efforts, such as seed-banking programs and conservation translocations. It is well-established that protected areas alone (e.g., Natura 2000 sites, natural parks) do not guarantee per se positive outcomes for species [27,28], so ex situ conservation (e.g., conservation of germplasm in seed banks and cultivation in botanical gardens) is essential and has allowed the conservation of a substantial number of accessions of endangered species throughout the planet (e.g., [29]). To prevent the extinction of threatened plant species and to improve their conservation status, translocations have become increasingly important worldwide (e.g., [30,31]); in particular, conservation translocations are estimated to become very important for conservation in a changing climate [32,33]. ...
In the Mediterranean Basin, a critical focal point for the conservation of plant diversity, there has been a large increase in practical conservation actions for many plant species to prevent extinction and to improve their conservation status; quantifying the effectiveness of these initiatives in reversing species declines is urgently important. In 2021, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) launched a new tool that allows the impact of conservation actions on plant species to be assessed. The Green Status of Species is a new set of metrics under the Red List of Threatened Species that assigns species to recovery categories, complementary to the classic extinction risk categories. Crucially, the Green Status of Species provides methods to evaluate the impact of past conservation, and the potential for future conservation impact, on species status and recovery in a standardized way. Considering the efforts made so far for the conservation of Mediterranean threatened plants, using the Green Status of Species would be highly useful to direct future conservation policies. We, therefore, encourage botanists and practitioners working on threatened plants in the Mediterranean area to use this new assessment tool to inform conservation and recovery programs.
... In the backdrop of climate change, the conservation of plant genetic resources is one of the major issues of discussion. Plant genetic resources have been continuously dwindling at a rapid pace through deforestation, human activities and monoculture-based modern agriculture practices along with climate change 20,42,58 . Conservation of genetic diversity lies at the heart of improvements in breeding and resilience in potato cultivation 4 . ...
The present investigation deals with the biochemical and molecular analyses of potato microplants in response to osmotic stress. The findings of this study showed that the chlorophyll content of osmotically stressed cells of potato microplants was significantly decreased compared to the microplants cultivated under non-stressed conditions. In contrast, the total soluble sugar, amino acids and proline concentrations were significantly increased in stressed microplants relative to non-stressed plants. The results also suggested a substantial induction of antioxidants such as non-enzymatic scavenging, superoxidase dismutase (SOD) activity, in osmotic stressed microplants compared to untreated controls. However, the expression of MnSOD showed no induction which suggests that another form of SOD might be attributed to this enzymatic activity in potato microplants. Furthermore, the osmotic stress induced free proline concentrations consistent with upregulation of the proline-associated gene P5CS. This study implies that regulation of reactive oxygen species through the modulation of proline might be associated with osmotic adjustment in potato microplants.
... Plant scientists have coined the term plant blindness (Balding and Williams, 2016;Negrón-Ortiz, 2014) or plant awareness disparity (Parsley, 2020) for the perceptual bias arising from higher preference for animals compared to plants, resulting in lower research interest and funds available for plant conservation. Furthermore, plant and habitat conservation are closely related, to the point that the conservation of a specific habitat can overlap with the conservation of certain key plant species therein, and vice versa (Heywood and Iriondo, 2003). The conservation of the entire habitat is the paradigm of biodiversity conservation in the EU; from this point of view, funding for certain key plants is at the same time an investment into habitats of high conservation value. ...
Taxonomic and aesthetic biases permeate biodiversity conservation. We used the LIFE program-the European Union's funding scheme for the environment-to explore the economic dimension of biases in species-and habitat-level conservation. Between 1992 and 2020, animal species received three times more funding than plants. Within plants, species at northern latitudes, with broader ranges, and with blue/purple flowers received more funds regardless of their extinction risk. Conversely, species online popularity was only weakly positively associated with conservation expenditure. At the habitat-level, we found no relationship between expenditure and conservation status of the habitat. Our results can inform ways forward to achieve conservation goals that are comprehensive, sustainable, and cost-effective.
... However, each species has particular requirements for their seed germination in a patchy and changing environment (Simons, Johnston 2006;Vandelook et al. 2008). The knowledge of these requirements is very important in the conservation of rare and threatened species (Heywood, Iriondo 2003;Padmalatha, Prasad 2007), such as Centaurea eriophora L. ...
Centaurea eriophora L. (Asteraceae) is a rare annual plant, found in some Mediterranean regions and requiring conservational measures. The present study was carried out to highlight the species germination behavior under two controlled environmental constraints: salt and water stress. Achenes collected on Mount Tessala (North-West Algeria) were germinated under a water potential gradient (0 to –2.45 MPa) induced by different concentrations of polyethylene glycol and under different concentrations of NaCl (0 to 102 mM). The experiments were conducted at constant temperature. The obtained results showed a high significant effect of salinity and water stress, especially on final germination percentage, while the highest germination (85%) was obtained at control conditions in both of the tests. Under salinity and water stress conditions, there was a significant deterioration in most germination parameters, particularly a lower final germination percentage. The tolerance thresholds for salinity and water deficit were 68 mM and –1.2 MPa respectively. Beyond these values, seed germination of C. eriophora was completely inhibited. The sensitivity of C. eriophora achenes to environmental pressures should be considered in the long-term effective conservation plans.
... The lack of biological data, as well as the quality of available data, have been responsible for most failures in plant conservation, translocation and reintroduction projects (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Penu et al., 2019;Hunter-Ayad et al., 2020). Although a detailed and updated vegetation map of Tahiti is lacking (see Florence, 1993), this study showed that, based on few observations and a set of relatively simple methods, it is possible to develop basic ecological knowledge on the historical and current suitable habitat of a critically endangered species for its translocation in order to enhance its recovery. ...
Reintroduction or translocation of threatened plant species, as part of in situ conservation efforts, often failed because of the lack or the poor quality of remaining natural habitats due to human disturbances and invasion by alien species, especially in island ecosystems. We conducted a study on Ochrosia tahitensis (Apocynaceae), a critically endangered endemic small tree in the tropical high volcanic island of Tahiti (French Polynesia, South Pacific) to find the most suitable sites for future translocation. Distribution models were produced based on climate, topography, and plant community inventories (i.e. species composition and abundance, canopy height and openness, basal area of woody species) of the few remnant populations. Results show that this species, comprising 32 reproductive trees within 16 populations known in the wild, remains restricted to a few ecological refuges representing a very small part of its potential ecological range located on the northwest side of the island, and shares its current habitats with a set of more common native woody species found in mesic-wet forests. The use of native plant communities as a proxy for habitat suitability along with species distribution modelling can enhance translocation success in island ecosystems, but only if the major threats causing population decrease, mainly forest destruction and fragmentation and invasive alien species, are effectively managed.
... Habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation, overexploitation, penetration of invasive species, pollution, and anthropogenic climate change are the main threats leading to a decreased plant diversity (Corlett, 2016). The complex approaches used in studies of rare and endangered plant species have been increasingly applied over the last decades (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003). Previous studies revealed three national biodiversity hotspots in Russia: North Caucasus, South Siberia, and Far East (Venevsky & Venevskaia, 2005). ...
The dataset of the Red Data Book vascular plants of Transbaikalia was created based on the latest editions of the Red Data Book of the Republic of Buryatia and the Red Data Book of the Zabaikalsky Krai (Russia). The dataset provides the most updated information regarding the distribution of 271 rare vascular plants (2920 distribution records). The distribution of the studied species was recorded during field surveys using GPS navigators, georeferenced from herbarium specimens, and digitised from printed distribution maps. Each entry in the dataset has various attributes, including belt zone, distribution, ecological, and life-form group features. Distribution patterns for various groups of rare and endangered species were analysed by means of QGIS 3.10 software. Our study has revealed a number of localities of vascular plants listed in the Red Data Book and clarified their distribution within the federal Protected Areas of Transbaikalia, among which Tunkinsky National Park has the highest diversity. Distribution of some rare and endangered species fall under federal protection, but some plants, including endemic species, require better protection. Analysis of various belt zones and distribution groups showed their distinct spread within the study region. Among the studied species, mesophytes and short rhizome perennial plants prevailed. It is also important to preserve vascular plants in the Red Data Book outside Protected Areas. Hence, information from our dataset can be useful for conservation monitoring programmes. Our study provides a basis for future conservation activities and can be applied in the establishment of new Protected Areas or Important Plant Areas in Transbaikalia.
... In our research, it was observed that P. samsunicum individuals were shorter and more glaucous grey in Ladik 1 locality where grazing pressure was found. When habitats of a rare and endemic species are damaged and degraded by misrule and other various human activities, species' distribution areas, population sizes, and genetic variability will be reduced, and the members thereof will become vulnerable to extinction more extensively than other species (Heywood & Iriondo, 2003;Işık, 2011). ...
Polygonum samsunicum is one of the endemic species from Turkey. Up to now, it has been only known from the type locality (Samsun /Ladik). This research intends to define the global conservation status and strategies of locally distributed endemic P. samsunicum which has been confronted with the danger of extinction due to anthropogenic effects in recent years. In this research, we did extensive field studies and collected all needed data for determining the precise conservation status of P. samsunicum . We reported nine additional populations from Upper Tersakan valley, where the Mediterranean climate is dominant, and the size of populations, altitude, coordinates, habitat types, and the threats it faces in each locality were given. GeoCAT analyses at global levels indicate the grade of occurrence 21.609 km2 and area of occupancy 10.094 km2 and there could be an inferred decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation of the original population, suggesting local endemic species might be classified as CR, based on criteria B1ab (i, ii, iii) + 2ab (i, ii, iii) in the Red List categorization. Its parts are also consumed by local people due to its medicinal features. For in-situ conservation, phenological life history and detailed ecological studies, as well as population monitoring and ex-situ conservation studies should be continued together. Establishing cooperation between universities, research institutes, and local management authorities is strongly needed for long-term monitoring of population size, distribution, overgrazing, and public awareness.
... Though this threat is not new, the rate of species loss and habitat destruction is increased several folds worldwide. It is moving toward the risk of extinction of medicinal plants, especially in India and China along with some African nations [6,[13][14][15][16]. The Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Jammu and Kashmir, reported that the species C. luteum comes under rare and threatened status [17]. ...
Colchicum luteum L. is an economically important and endangered medicinal plant of
the Kashmir Himalaya. The corm extract is used for the treatment of rheumatism, gout, Behcet’s syndrome, and Alzheimer disease. It is also used extensively in plant breeding programs for the doubling of chromosomes. The present study was carried out for two years (2017–2019) to study the genetic diversity of C. luteum, an economically important and endangered medicinal plant of Kashmir Himalaya. The mapping of genetic diversity of C. luteum was estimated using Mahalanobis D2 analysis in the Aharbal (Kulgam), Dhara (Theed), and Baera Baal Hills (Harwan) of Kashmir Valley. The results showed the presence of 5 clusters for 30 populations. There were 17 populations in cluster-1, 1 in cluster-2, 2 in cluster-3, 3 in cluster-4, and 7 in cluster-5. The majority of the population
was a group in cluster-1 followed by cluster-5. The maximum intracluster distance (D2 values) was observed in cluster-5 (46.55588) followed by cluster-3 (41.61871), and the maximum inter-cluster distance (D2 values) was observed in cluster-3 (46.55588) followed by cluster-5 (41.61871). Our study revealed that plant species possessed sufficient genetic diversity among the populations. Cluster5 showed superiority in plant−1
respect of the maximum mean plant height (28.46 cm), leaf area (47.0 cm2 ), number of seeds plant−1 (26.85), corm length (5.15 cm), corm width (3.17 cm), fresh weight
of corm plant (6.87 g), and dry weight of corm plant (4.81 g) as compared to other clusters. Out of five clusters, cluster-5 is a promising one for better yield and yield attributing traits. The present study revealed that plant species possessed sufficient genetic diversity among the populations as 30 populations were arranged into 5 clusters. Therefore, cluster-5, consisting of seven populations from the undisturbed area of Harwan, and consequently the populations from the same cluster can be multiplied for initiating a conservation and breeding program and can serve as a tool for the scientific community to evolve better contemporary varieties of C. luteum with profitable characters such as more yield of corms, etc. This will assist farmers, particularly the marginal farmers, to alleviate their income.
... Though this threat is not new, the rate of species loss and habitat destruction is increased several folds worldwide. It is moving toward the risk of extinction of medicinal plants, especially in India and China along with some African nations [6,[13][14][15][16]. The Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Jammu and Kashmir, reported that the species C. luteum comes under rare and threatened status [17]. ...
Colchicum luteum L. is an economically important and endangered medicinal plant of the Kashmir Himalaya. The corm extract is used for the treatment of rheumatism, gout, Behcet’s syndrome, and Alzheimer disease. It is also used extensively in plant breeding programs for the doubling of chromosomes. The present study was carried out for two years (2017–2019) to study the genetic diversity of C. luteum, an economically important and endangered medicinal plant of Kashmir Himalaya. The mapping of genetic diversity of C. luteum was estimated using Mahalanobis D2 analysis in the Aharbal (Kulgam), Dhara (Theed), and Baera Baal Hills (Harwan) of Kashmir Valley. The results showed the presence of 5 clusters for 30 populations. There were 17 populations in cluster-1, 1 in cluster-2, 2 in cluster-3, 3 in cluster-4, and 7 in cluster-5. The majority of the population was a group in cluster-1 followed by cluster-5. The maximum intracluster distance (D2 values) was observed in cluster-5 (46.55588) followed by cluster-3 (41.61871), and the maximum inter-cluster distance (D2 values) was observed in cluster-3 (46.55588) followed by cluster-5 (41.61871). Our study revealed that plant species possessed sufficient genetic diversity among the populations. Cluster-5 showed superiority in plant−1 respect of the maximum mean plant height (28.46 cm), leaf area (47.0 cm2), number of seeds plant−1 (26.85), corm length (5.15 cm), corm width (3.17 cm), fresh weight of corm plant (6.87 g), and dry weight of corm plant (4.81 g) as compared to other clusters. Out of five clusters, cluster-5 is a promising one for better yield and yield attributing traits. The present study revealed that plant species possessed sufficient genetic diversity among the populations as 30 populations were arranged into 5 clusters. Therefore, cluster-5, consisting of seven populations from the undisturbed area of Harwan, and consequently the populations from the same cluster can be multiplied for initiating a conservation and breeding program and can serve as a tool for the scientific community to evolve better contemporary varieties of C. luteum with profitable characters such as more yield of corms, etc. This will assist farmers, particularly the marginal farmers, to alleviate their income.
... Nowadays, several estuaries support a growing human population and a growing number of industries, buildings and tourism facilities. As a consequence, the vegetation and natural structure of the estuaries are receding (Canteras et al., 2003;Heywood & Iriondo, 2003). ...
The high incidence of oro-dental pathologies correlated with the significant increase in antibiotic resistance has led to the urgent need to develop alternative treatments, using as natural sources the active principles present in medicinal plants. Thus, at the border between traditional and modern, the use of therapeutic effects of various medicinal plants seems to be a way of preventing and treating oro-dental diseases. Along with this use of plant resources, there is therefore also an awareness of the need to conserve species affected, over time, by overharvesting or even mass extinctions. The sustainable use of these resources leads to maintaining the dynamic balance of ecosystems, maintaining and preserving ecosystem services vital to the development of life on Earth.
Plant tissue culture, a revolutionary technique in plant biology, is a highly effective method for multiplying, biodiversity conservation, and genetic manipulation and enhancement of plants. Over the decades, technological breakthroughs and a deeper understanding of plant physiology have transformed this technique from curiosity to a widely used method with wide-ranging applications. Micropropagation usually involves four key stages: initiation (explant culture under an aseptic environment), propagation, rooting, and acclimatization. The optimal growth and development of plant tissues at each stage are substantially influenced by the application and proper balance of phytohormones, growth regulators, and culture media composition . Advanced genetic technologies based on plant tissue culture are used in addressing global food security and are helpful in the sustainable production of crops. As technology advances, incorporating plant tissue culture with other cutting-edge approaches promises to unlock plants’ full potential for humanity’s benefit. This review examines the key principles, recent advances, and diverse applications of plant tissue culture in medicinal plants.
Sustainable and effective means to control flying insect vectors are critically needed, especially with widespread insecticide resistance and global climate change. Understanding and controlling vectors requires accurate information about their movement and activity, which is often lacking. The Photonic Fence (PF) is an optical system that uses machine vision, infrared light, and lasers to identify, track, and interdict vectors in flight. The PF examines an insect’s outline, flight speed, and other flight parameters and if these match those of a targeted vector species, then a low-power, retina-safe laser kills it. We report on proof-of-concept tests of a large, field-sized PF (30 mL × 3 mH) conducted with Aedes aegypti, a mosquito that transmits dangerous arboviruses, and Diaphorina citri, a psyllid which transmits the fatal huanglongbing disease of citrus. In tests with the laser engaged, < 1% and 3% of A. aegypti and D. citri, respectfully, were recovered versus a 38% and 19% recovery when the lacer was silenced. The PF tracked, but did not intercept the orchid bee, Euglossa dilemma. The system effectively intercepted flying vectors, but not bees, at a distance of 30 m, heralding the use of photonic energy, rather than chemicals, to control flying vectors.
Plants have been used as medicines since prehistoric times, for the treatment of different diseases and to improve the health of man and animals. Medicinal plants play an important role in curing diseases and stimulating the well-being of the population. WHO (World Health Organization) claims that 80% population of the world depends on medicinal plants for primary well-being programs. Medicinal plants are used for the manufacturing of various herbal products, but these plants are decreasing day by day at a high speed. As the medicinal plants are decreasing, it can become a major issue in terms of the health of both man and animal in the coming times. The main reason for this is increasing population and industrialization, increased commercial exploitation, mostly unmanaged trading, and habitat destruction. In this chapter, we discuss worldwide changes, problems, strategies, and approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants and their resources. It can be a great start toward conserving the medicinal plants and their products for the betterment of the population. We have to look for both in situ and ex situ growing and conservation practices for use of medicinal plant resources for a long period. To improve the growing of medicinal plants, the use of biotechnology is the best option. Different tools of biotechnology are used for the selection, multiplication, and conservation of medicinal plants having critical genotypes. Due to the destruction of habitats and swamp areas, the biodiversity of medicinal plants is on decline. In the future, the adoption of pharmaceutical and clinical medicine must be supported by medicinal plants. These plants have an extraordinary wealth of chemical compounds that have a wide range of applications in the healthcare of humans. Therefore, there is a need to conserve and sustain the use of medicinal plants in the modern era.KeywordsBiotechnologyDiseasesMedicinal plantsHungerPovertyConservationSustainability
Due to modernization and urbanization, traditional medicinal herbs and their associated knoweldge are under peril of being lost. The current study not only aimed to document the trend of herbal medicinal plant uitlization in District Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan, but also raised alarming concerns about the conservation of these medicinal herbs and traditional knowledge linked to them. The data were collected from local people, herbalists, and gardeners by using standard ethnobotanical methods, i.e., questionnaires and interviews. Results reported that a lower number of informants possessed medicinal herb knowledge and reported only 50 medicinal herbs from the study area. This is probably due to the impact of speedy industrilaization and alterations in human life patterns in the study area. Not only the traditional knowledge is under threat but also the medicinal herbs themselves. Most of the reported medicinal herbs were rare (45.10%), while only few (9.80%) were ranked as abundant in the study area. The herbs with more medicinal importance are mostly rare. This is because of their over usage by the local people. Both conservation approaches (in situ and ex situ conservation and cultivation practices) and resource management (good agricultural practices and sustainable use solutions) should be adequately taken into account for the sustainable use of medicinal plant resources.
Background and Aims
To counteract the ongoing worldwide biodiversity loss, conservation actions are required to re-establish populations of threatened species. Two key factors predominantly involved in finding the most suitable habitats for endangered plant species are the surrounding plant community composition and the physicochemical parameters of the soil rooting zone. However, such factors are likely to be context- and species-dependent, so it remains unclear to what extent they influence the performance of target species.
Methods
We studied large and small Swiss populations of the endangered orchid Cypripedium calceolus. We measured functional traits related to C. calceolus plant and population performance (clonal patch area, plant height, number, of leaf, stems, flowers and fruits), realized vegetation surveys, soil profile analyses, and tested for relationships between plant traits and the surrounding vegetation structure or soil physicochemical parameters.
Results
Large populations contained bigger patches with more stems and leaves, and produced more flower per individual than small populations. Neither vegetation alliances nor soil classes per se could predict C. calceolus functional traits and population size. However, functional traits explaining population performance and size were related to specific soil parameters (soil organic matter content, pH and phosphorus), in addition to a combination of presence-absence of plant indicator species, relating to ecotones between forests and clearings.
Conclusion
We show that even for species that can grow across a wide range of vegetation groups both indicator species and specific soil parameters can be used to assess the most favourable sites to implement (re)-introduction actions.
Background and Aims – To counteract the ongoing worldwide biodiversity loss, conservation actions are required to re-establish and regenerate populations of threatened species. Two key factors predominantly involved in finding the most suitable habitats for endangered plant species are the surrounding plant community composition and the physicochemical parameters of the soil rooting zone. However, such factors are likely to be context- and species-dependent, so it remains unclear to what extent they influence the performance of the target species.
Methods – Here, we studied 34 Swiss populations of the highly endangered orchid Cypripedium calceolus. We measured functional traits related to plant and population performance, realized vegetation surveys, and soil profiles analyses, and tested for relationships between plant traits and the surrounding vegetation structure or soil physicochemical parameters.
Results – We found that neither vegetation alliances nor soil classes per se could predict C. calceolus functional traits and population size. However, we found that C. calceolus functional traits explaining population performance and size were related to specific soil parameters, namely soil organic matter content, pH and phosphorus, in addition to a combination of presence-absence of six plant indicator species, relating to ecotones between forests and forest gaps.
Conclusion – We show that, even for species that can grow across a wide range of vegetation groups, such as the Lady’s Slippers orchids, both indicator species and specific soil parameters can be used to assess the optimal sites to implement (re)-introduction actions.
Forest degradation is attributed to the excessive use of forest resources and extraction, whether for subsistence or commercial purposes. With an increase in human population pressure on forests, forest degradation is becoming a concern for the conservation of biodiversity. The high human dependence on tropical dry forests underscores the need for a complete understanding of the interaction of humans and these forests to ensure their persistence and the wellbeing of the people who depend on these resources. This chapter examines forest resource use and degradation to provide a nuanced understanding of forest degradation and the impact of forest resource use.
Microsatellites are small and are codominant markers that can be amplified with polymerase chain reaction. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms possess large amounts of the microsatellites repeat. Many microsatellites have high mutation rates that generate the high levels of allelic diversity necessary for genetic studies of processes acting on ecological time scales. The high variability of microsatellites provided the foundation for their successful application in a wide range of fundamental and applied fields of biology. However, de novo isolation is needed for most species hence in this study we tried to mine the microsatellite marker using PCR-based isolation of microsatellite arrays (PIMA) on Blue spotted mudskipper, Boleophthalmus boddarti a fish uniquely restricted to coastal and estuarine habitat was also commercially important. Out of three trials, seven microsatellite repeats were detected but only three repeat types (AAG) 4 , (TCAG) 3 and (CT) 4 can be useful as microsatellite marker following PHOBOS V3.3.12 analysis. Meanwhile, the detection of octa (AATACAT) 2 , penta (TGACA) 2 and heptanucleotides (GGAGATA)2 were unable to be continued as functional microsatellite marker as there were missense variants and interruptions detected either on forward or reverse strand of the repeat. Thus, PIMA method could be considered as tedious and detected low yields of microsatellite markers. Nevertheless, the conventional method for generating microsatellite markers from PCR based methods could be done with in silico mining of microsatellite sequences from DNA sequence databases or next generation sequencing (NGS).
Species distribution models are a useful tool applied in many branches of biology, especially when dealing with threatened organisms. In combination with GIS techniques, these models are especially important and valuable for predicting occurrence of rare species, for example, orchids. Orchids are an endangered plant group, protected in the whole world. Questions of their conservation are therefore highly discussed, but not all factors affecting their survival and distribution are known so far. Here we show an example of using SDMs for analysis of orchid species occurrence data from the region of South Bohemia in the Czech Republic. Our data were analyzed using the MaxEnt program, which produces species distribution maps and thus allows predicting potential occurrence of orchids in yet unknown localities. This program also determines the environmental factors affecting species distribution. This is important for better protection of orchids, because we can improve management plans that are crucial for maintaining orchid localities to stay alive. We determined the most important factors affecting studied species occurrence and areas, where new sites are most likely to be discovered. This approach can help us to find new localities of orchids and to understand which environmental factors influence the occurrence of these endangered plants.
There has always been a great need for medicinal plants. In various ways, this need has always been met by man. The use of large quantities of plants affects their number, even after harvest, for various reasons, a large part of the raw material, ie the plants lose their usability, the processing and storage type is perfect. This reduces waste and serves as a precautionary measure. This article discusses certain stages in the post-harvest processing of medicinal plants.
Only a green world, rich in plants, can sustain us and the millions of other species with which we share this planet. But, in an era of global change, nature is on the retreat. Like the communities they form, many plant species are becoming rarer, threatened even to the point of extinction. The worldwide community of almost three thousand botanic gardens are holders of the most diverse living collections of plants and have the unique potential to conserve plant diversity. Conservation biology is a fast moving and often controversial field, and, as the contributions within these pages from experts in the field demonstrate, plant conservation is multifaceted, mirroring the complexity of the biodiversity it aims to protect, and striving not just to protect threatened plants but to preserve ecosystem services and secure the integrity of the biosphere.
Conservation biology has traditionally focused on the fine scale and the species level of biological organization (Soulé and Wilcox 1980), and biotic conservation is only one of the various goals that has directed the preservation and management of natural areas and resources. Resource management goals have largely been utilitarian or commercial, such as the maintenance of large areas for watersheds; preservation of marshes, bogs, and seasonal wetlands for flood water storage, nursery areas, and flow continuity in river systems, and the sustained yield of forests, fisheries, and wildlife (Temple et al. 1988; Aplet, Laven, and Fiedler in press). There have, however, been both practically and theoretically motivated calls for widening the focus to include scales beyond that of the individual site and levels of organization above that of the species (Soulé 1989; Western 1989) to approach new goals. This essay will explore the relationship of this new frontier for conservation biology to advances in ecology. Much of the new ecological focus of conservation biology is driven by the shift in the overarching paradigm of ecology itself. We begin by defining the concept of paradigm and characterizing the classical paradigm of ecology. The classical paradigm had definite implications for conservation, and these are shown to be problematical. Therefore, we outline the contemporary paradigm in ecology and show how the science of ecology has been affected by the shift in paradigm.
1 We suggest that Primula vulgaris in woodland habitats may form metapopulations: colonization is associated with the opening of canopy gaps and local populations become extinct as the canopy closes. The metapopulation is seen as a permanently changing system in which colonizations and extinctions are constantly occurring, coupled with forest canopy dynamics. 2 To describe metapopulation dynamics we use a Markovian model that incorporates the different stages through which local populations pass; we calculate the transition probabilities among those stages and estimate colonization and extinction rates. We combine empirical information on the demography of local populations and the dynamics of the forest mosaic in the model and use it to explore the effect of seed dispersal, fd (i.e. the fraction of seeds dispersing out of populations) and forest disturbance rate, k, on metapopulation growth rate, λM (i.e. the rate at which the number of populations in the metapopulation increases or decreases). 3 Increasing either fd or k has a positive effect on the projected metapopulation growth rate: higher disturbance rates increase the frequency of newly opened gaps in the environment and higher seed dispersal levels increase the probability of gap colonization. 4 Metapopulation growth rate is also affected by a number of other variables. It declines when time to local population extinction decreases and when fecundity is lower. The latter emphasizes that sufficient seeds must be available for dispersal to ensure gap colonization. 5 Stable patch/population-type distributions given different parameter values were obtained as the right eigen-vectors of metapopulation matrices. The proportion of forest patches occupied by P. vulgaris populations at equilibrium would be expected to be negligible under low k and fd values. 6 Metapopulation structure may break down under high disturbance rates because P. vulgaris local populations may never go extinct and thus seed dispersal would not play a major role in local population re-establishment.
In intensive agricultural areas small woodlots and woody hedgerows constitute
the only remnant of natural forested habitats. Because they are reduced in size and
are surrounded by farmlands, remnant habitats may be impacted by several abiotic factors.
The conservation value of these habitats, however, cannot be fully ascertained while plant
species richness and composition remain unknown. We describe the vegetation composition
of woodlot edges and hedgerows associated with agricultural fields of different farming
intensities. We inventoried thirteen woodlot edges and hedgerows in each of three types
of farming systems characterized mainly by different frequency of tillage and by different
levels of herbicide and fertilizer use.
The number and percentage cover of species present did not differ greatly between
farming regimes whereas the species composition varied considerably. In habitats adjacent
to intensively farmed fields, we found more short-lived grassy-type plants that were largely
of introduced origin and of weedy propensity. Conversely, more species typical of the
maple-tree association were found in habitats abutting less intensively managed fields.
Species composition and abundance also differed with distances into the woodlots and
hedgerows. These effects were more noticeable in woodlot edges than in hedgerows. We
discuss the results in relation to their conservation as well as their agronomic implications.
We suggest that a buffer strip at the edge of cultivated fields may be sufficient for the
protection of native plants in woodlots (and probably of other wildlife) and, to a lesser
extent, of hedgerows. Furthermore, buffer strips may reduce weed interaction between crop
and non-crop habitats.
Biodiversity is presently a minor consideration in environmental policy. It has been regarded as too broad and vague a concept to be applied to real-world regulatory and management problems. This problem can be corrected if biodiversity is recognized as an end in itself, and if measurable indicators can be selected to assess the status of biodiversity over time. Biodiversity, as presently understood, encompasses multiple levels of biological organization. In this paper, I expand the three primary attributes of biodiversity recognized by Jerry Franklin — composition, structure, and function—into a nested hierarchy that incorporates elements of each attribute at four levels of organization: regional landscape, community-ecosystem, population-species, and genetic. Indicators of each attribute in terrestrial ecosystems, at the four levels of organization, are identified for environmental monitoring purposes. Projects to monitor biodiversity will benefit from a direct linkage to long-term ecological research and a commitment to test hypotheses relevant to biodiversity conservation. A general guideline is to proceed from the top down, beginning with a coarse-scale inventory of landscape pattern, vegetation, habitat structure, and species distributions, then overlaying data on stress levels to identify biologically significant areas at high risk of impoverishment. Intensive research and monitoring can be directed to high-risk ecosystems and elements of biodiversity, while less intensive monitoring is directed to the total landscape (or samples thereof). In any monitoring program, particular attention should be paid to specifying the questions that monitoring is intended to answer and validating the relationships between indicators and the components of biodiversity they represent.
Conservation of the Earth's diversity is one of the most important and daunting challenges faced by biologists and politicians alike. The challenge has been taken up and declarations of intent issued, but there remains a basic problem of defining what we are trying to conserve, and why. This collection of essays reflects the wide range of views that are held of what constitutes biodiversity; from its perception in terms of species numbers, categorization of landforms, or different ecological levels, to a dynamic and socio-political necessity for our own survival. The problems of matching species numbers, variety and the systematic hierarchy to geographic areas which we may wish to save are addressed. Given that we need to set priorites for conservation, it is suggested that the preservation of the systematic hierarchy - as the most complete representation of the evolutionary legacy - should be the goal of conservation. A synthesis of systematics and convservation Outlines methods of selecting priority areas for conversation Challenges the concepts of 'megadiversity' and 'hotspots' Focuses on the problems of monitoring and establishing databases
As the need increases for sound estimates of impending rates of animal and plant species extinction, scientists must have a firm grounding in the qualitative and quantitative methods required to make the best possible predictions. Extinction Rates offers the most wide-ranging and practical introduction to those methods available. With contributions from an international cast of leading experts, the book combines cutting-edge information on recent and past extinction rates with treatments of underlying ecological and evolutionary causes. Throughout, it highlights apparent differences in extinction rates among taxonomic groups and places, aiming to identify unresolved issues and important questions. Written with advanced undergraduate and graduate students in mind, Extinction Rates will also prove invaluable to researchers in ecology, conservation biology, and the earth and environmental sciences.
During the past century, tropical rain forests have been reduced to about half of their original area, with a consequent loss of biodiversity. This book takes a close look at how this has happened and what the consequences may be, with an emphasis on those strategies that have proven successful in stemming the loss of plant and animal inhabitants. It describes the use of protected areas such as sacred groves, royal preserves, and today’s national parks, which have long served to shield the delicate forest habitats for countless species. Although programs for protecting habitats are under increasing attack, this book argues that a system of protected areas must in fact be the cornerstone of all conservation strategies aimed at limiting the inevitable reduction of our planet’s biodiversity. Written by leading experts with years of experience, the book integrates ecological, economic and political perspectives on how best to manage tropical forests and their inhabitants, throughout the world. In addition to conservationists, policy makers, and ecologists, the book will serve as a useful text in courses on tropical conservation.
Much attention has been given to the issues of sustainable use, sustainable development, and biodiversity conservation, as well as to the relationships among them. Some observers express a sense of optimism that implementing sustainable activities worldwide will lead to the conservation of biodiversity. In the popular media, there are examples almost daily of conservation success stories. But publicity for conservation and attention on biodiversity are being mistaken for solutions. What is perhaps more sobering than equating publicity with actions, or actions with solutions, is that the entire rubric of sustainability, in the rural context, has a set of questionable assumptions that underlies the portfolio of activities being implemented to conserve biodiversity. These assumptions have had a major impact in shaping the range of activities that have been developed to address the conservation of biodiversity— from policies (such as the Biodiversity Convention adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit) to projects implemented by conservation and development organizations worldwide (such as the Global Environmental Facility). The questionable assumptions fit into the following seven broad categories: • Method. Biodiversity conservation can best be accomplished through field-based activities, such as establishing parks and reserves. • Use. Sustainable use is possible under a variety of management regimes ranging from private to communal. Dependence on wildlands resources is most likely to ensure their long-term conservation. • Incentives. Appropriate sets of incentives can be readily defined and will influence people to conserve biodiversity. • Management. Management should be devolved to local control whenever possible. • Technology. Technical and organizational solutions exist to improve resource management and production activities in areas with great biodiversity. • Poverty Mitigation and Development. Rural poverty-mitigation and development strategies will lead to conservation and maintain biodiversity. • Social. Local people are cooperative and live in harmony with one another and with nature. These assumptions, and their implications, are increasingly being questioned as concern mounts that their implementation may lead to serious loss of biodiversity (see Ludwig et al., 1993; Robinson, 1993).
One of the critical challenges facing the world today is the conservation of biological diversity and the use of its components for the benefit of humanity. This challenge may be more specifically defined for biologists, whose role it is to catalogue existing biological diversity, to halt, or at least to diminish, the loss of species and ecosystem diversity and to conserve what remains for the benefit of mankind.
When considering the basis of conservation we are faced with two interwoven themes, namely, the ethical reasons on the one hand and the practical reasons on the other. Clearly, these overlap considerably. For ethical reasons, we believe it is wrong to eradicate species carelessly; rather that we should try to conserve as much as possible of the living world, that was given to us as a legacy from our forebears and which we should pass on in turn to our children. There is also a strong utilitarian argument to conserve. It is necessary to conserve genetic diversity, species and ecosystems because they are now, or may be in the future, essential for our own survival and that are even more valuable to us for a wide range of uses.
The biota of the earth is being altered at an unprecedented rate. We are witnessing wholesale exchanges of organisms among geographic areas that were once totally biologically isolated. We are seeing massive changes in landscape use that are creating even more abundant succes sional patches, reductions in population sizes, and in the worst cases, losses of species. There are many reasons for concern about these trends. One is that we unfortunately do not know in detail the conse quences of these massive alterations in terms of how the biosphere as a whole operates or even, for that matter, the functioning of localized ecosystems. We do know that the biosphere interacts strongly with the atmospheric composition, contributing to potential climate change. We also know that changes in vegetative cover greatly influence the hydrology and biochemistry ofa site or region. Our knowledge is weak in important details, however. How are the many services that ecosystems provide to humanity altered by modifications of ecosystem composition? Stated in another way, what is the role of individual species in ecosystem function? We are observing the selective as well as wholesale alteration in the composition of ecosystems. Do these alterations matter in respect to how ecosystems operate and provide services? This book represents the initial probing of this central ques tion. It will be followed by other volumes in this series examining in depth the functional role of biodiversity in various ecosystems of the world.
The absence of gene flow, genetic isolation, is frequently emphasized in conservation genetics. However, the presence of gene flow can play an equally important role in determining the genetic fate of populations. Here, I first review what is known of patterns of gene flow by pollen. Gene flow by pollen is often substantial among plant populations. I next review the expectations for gene flow patterns in the small populations typical of endangered species. Then, I consider what role gene flow can play in plant conservation genetics. Depending on the specific situation, such gene flow could be either beneficial or detrimental. Geographically disjunct populations might not always be as reproductively isolated as previously thought, and thereby less vulnerable to detrimental drift-based processes. On the other hand, conspecific or heterospecific hybridization may lead to extinction by outbreeding depression or genetic assimilation. Also, the field release of transgenic plants may lead to the escape of engineered genes by crop-wild plant hybridization. Such "genetic pollution" could have profound effects on the fitness of wild species with the potential for disrupting natural communities. Gene flow can be an important force in plant conservation genetics, and its potential role should be considered in any plant conservation management program.
Statistical decision theory can be a valuable tool for policy-making decisions. In particular, environmental problems often benefit from the application of Bayesian and decision-theoretic techniques that address the uncertain nature of problems in the environmental and ecological sciences. This paper discusses aspects of implementing statistical decision-making tools in situations where uncertainty is present, looking at issues such as elicitation of prior distributions, covariate allocation, formulation of loss functions, and minimization of expected losses subject to cooperation constraints. These ideas are illustrated through two case studies in environmental remediation.
An Example from the Sky Islands HE WILDLANDS PROJECT WAS ORGANIZED to coordinate conservation area design throughout North America, with a special focus on large carnivores and wilderness. During the last decade, we have learned a great deal about the scientific underpinnings of con-servation area design and the on-the-ground steps necessary to carry out such a design and plan. Since its first issue, Wild Earth has been home to the practical discussion of how to design con-servation areas so they are better able to protect species, ecosystems, and ecological processes. Early on, we decided we needed direct experience with conservation area design in order to learn how to do it. Only then would we feel we could help others. The Sky Islands Wildlands Network Conservation Plan is the result of that work. We have learned much from the process as well as from the scientific workshop organized by Michael Soulé and John Terborgh in 1997. The book resulting from that workshop, Continental Conservation: Scientific Foundations of Regional Reserve Networks (Soulé and Terborgh 1999), is the single most important source for understand-ing the theoretical and applied science behind conservation area design. Here, we share the dif-ferent pieces or elements that should be included in each conservation area design in the United States if it is to be comprehensive and contribute to real world conservation. Different regions of North America will emphasize certain of these elements over others, but most of these elements should be included in a thorough wildlands network proposal for any region. The Name of the Thing As science-based reserve design and conservation area plan-ning has evolved, many names have been used to describe the process and the product. Some words carry negative baggage in specific regions among certain groups with whom we would like to work. Reserve is such a word, with negative connotations for tribal groups and in Mexico. Because of this, we use conserva-tion area design for the process (Jeo et al. 1999). Since the mid-1980s, conservation area design to protect ecological values has been based on healing the fragmentation and degradation of the landscape with a complex of protected core areas, corridors, and buffer zones (Noss 1987). For this con-nected complex of protected areas, the product of the conserva-tion planning process, we use wildlands network. The word wild-lands has come to mean a range of natural and semi-natural landscapes. Network refers both to a network of conservation areas and to a network of people and communities who care about the land and are working together to protect (and use) it (Soulé 1995, 2000). A wildlands network is a proposed system of cores, linkages, and compatible use zones in an ecologically defined area, thus the Sky Islands Wildlands Network (SIWN, pronounced sigh-win). Rewilding a landscape requires more than a mapped wild-lands network, however. Reintroduction of extirpated species, ecological restoration, management guidelines, and compatible economic use standards are also necessary. When these man-agement efforts are combined with a wildlands network, a con-servation plan for the area is created. Therefore, conservation area design leads to a Wildlands Network Conservation Plan.
To prevent the further loss of species from landscapes used for productive enterprises such as agriculture, forestry, and grazing, it is necessary to determine the composition, quantity, and configuration of landscape elements required to meet the needs of the species present. I present a multi-species approach for defining the attributes required to meet the needs of the biota in a landscape and the management regimes that should be applied. The approach builds on the concept of umbrella species, whose requirements are believed to encapsulate the needs of other species. It identifies a suite of “focal species,” each of which is used to define different spatial and compositional attributes that must be present in a landscape and their appropriate management regimes. All species considered at risk are grouped according to the processes that threaten their persistence. These threats may include habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, weed invasion, and fire. Within each group, the species most sensitive to the threat is used to define the minimum acceptable level at which that threat can occur. For example, the area requirements of the species most limited by the availability of particular habitats will define the minimum suitable area of those habitat types; the requirements of the most dispersal-limited species will define the attributes of connecting vegetation; species reliant on critical resources will define essential compositional attributes; and species whose populations are limited by processes such as fire, predation, or weed invasion will define the levels at which these processes must be managed. For each relevant landscape parameter, the species with the most demanding requirements for that parameter is used to define its minimum acceptable value. Because the most demanding species are selected, a landscape designed and managed to meet their needs will encompass the requirements of all other species.
Preservation of wild populations implies their persistence, but biological persistence is a relative term. This paper outlines
criteria for what constitutes successful preservation and the methods available for determining population sizes and their
area requirements to meet these criteria.
The conservation of biological diversity has become one of the important goals of managing forests in an ecologically sustainable way. Ecologists and forest resource managers need measures to judge the success or failure of management regimes designed to sustain biological diversity. The relationships between potential indicator species and total biodiversity are not well established. Carefully designed studies are required to test relationships between the presence and abundance of potential indicator species and other taxa and the maintenance of critical ecosystem processes in forests. Other indicators of biological diversity in forests, in addition or as alternatives to indicator species, include what we call structure-based indicators. These are stand-level and landscape-level (spatial) features of forests such as stand structural complexity and plant species composition, connectivity, and heterogeneity. Although the adoption of practices to sustain (or recreate) key characteristics of forest ecosystems appear intuitively sensible and broadly consistent with current knowledge, information is lacking to determine whether such stand- and landscape-level features of forests will serve as successful indices of (and help conserve) biodiversity. Given our limited knowledge of both indicator species and structure-based indicators, we advocate the following four approaches to enhance biodiversity conservation in forests: (1) establish biodiversity priority areas (e.g., reserves) managed primarily for the conservation of biological diversity; (2) within production forests, apply structure-based indicators including structural complexity, connectivity, and heterogeneity; (3) using multiple conservation strategies at multiple spatial scales, spread out risk in wood production forests; and (4) adopt an adaptive management approach to test the validity of structure-based indices of biological diversity by treating management practices as experiments. These approaches would aim to provide new knowledge to managers and improve the effectiveness of current management strategies.
Resumen: La conservación de la diversidad biológica se ha convertido en una de las metas importantes del manejo de bosques de manera ecológicamente sostenible. Los ecólogos y manejadores de recursos forestales necesitan medidas para juzgar el éxito o el fracaso de los regímenes designados para mantener la diversidad biológica. La relación entre las especies indicadoras potenciales y la biodiversidad total no ha sido bien establecida. Se requiere de estudios diseñados cuidadosamente para determinar las relaciones entre la presencia y abundancia de especies indicadoras potenciales y otros taxones y el mantenimiento de procesos críticos del ecosistema en los bosques. Otros indicadores de diversidad biológica en bosques, además de las especies indicadoras o como alternativas de las mismas, incluyen lo que llamamos “indicadores basados en la estructura”. Estas son características a nivel de rodal y a nivel de paisaje (espacial) del bosque tales como la complejidad estructural del rodal y la composición de especies de plantas, la conectividad y la heterogeneidad. A pesar de que la adopción de prácticas para mantener (o reproducir) las características clave de ecosistemas forestales aparentan ser intuitivamente sensibles y ampliamente consistentes con el conocimiento actual, se carece de información para determinar si dichas características del bosque, a nivel de rodal o de paisaje, servirán como indicadores de la biodiversidad ( y ayudarán a conservarla). Dado el limitado conocimiento sobre las especies indicadoras y los indicadores basados en estructura, proponemos las siguientes cuatro estrategias para incrementar la conservación de la biodiversidad de los bosques: (1) establecer áreas de prioridad para la biodiversidad ( por ejemplo, reservas) manejadas principalmente para la conservación de la diversidad biológica; (2) dentro de bosques productivos, aplicar indicadores basados en estructura incluyendo la complejidad, la conectividad y la heterogeneidad; (3) dispersar el riesgo en bosques de producción maderera, utilizando estrategias múltiples de conservación a escalas espaciales múltiples; y (4) adoptar una estrategia de manejo adaptable para probar la validez de los índices de diversidad biológica basados en la estructura al tratar a las prácticas de manejo como experimentos. Estas estrategias intentan proveer información nueva a los manejadores y mejorar la efectividad de las actuales estrategias de manejo.
In this extension to the use of matrices in population mathematics (Lewis [1942 and Leslie [1945]), the division of a population into equal age groups is replaced by one of unequal stage groups, no assumptions being made about the variation of the duration of the stage that different individuals may show. This extension has application in ecological studies where the age of an individual is rarely known. The model is briefly applied to three experimental situations.
The probability of extinction is sensitive to the presence and character of density dependence controlling the dynamics of a population. This means that our capacity to estimate a population's risks of extinction under varying environmental conditions or competing management regimes is linked to our ability to reconstruct from data the density-dependence relationships governing the natural dynamics, especially when data do not reveal a trend of population growth or decline. In an example using Gadus morhua, we show that even 10- or 20-year data sets are too short to make precise estimates of these risks. We also observe, however, that under moderate or weak density dependence, the computed risks are lower than when density dependence is not included in the model. We propose, therefore, that when available data sets are insufficient for reconstructing reliable measurements of density dependence, conservative estimates of extinction probabilities can be made from models that simply omit density dependence.
The realization of conservation goals requires strategies for managing
whole landscapes including areas allocated to both production and protection.
Reserves alone are not adequate for nature conservation but they are the cornerstone
on which regional strategies are built. Reserves have two main roles. They
should sample or represent the biodiversity of each region and they should
separate this biodiversity from processes that threaten its persistence. Existing
reserve systems throughout the world contain a biased sample of biodiversity,
usually that of remote places and other areas that are unsuitable for commercial
activities. A more systematic approach to locating and designing reserves
has been evolving and this approach will need to be implemented if a large
proportion of today's biodiversity is to exist in a future of increasing numbers
of people and their demands on natural resources.
Human impact influences patterns of plant distribution and dominates disturbance dynamics in the agricultural landscape of Haut‐Saint‐Laurent, Québec. We investigated the influence of such impact on the dynamics of Thuja occidentalis in the hardwood forest of southern Québec. A bimodal species of either dry or wet habitats, T. occidentalis has successfully invaded mesic sites of the study area where, although generally considered a poor competitor, it persists as dense populations that seem to resist invasion by more tolerant species. As Acer saccharum is expected to be a dominant latesuccessional species under mesic conditions, we first evaluated the relative importance of abiotic and historical factors in the distribution of 34 T. occidentalis stands and 21 A. saccharum stands. We then classified 55 stands that include T. occidentalis and investigated the dynamic relationships between the species and its associates in 13 mixed mesic sites.
Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) of T. occidentalis and A. saccharum stands suggested that land use and drainage are the most important variables correlated with plant community composition. A partial CCA with drainage as the constraining variable showed that T. occidentalis stands were significantly associated to present or past use as pasture. Correspondence analysis of 55 stands where T. occidentalis is present produced a clear segregation between nearly monospecific stands and mixed communities, but the chosen environmental variables were not significant in explaining the vegetation gradient at this scale. In all mixed stands, Thuja occidentalis was most often associated with Ulmus americana , Acer rubrum , Betula populifolia , Fraxinus americana , A. saccharum , and Tsuga canadensis . Finally, size‐class ordination of 13 mixed mesic stands did not show convergence toward A. saccharum .
Our results suggest that grazing has played a significant part in the appearance of T. occidentalis stands on mesic sites, whereas competition processes and landscape patterns possibly contribute to the maintenance of relatively persistent T. occidentalis stands in the landscape.
Spatial structure and dynamics of multiple populations may explain species distribution patterns in patchy communities with heterogeneous disturbance regimes, especially when species have poor dispersal. The endemic-rich Florida (U.S.A.) rosemary scrub occupies about 4% of the west portion of Archhold Biological Station and occurs scattered within a matrix of less xeric vegetation. Longer fire-return times and higher frequency of open patches in rosemary scrub provide favorable habitat for many plant species. Occupancy of 123 species of vascular plants and ground lichens in 89 patches was determined by repeated site surveys. About two-thirds of the species occurring at more than 14 patches had a significant logistic regression of presence on time-since-fire, patch size, patch isolation, or their interactions. Species with presence related to the interaction between patch isolation and patch size were primarily herbs and small shrubs specializing in rosemary scrub. These results suggest the importance of spatial characteristics of the landscape for population turnover of these species. An incidence-based metapopulation model was used to predict extinction and colonization probabilities of those species with presence in rosemary scrub patches related to the studied spatial variables. This is the first attempt to apply incidence-based metapopulation models to plants. The results showed stronger effects of patch size and patch isolation on extinction probabilities of herbs than on those of woody species. Because of their effect on spatial heterogeneity and habitat-availability, fire suppression and habitat destruction may decrease persistence probabilities for these rosemary scrub specialists, many of which are endangered species.
Demographic modeling is used to understand the population viability of Furbish's lousewort, Pedicularis furbishiae , a perennial plant species endemic to the St. John River Valley in northern Maine. Environment‐specific summaries of demographic parameters (survivorship, growth, and fecundity) over four years, organized into stage‐based projection matrices, provide predictions of future population dynamics given a deterministic extension of past conditions. Stochastic modeling, using (I) empirically observed variation in demographic parameters, and (2) estimated rates of natural catastrophes, leads to predictions of extinction probability.
P. furbishiae viability has varied widely over the study period Viable populations with finite rates of increase > 1 are found where cover is low, woody plants do not dominate, and disturbance does not occur. Rates of increase vary over time, suggesting that stochastic analyses would be realistic. Stochastic measures of population viability incorporating environmental variation suggest that early successional environments, especially wetter sites, can support viable populations in the absence of disturbance. However; observed rates of natural catastrophe dominate viability estimates of individual populations. Metapopulation dynamics feature extinction rates that are greater than recolonization rates, and may be affected by land use in the watershed Species management needs to consider a large‐scale view of the riverine corridor.