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Child Labor and Schooling Decisions in Urban and Rural Areas: Comparative Evidence from Nepal, Peru, and Zimbabwe
Abstract
This study sheds some light on the causes of child labor using crosscountry empirical data. We find that while poverty is the main cause of child labor in rural areas, there is a general lack of support for the poverty hypothesis in urban areas. Similarly, improving access to credit has a greater potential for alleviating child labor and enhancing school attendance in rural areas. On the other hand, availability of alternative childcare options promises greater impact in urban areas. Finally, the evidence from all countries suggests that efforts to bolster adult educational level and wage will help curb the prevalence and intensity of child labor and improve the likelihood that children stay in school.
... Several studies emphasised child labour as a dominant factor that is negatively interlinked with schooling decisions and positively associated with school dropout (Ersado, 2005;Rosati and Rossi, 2003) as poverty, cost of schooling, and lack of parental education affects the incidence of child labour. In general, a child contributes a significant portion of their family income in developing countries to solve the economic hardship. ...
... Additionally, this study includes the availability of mobile phones, completing primary education (Kumar and Saqib, 2017), access to electricity, and area of residence (Ersado, 2005) as control variables which are measured in dummy form (0 = no, 1 = yes). It is found in the literature that using a mobile phone (Kates et al., 2018) and access to electricity (Ahmad et al., 2014) have a considerable effect on academic performance as well as economic well-being. ...
... The findings of this study are consistent with the available literature. Ersado (2005) has found a comparatively higher level of absenteeism in rural areas. Generally, students in rural areas suffer from chronic poverty, poor infrastructure facilities, poor electricity, lack of chairs and desks, and lack of parental involvement (Singh and Banerjee, 2019). ...
... Therefore, child labor might be an alternative pathway to exploitation. Although child labor and trafficking are different, they share similar risk factors, including economic instability and poverty [83,84]; exposure to or accumulation of shocks/stressors [63,85]; urban/rural disparities and poor livelihood options [86]; death, illness, or injury to a primary economic earner [85]; and gender inequality [63,86]. Other important factors, for child labor, are socialization [87], accessible and quality schools [63,85,86], and access to credit [86]. ...
... Therefore, child labor might be an alternative pathway to exploitation. Although child labor and trafficking are different, they share similar risk factors, including economic instability and poverty [83,84]; exposure to or accumulation of shocks/stressors [63,85]; urban/rural disparities and poor livelihood options [86]; death, illness, or injury to a primary economic earner [85]; and gender inequality [63,86]. Other important factors, for child labor, are socialization [87], accessible and quality schools [63,85,86], and access to credit [86]. ...
... Although child labor and trafficking are different, they share similar risk factors, including economic instability and poverty [83,84]; exposure to or accumulation of shocks/stressors [63,85]; urban/rural disparities and poor livelihood options [86]; death, illness, or injury to a primary economic earner [85]; and gender inequality [63,86]. Other important factors, for child labor, are socialization [87], accessible and quality schools [63,85,86], and access to credit [86]. Child labor is often used as a coping mechanism while families confront stressors, especially when there are inadequate social protection systems in place [85]. ...
Background
Modern slavery is a complex global health problem that includes forced labor exploitation. An ecological systems perspective is needed to understand how contextual upstream and midstream factors contribute to labor exploitation, and how disruptive societal challenges, such as infectious disease pandemics, may exacerbate established pathways leading to exploitation. Accumulation of familial and societal risk factors likely heightens vulnerability; for instance, economic precarity for an individual interacts with poor livelihood options and lack of social welfare supports increasing their likelihood of accepting exploitative labor. However, few frameworks exist that account for the accumulation of and interdependence between risk factors at different levels and across contexts.
Objective
Using an ecological systems framework, we review literature on the pathways leading to labor exploitation, with the aim of developing a conceptual model grounded in existing research. Next, we discuss how pathways in this conceptual model are likely exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This conceptual model can guide future research to detect modifiable factors and strategic points of intervention.
Methods
A critical review of research articles and gray literature was performed with a primary focus on sub-Saharan Africa. The review utilized various scholarly databases to identify perspectives from multiple disciplines and to more fully account for complex processes linked to labor exploitation.
Results
A conceptual model of these pathways was developed that emphasizes established determinants and risk factors for labor exploitation in sub-Saharan Africa. The model highlights how the COVID-19 pandemic may have exacerbated these pathways.
Conclusions
Future studies should carefully examine the direct and indirect pathways, accumulation of and interactions between factors, and specific external and personal stressors. Interdisciplinary research on multilevel interventions is needed to guide solutions to prevent the persistent problem of labor exploitation.
... Parents involved their Children in household work instead of doing school work. It has been documented that the higher the education of the parent or the household head, the greater the chances of increased access, regular attendance and lower dropout rates [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. ...
... Parents involved their Children in household work instead of doing schoolwork. It has been documented that the higher the education of the parent or the household head, the greater the chances of increased access, regular attendance, and lower dropout rates [33,17,18,22,19,15,16,20,21]. ...
Secondary education redefines the academic foundation of the child and serves as a link between the elementary and higher education, which in turns help in developing a reservoir of intellectual human resource. India envisioned having universalization of secondary education and substantial progress has been made in achieving the goal. Many of the children entering the schools are unable to complete education and multiple factors are responsible for their dropping out. It necessitates to a deeper probe into the problem of exclusion of children from secondary education. Present study provides an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon of educational exclusion at secondary school level in India. Empirical Phenomenological approach was adopted to carry out this study. The study was delimited to one state of India i.e. Punjab. A sample of 72 dropped-out adolescents (54 boys and 18 girls), their parents (61) was drawn from the selected areas of Punjab using ppurposive sampling technique. Open-ended questions were asked to generate data that led to a textural description. Data analysis revealed nine composite textural theme swhich included (i) Gender Bias (in case of girls), (ii) Finnacial Constraints (iii) School Distance (iv) Family responsibilities (v) Physical disability (vi) Demotivating and Hostile teachers (vii) Learning Difficulties (viii) Failure (ix) Early marriage in case of girls.
... In the CHT, poor parents employ their children in income-generating activities, more specifically in agriculture farming instead of sending them to school. It results to student absenteeism in school (Ersado, 2005). Hence, due to the gap in schooling, children cannot cope with school workloads and are permanently withdrawn from education (Hunt, 2008). ...
... Research suggests that children's education is greatly influenced by the level of education of household members (Hunt, 2008). According to Ersado (2005), "parental education is the most consistent determinant of child education" (p. 69). ...
The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is a backward and culturally diverse region in Bangladesh where indigenous children face barriers to access quality primary education. To educate CHT indigenous children, their culture and context are often not taken into consideration. Hence, to inform policy decisions, this study explores the existing realities of Indigenous children’s primary education through the eyes of individuals within the education system. The study employed a semi-structured interview method and applied phenomenological approach involving the development of crafted stories from the interviews. The study findings suggest that the centralized educational policies adversely impacting the Indigenous children’s primary education. In addition, corruption, insufficient consideration of local contexts, language barriers, administrative limitations, teacher shortages, absenteeism, lack of modern teaching methods and materials, inadequate infrastructural facilities, poverty, limited parental and community engagement and the recruitment of underqualified teachers heighten the challenges in accessing equitable and quality primary education for CHT Indigenous children. The findings underscore the urgent need for tailored solutions to address the challenges. In formulating policies, paramount consideration should be given to local contexts and cultural issues, especially from the perspective of Indigenous children. This research mainly focuses on CHT remote schools and does not explain the challenges of urban and rural schools separately. Hence, the findings may not be generalised in urban schools and other parts of the country.
... Other than poverty, empirically documented causes of child labor are socioeconomic disparities, poor governance, limited access to compulsory and free education, repression of workers' rights, limited prohibitions on child labor, loss or incapacitation/illness of parents, lack of social security and protection, poor access to decent work, cultural values, various conflicts, war and civil strife, poor implementation of international agreements, drought, resettlement, and immigration (e.g., Ersado, 2005;Kaur & Byard, 2021). ...
... Macroeconomic factors encourage child labor through the growth of a low-pay informal economy (Radfar et al., 2018;Ersado, 2005) found that while enhancing access to credit has a more significant potential for alleviating child labor in rural areas, the availability of alternative childcare options promises a greater impact in urban areas. Moreover, efforts to support adult education levels and wages help curb the prevalence and intensity of child labor in both urban and rural areas. ...
This study investigates the association between the unemployment rate and child labor among 30 Iranian provinces. In the absence of official data on child labor as a ubiquitous phenomenon, especially in developing countries, this study extracted official figures of child labor at the province level using the population and housing census data from the Statistical Centre of Iran. Controlling real GDP per capita, income inequality, and inflation rate, the results of panel data models (for boys and girls in rural and urban areas) indicate that unemployment is more severely and adversely related to child labor in rural areas. In contrast, it is positively and less strictly associated with child labor in urban areas. This result implies that while children work as complementary to their parents in the same workplaces in villages, they can substitute their parents in the cities’ labor market. Moreover, the complementary of child labor for the adult labor force in rural areas is higher than its substitutability in urban areas, in absolute terms. Finally, irrespective of residence, boys’ child labor is more responsive to the unemployment rate than girls, in absolute value.
Highlights
• A unique dataset on official figures of child labor in the Iranian provinces is created using the data from the Statistical Centre of Iran (SCI).
• The association between the unemployment rate and child labor is analyzed with panel data of 31 Iranian provinces, for boys and girls in urban and rural areas, controlling for real per capita income, income inequality, and inflation rate.
• The results indicate that unemployment is adversely related to child labor in rural areas, whereas it is positively associated with child labor in urban areas.
• While children work as complementary to their parents in the same workplaces in villages, they can substitute their parents in cities' labor market.
• Irrespective of residence, boy's child labor is more responsive to the unemployment rate than girls, in absolute value.
... As a result, parental education is a prominent determinant of children's education and employment. Higher parental levels of education are associated with increased access to education and lower dropout rates in their children (Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001;Connelly & Zheng, 2003;Hunter & May, 2003;Duryea, 2003;Ainsworth, Beegle, & Koda, 2005;Ersado, 2005;Grant & Hallman, 2006). Non-educated parents often do not appreciate the benefits of schooling (Juneja, 2001;Pryor & Ampiah, 2003) and often cannot provide appropriate support for the children's education, which negatively influences their children's achievement and motivation. ...
... Secondly, older children are more likely to be out of school because growing older increases the opportunity cost of their time that leads to drop out (e.g. Admassie, 2003;Ersado, 2005). For instance, the enrolment rates in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh drop sharply as children get older, especially from 7-10 years (UNESCO, 2008). ...
Improving access to and quality of education is necessary condition to prepare a skilled workforce to advance a country from one economic level to the next level. However, increasing access to and quality of education alone is not sufficient without equitable learning for all. Equal opportunity on education affects an individual’s life because it has the potential to improve the ability to think critically, to solve problems and to make appropriate decisions. Indonesian government simultaneously improves access to and quality of education for all citizens. Although its efforts had noticeable impact, many of the targets to improve access to and quality of education nevertheless still have not been achieved and education inequality is still persistent.
This dissertation studies the complex and multifaceted phenomenon of inequality in access to and quality of education. It uses analyses drawn from a multilevel multi-resource framework involving various nation-wide surveys, administrative datasets and experts’ interview data from three non-governmental organizations in Indonesia to comprehend some of the mechanisms behind the unequal access to and quality of education. It suggests that the impact of and interplays between human, social, economic, political and infrastructural capital at the individual, household, school, community and government level are important on inequality in access to and quality of education in Indonesia.
Some of the questions discussed in the four empirical chapter of the dissertation include: Which characteristics at the level of municipalities, households and children help to explain why children never attend or drop out from school in Indonesia? To what extent and under which conditions can variations in preschool participation be explained by differences in household-level and community-level resources, and what is the moderating role of social capital? To what extent did the decentralization of Indonesia’s educational sector affect (variability in) educational attainment at the provincial and municipal levels? How can variations in the (gender and parental socio-economic status related gaps of) academic achievement of students attending private Islamic schools be explained by ideological and organizational differences of their schools?
Which characteristics at the level of municipalities, households and children help to explain why children never attend or drop out from school in Indonesia?
We examine the relationship between municipality and household characteristics and the likelihood of children out of schooling. Building on opportunity structure approach, we theorize that a set of municipality and household characteristics could either hinder or facilitate children to be out of school. Hypotheses are tested using data from 221,392 children, nested in 136,182 households in 497 municipalities. Multilevel multinomial analyses show municipality education expenditure can help prevent dropout but it could not attract children to attend school to begin with. In contrast, the availability of schools decreases the likelihood that children never attend school but it does not reduce dropout. High municipality poverty rates increase the likelihood of children never attending school, but they also lead to lower dropout rates. Family factors, such as wealth, education investment and educational background also reduce the likelihood that children are out of school. Belonging to a female-headed household increases the likelihood that children never attend or drop out from school.
To what extent and under which conditions can variations in preschool participation be explained by differences in household-level and community-level resources, and what is the moderating role of social capital?
Drawing on social capital theory, we theorize that high levels of household and community social capital not only lead to higher preschool enrollment rates, but also temper the negative effects of low socio-economic status on preschool attendance. Hypotheses on socio-economic status and social capital effects and their interaction were tested with Indonesian survey data, collected in 2009, on 43,879 children nested in 42,855 households in 14,774 villages. Multilevel logistic regression analyses confirm the strong negative main effects of low socio-economic status. In addition, low levels of access to modern mass media significantly decrease preschool attendance. Social capital represented by household association and community reciprocity increase preschool participation. Social capital based on perceived reciprocity compensates low-income parents that empower them to send their children to preschool. Our findings revealed three interplay mechanisms: (1) reciprocity can compensate low-income families for sending their children to preschool as a within-level cross-resource effect; (2) living in a higher trust strengthen the effect of association on preschool participation as a between-level single-resource effect; (3) residing in urban area reinforces the effect of associations but it weaken the effect of reciprocity on preschool participation as a between level cross resource effect consists in urbanization.
To what extent did the decentralization of Indonesia’s educational sector affect (variability in) educational attainment at the provincial and municipal levels?
We advance existing research by examining the influence of both municipal factors and other explanatory variables on educational attainment in Indonesia. In particular, we hypothesize that after decentralization, 1) educational attainment is higher compared to the pre-decentralization era, 2) regional variations in educational attainment will have increased, and 3) the fiscal capacity, degree of urbanization, and development will be higher; the higher the municipality’s mean year of schooling. The latter is also expected for the newly created municipalities of the past years. Hypotheses are tested using panel data on 5,541,983 respondents aggregated to 3,880 observations in 491 districts/cities in 32 provinces for the pre and post-decentralization periods. Multilevel analyses reveal that after decentralization, the length of schooling slightly increased but progress in the length of schooling slightly decreased. In addition, educational attainment variation between provinces slightly decreased but the variation among municipalities increased. Moreover, the degree of municipalities’ development and urbanization have a significantly positive impact on improving educational attainment while the fiscal capacity and the status of being a new municipality do not have a significant effect on extending the length of schooling.
How can variations in the (gender and parental socio-economic status related gaps of) academic achievement of students attending private Islamic schools be explained by ideological and organizational differences of their schools?
We investigate the effects of different organizational governance (tracks) and ideological organization (streams) of private Islamic schools on student achievement and achievement gaps. Drawing on an education production function approach, we outline differences in investment and resource allocation decisions across these tracks and streams. Hypotheses are tested using Indonesian data collected in 2013 on 156,952 students in 3,150 schools in 366 municipalities. Evidence showed that student achievement and achievement gaps vary over private Islamic school tracks and streams. Even though student achievement and achievement gaps are strongly determined by student and family characteristics, the results show that differences between school tracks and streams also play an important role. Moreover, this study found two interplay mechanisms: (1) attending in Traditionalist and Modernist streams significantly decrease the achievement of female students as an example of between-level and cross-resource effects; (2) being located in a municipality with a high poverty rate decreases the positive effect of madrasah on student achievement as a between-level single-resource effects.
... Studi-studi sebelumnya menunjukkan faktor kemiskinan yang berada di desa dengan kondisi fasilitas pendidikan tidak mendorong anak-anak untuk memilih bekerja daripada sekolah. Kedua, tersedianya kesempatan pendidikan di perkotaan memberikan kesempatan yang lebih baik bagi anak agar dapat belajar di sekolah daripada anak yang berada di desa (Ersado, 2005;Waniganeththi, 2009). ...
Penelitian ini untuk menganalisis sebuah karakteristik yang dimiliki setiap rumah tangga pada alokasi waktu anak untuk bekerja. Pada penelitian ini alokasi waktu anak dalam bekerja dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor seperti jenis kelamin dan dimana tempat tinggal setiap rumah tangga. Survey ini menggunakan gelombang ke 5 Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS-5) tahun 2014. Penelitian ini mengambil sampel dari unit rumah tangga yang memiliki anak usia 7 sampai dengan 14 tahun. Pada penelitian ini memiliki Variabel dependen dan variabel independen. Variabel dependen terdiri dari jam kerja anak. Variabel “Waktu kerja anak” menggambarkan intensitas kerja anak. Intensitas kerja anak dapat diketahui dari waktu yang dihabiskan untuk tugas kerja dalam seminggu. Variabel independen terdiri dari tiga variabel utama. Yang pertama adalah karakteristik anak yaitu jenis kelamin dan usia anak. Selanjutnya, karakteristik dari orang tua yaitu jenis kelamin kepala rumah tangga. kemudian, ciri-ciri tempat tinggal yang berada di desa maupun di kota serta tinggal di pulau Jawa atau di luar Jawa.
... Studies have shown that parental educational status is correlated with children's out-of-school statuses. For children whose parents are educated, they have a better chance of being enrolled in school because educated parents know the importance of education (Ersado, 2005). On the other hand, some uneducated parents may treat the education of their children with levity, and this may deny them access to formal education. ...
There are over 10 million children of primary school age out-of-school in Nigeria. Thus, school non-attendance is still a major problem in the country. A few studies have been done to understand the causes; nevertheless, there is a dearth of studies that have examined the gender variations in out-of-school children (OOSC) and the underlying predictors across the country. Investigating the gender dimension of school non-attendance will enhance gender specific policies as the causes of school non-attendance are likely to vary between gender and across states or regions. To this end, this study conducts a spatial analysis to determine the geographical differences in OOSC, the hotspots of OOSC, and the underlying predictors using spatial statistical techniques. Contrary to the widely held opinion, findings indicate that more boys are out-of-school than girls. Across the country, the northern region accounts for a significant percentage of OOSC. The state-level analysis shows that Bauchi State is the hotspot for male school non-attendance while Sokoto, Kebbi, and Niger States are the hotspots for female school non-attendance. Evidence from the spatial analysis indicates that poverty is a significant predictor of OOSC majorly in the northwest and northeast regions of the country. The study recommends the need to alleviate poverty to improve school enrolment and the expansion of back-toschool programs for out-of-school boys.
... These findings are similar to those of Mike, Nakajjo & Isoke, 2008) which found that high academic achievement of a father and mother significantly reduces chances of primary school dropout for both girls and boys. This is also in agreement with Ersado (2005) and Grant and Hallman's (2006) studies which found that higher education levels of parents lead to higher attendance and low dropout rates among children. ...
Although schools report a variety of reasons why learners leave school prematurely, these reasons do not reveal the underlying causes, especially multiple factors that influence learners’ attitudes, behaviours, and performance prior to dropping out. In order to understand the underlying causes behind learners’ decisions for dropping out, using a quantitative approach through document analysis this study first analysed the Education Management Information System (EMIS) reports for 2005 to 2009. The findings revealed that Kavango, Kunene and Omaheke regions were the regions with the highest dropout rates in the country. Using a qualitative approach, with a phenomenological design, the researchers interviewed school principals, school counsellors and teachers at randomly selected 20% of schools with the highest dropout rate for each region. This resulted into 58 schools in the Kavango region, 10 schools in the Kunene region and 5 schools in the Omaheke region. At the same schools, and using the snowball sampling procedure, the researchers selected and interviewed learners who have dropped out at some point during their schooling days but came back to school. The study found that, for all the learners interviewed, 50% of learners dropped out due to pregnancy, 20% dropped out due to economic factors, 15% due to system factors, 11% due to lack of parental involvement, and 4% due to cultural factors. On the basis of the findings a number of recommendations are made to mitigate the dropout phenomenon.
... Also, child labour is expanding as the economy is growing, which some see as an indication of a flawed economy. Nonetheless, a study by Ersado (2005) found that children in Nepal contribute about 7% of the household income, which is quite high compared to other developing countries. ...
The main objective of the study was to draw out the economic condition of the family along with the causes of child labour and its impact on health education. The purposing sampling method was taken to select the respondent.135 respondents were selected by convenient sampling methods. The low educational status of child labour was the major problem. The health condition of the labour was weak due to unhealthy working environment. Out of 135 respondents, 40 (29.62%) respondents were suffering from different kinds of disease. The respondents were found to be lacking of proper educational status. All of them were found to have studied below SEE level. Children's work is very harmful, hazardous, or is in other ways exploitative can create, exacerbate, or perpetuate an intergenerational cycle of poverty, malnutrition and social disadvantage.
... On the contrary, the analysis finds that children whose parents are educated are more likely prefer school attendance to child labour. Lire, (2005) using cross-countries data and investigates main factors of child labour and schooling. The study finds that in rural area poverty is the prime cause of child labor while in urban area no significant relationship was found between poverty and child labour services. ...
Child labour is an issue of global concern. It assumes more importance when it comes to developing countries like Pakistan. This study attempts to highlight this child labor issue in Mardan District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, a province of Pakistan. The analysis collects information through modified questionnaire by randomly interviewing households. Using Multinomial Logit model, the analysis finds that probability of child schooling is high, in case a child is already enrolled in primary school education. Similarly, child schooling is more likely when monthly income of a family head increases. However, with the increase in ‘age’ and ‘monthly income’ of a child, the probability of child labour tends to increase. Additionally, Poor financial position of a family also increases the chances for child’s labour activities. Furthermore, the analysis finds variables like “initiative of work by child himself” and “working capacity” increase the chance for a child to combine school with labour activities. That is, if a child engages himself in labour work on permanent basis, such a child is more likely to combine school with labour work to finance his educational expenses. On the contrary, a household prefers his child neither to attend school nor labour work in case of increasing family’s income. That is, in such a situation a household may prefer his child to engage in homecare activities. Finally, the analysis shows that probability of child schooling is high in case a child is living in rural areas. Based on empirical findings, the study suggests few practicable steps to the government for addressing the child labour issue. Opening more primary schools in remote areas and providing vocational training centers to children whose families cannot afford educational expenses, would be helpful in reducing child labour exclusively.
... The existing gender biased jobs might also bring a variation on child labor (Ersado, 2005). Male ...
this research is about the effect of shock(drought) on child labor.it investigates whether drought adds to more child labor or reduce child labor due to the absence of work opportunities.
... Previous studies that use Young Lives data have established the importance of birth order for the children's labour supply decision (see for instance, Edmonds (2006) and Seid and Gurmu (2015)). The empirical regularity that children's work and study times increase with age is also well established (see for instance, Ersado (2005) and Edmonds (2006)). Therefore, we control for birth order and age in all the estimations, and we also control for age-squared to account for non-linearities in the relationship between age and time use. ...
Advances in data collection and methodology have contributed to the rise of time use as a topic of economic analysis, but much of the research focuses on adults in advanced economies. We document gendered differences in the intra‐household allocation of children's time in Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam based on the Young Lives Longitudinal Study. Using household fixed effects regressions, we document a leisure deficit for girls, highlighting a gender gap that has received less attention. We use the concept of time poverty to further investigate the nature of the leisure deficit, applying a relative time poverty line. A gender gap in the incidence of time poverty emerges at an early age and is spread across the wealth distribution. Our findings relate to the literature on time poverty of women in developing countries and have implications for promoting gender equality under Sustainable Development Goal target 5.4 on unpaid care and domestic work.
... Ngoài ra, con cái của những bậc cha mẹ được giáo dục tốt hơn thường có quyết định đi học nhiều hơn (Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997;Ersado, 2005;Huisman & Smits, 2009;Shavit & Blossfeld, 1993). Các bậc cha mẹ có trình độ học vấn càng cao càng nhận thức được tầm quan trọng của việc học từ đó đầu tư cho con cái của họ nhiều hơn. ...
Nghiên cứu sử dụng bộ số liệu Khảo sát mức sống hộ gia đình Việt Nam năm 2018 và phương pháp hồi quy Multinomial Logistic nhằm phân tích mối quan hệ giữa thời gian làm việc của người mẹ đến sự phân bổ thời gian của người con cho việc học hoặc tham gia lao động. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy việc người mẹ dành nhiều thời gian cho công việc giúp người con càng được đến trường nhiều hơn. Các yếu tố khác như tuổi, trình độ học vấn, quy mô hộ, tài sản, dân tộc cũng ảnh hưởng đến quyết định phân bổ thời gian của người con trong gia đình. Kết quả nghiên cứu không chỉ đóng góp cho các nghiên cứu thực nghiệm về lao động nữ và sự phân bổ thời gian của trẻ mà còn đề xuất những chính sách giúp chính phủ và chính quyền địa phương hỗ trợ cho con em được học hành đến nơi đến chốn vì trẻ em của hiện tại chính là tương lai của quốc gia.
... Girls' privacy in schools is an important factor that forces girls to drop out. Secondary school girls are still young; they are also ashamed of their male peers, and especially if it is known that they are in the menstruation period, they prefer to separate themselves; if they cannot find a private place, they believe it is better to stay at home [30]. ...
Dropout has been identified as one of the major issues in schools, affecting the youth's future. Despite all initiatives to ensure education for all, dropout remains persistent and a challenge towards achieving education for all in Tanzania. This study investigated measures of reducing dropout among girls in community secondary schools in Temeke municipality. Specifically, the study focused on the reasons for girls’ dropout and measures to be employed to manage it. The study adopted a mixed method design targeting community secondary schools in Temeke municipality. A sample size of 169 respondents, including heads of schools, teachers, students, parents, education officers, and ward education officers, was drawn using both purposive and probability sampling techniques. Questionnaire, interview, observation and focus group discussion methods were used to collect primary data, while documentary review was used to collect secondary data. The study discovered that distance from school, family low income, inadequate sanitary pad punishment, economic factors, and poverty and family problems such as family conflicts are the main causes of secondary school dropout for girls in the named municipality. The strategies that have been used to minimize girls’ dropout are education for self-awareness, making connections with at-risk students, alternative schooling, family teacher engagement and strengthening laws. The study recommends some ways of reducing secondary school dropout to include policy innovation to allow stakeholders flexibility in addressing challenges related to dropout. The government should ensure the presence of enough teachers and adequate teaching and learning materials to improve infrastructure, especially toilets for girls.
... In areas where schools do not to have enough teachers, parent are discouraged from sending their children to school as they consider it as waste of resources and time to send their children to school without teachers available to teach them. This positive correlation between the number of teachers and school enrolment is in conformity with the works of Edmonds (2006), Ersado (2005) and Thorbecke and Charumilind (2002). This means that as public expenditure on education increases, the number of children enrolled in school also increases. ...
In Kenya, since 2008, the government has increased monies going to the education sector in collaboration with other foreign organizations in an effort to reduce the amount of money that households spend on their children who attend public secondary schools. In public secondary schools in Bungoma County, Kenya, this study aimed to determine how much the average government education spending affects the sustainability of student enrollment in secondary schools. A descriptive survey design was used for the investigation. The principals and household heads from Bungoma County's public secondary schools made up the target population. The 691 school principals and household heads in this study were chosen using a stratified random sampling procedure to ensure that the sample was representative. As instruments for gathering data, questionnaires, schedules for interviews and observations, and document analysis were all used. Expert judgment was used to determine validity. Through piloting, reliability was established. Statistics, both descriptive and inferential, were used to analyze the data. According to this survey, a secondary school student's Kshs 10,265 allowance is insufficient to keep them in school. According to the study's findings about government spending on each student, more students are enrolling in secondary school as government spending rises. As a result, this study suggests that, in order to raise the enrollment rate of pupils, the government or other educational stakeholders can assist parents who have children in first grade in purchasing a school uniform.
... Different scholars have focused their research on different causes of school dropout for exploring their combined and individual effect on child's schooling. Some of the causes of school dropout as highlighted by different scholars are absence and lack of competence of teachers, lack of education among parents, poor learning conditions in schools (Malik, et al., 2013, 13), overcrowded class rooms, poor teaching methods, inappropriate curriculum, weakness of educational system, distance of school and absence of cocurricular activities (Hussain et al., 2010, 52), poor economic conditions, parents carelessness, schooling expenses, lack of attraction for education among children, no quick benefit of education, and students mental status (Malik, 2002, 649), lack of educational facilities, non-availability of educational material, absenteeism, and discrimination (Zarif, 2012, 145); child's physical characteristics (Farooq 2013, 59); puberty, safety and reputation especially of the girl child (Lewin, 2011); child labour (UNICEF, 2013); child care and domestic chores (ACTED, 2015, 11;Ersado, 2005;Shahab & Sherani 2015) to name a few. ...
This research study explores the child’s dislike for school and studies as a potential cause for school dropout in Sindh. The paper focuses on the gender-based differences among male and female school dropout children of Sindh about their personal dislike for school and studies being the self-reported reason for their school dropout. The survey with the help of a closed-ended questionnaire was done with male and female school dropout children from various districts across Sindh. A three-item scale developed on 5 point Likert scale response categories is used for the purpose of collecting data on children’s dislike for schooling and studies as the reason for leaving school early. The total number of cases included in this research is 5641 school dropout children from Sindh. It includes 4032 boys and 1609 girls. The data were statistically analyzed and presented in the forms of tables. The results of data analysis show that there is a statistically significant difference among male and female school dropout children on their dislike for schooling and studies as being the reason for their school dropout. The results of the study show that more boys leave school due to their dislike for school and studies as compared to girls in the province of Sindh.
... Besides household wealth, the educational level and labor market position of the parents are expected to play a role. There is ample evidence that children from better-educated parents more often go to school and tend to drop out less (UNESCO, 2010;Huisman and Smits, 2009;Ersado, 2005;Buchmann and Brakewood, 2000;Colclough, Rose and Tembon, 2000;Shavit and Blossfeld 1993). Parents who have reached a certain educational level might want their children to achieve at least that level (Breen and Goldthorpe, 1997). ...
Family planning plays a pivotal role in population control, poverty reduction and human development. There is a great need and necessity for family planning, particularly among the developing countries like India because of the massive population explosion. This paper reports the knowledge and practice of family planning in the two tribal communities of Arunachal Pradesh viz. Singphos and Wanchos.
... Di negara-negara berkembang, ditemukan bahwa anak yang lebih muda dalam keluarga memiliki peluang lebih besar untuk bersekolah (Buchmann dan Hannum, 2001;Smits, 2007; Huisman dan Smits, 2009a;2009b). Hal ini dikarenakan anak yang lebih tua dalam keluarga memiliki tanggung jawab yang lebih besar untuk melakukan pekerjaan rumah tangga dan menjaga adik-adik yang lebih muda atau berkontribusi terhadap pendapatan keluarga (Knodel et al., 1990;Ersado, 2005;Smits, 2007; Huisman dan Smits, 2009a;2009b). ...
Studi ini mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis karakteristik partisipasi sekolah anak-anak di Indonesia pada jenjang usia 7 sampai 15 tahun. Dengan menggunakan data Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional (SUSENAS) tahun 2012, hasil estimasi model probit menunjukkan bahwa anak laki-laki di Indonesia memiliki peluang lebih besar menjadi out-of-school children (oosc). Begitu pula dengan peluang anak-anak yang tinggal di pedesaan, yang lebih besar menjadi oosc dibandingkan dengan anak-anak yang tinggal di perkotaan. Ketersediaan sekolah sangat diperlukan pada tingkat sekolah dasar untuk mengurangi oosc. Namun, pada tingkat sekolah menengah pertama penambahan jumlah sekolah tampaknya bukanlah pilihan tepat.
... Hal ini erat kaitanya dengan akses, fasilitas yang tersedia di perkotaan terutama akses pendidikan. Anak-anak yang bertempat tinggal di perkotaan memiliki kesempatan lebih baik untuk menempuh pendidikan dibandingkan dengan anak-anak yang tinggal di pedesaan, sehingga kemungkinan anak-anak perkotaan untuk bekerja lebih kecil (Ersado, 2005). Sedangkan di wilayah perdesaan, banyak kemiskinan serta sarana pendidikan yang kurang mendukung menyebabkan anak-anak lebih cenderung bekerja dibandingkan sekolah (Khan, 2010). ...
Child labor is a form of violence and exploitation of children with economic motives. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an increasing percentage of child labor from 2.35 percent in 2019 to 3.25 percent in 2020. This is a consequence of the supply side of child labor, the economic factor behind the availability of child labor. This study aims to analyze the effect of poverty on child labor in Indonesia using data from the March 2020 National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas) and binary logistic regression analysis. The results showed that the highest percentage of child labor was found in poor households, the lowest 25 percent of per capita expenditure. By conducting a robustness check, the resulting poverty status has a positive and significant impact on the opportunities for child labor in Indonesia. The influence of poverty on child labor opportunities is largely due to household economic factors.
... Most of Muslim countries like Somalia parents prefer to send both their sons and daughter to Madaras equally before the age of 7 years, while this is compulsory according to Islam religion. A similar study supported the current research that parental education is the most consistent determinant of child education and employment decisions [45]. ...
Qualitatively the study adopted a case study research design to examine the parental factors that motivate female students to complete formal education in Tolon District. The population for this study comprised of all females in the Tolon District who have successfully completed formal education. A purposive sampling technique was used to select ten (10) females who have successfully completed formal education and are now working in the Tolon District. The main instrument used for data collection was interview. Data were analysed by the use of the Interpretive Method based on the themes arrived at during the data collection. The themes were related to the research question and interpreted on the number of issues raised by respondents. The study revealed that, financial support of parents was vital to enrolment, sustenance and ultimate completion of the education of females. The study also indicated that parents give support in the form of guidance and counseling as well as moral support through encouragement of the Girl-Child played a key role to their successful education. It is recommended that, parents still need more advocacies on the importance of educating the girl child in order to enhance their interest in sending or motivating the girl child in school. It is also recommended that parents should discouraged early marriages to help girls to fully complete their formal education.
... In addition, death in the family, nonenrollment, late enrollment, and sluggish progress were also deemed as substantial factors (Nyamukpa and Gregson, 2005). Moreover, Ersado (2005) also discovered that distance to schools, the improper language of instruction, and teacher absenteeism can lead disinterested students to leave school. Colcough, Rose, and Tembon (2000) asserted that, there is lack of support system for children and lack of awareness on the part of school authorities and teachers following the requirements of at-risk children. ...
The prevalence of dropouts in educational institutions especially in secondary schools affected the integrity of the system. It is important to note that, every country invest in its youths because they are the country’s future human resources, among them will emerge leaders in politics, academics, technology, and business of various dimension. This paper attempted to identify the factors that influence school dropout and the consequences that would result. The paper identifies the following as some of the factors that would influence the secondary dropout all over the globe and Kebbi State in particular. The investigation indicated that the problems of dropouts are far more nuanced than its apparent cause would suggest. In the state of Kebbi, there are a number of factors that contribute to students dropping out of secondary school such as kidnapping students for ransom, banditry, thuggery, insurgent activities, general insecurity, cultism, parents' divorce, minority in language/ethnicity differences, physical disability as well as poverty, lack of government support, illiterate parents/family background, “I don’t care”/indifferent attitude in community, drug abuse, unwanted pregnancy, early child marriage and etc. These are among several factors contributing to students dropping out of school.
... Previous research has shown that socioeconomic statuses of parents have an independent effect on children's primary education. For example, the children of high-status families admit early, and attend regularly to school than the children come from low status families, while children from lower status parents have delayed enrollment, irregular class attendance and lower school performance (Basu, 1999;Bennell, 2002).With regard to educational level of parents, there is ample evidence that children from illiterate parents compared to literate parents less often admit to school early, stay in school and have lower school performance (Buchman & Brakewood, 2000;Ersado, 2005;UNESCO, 2005). ...
... Although not all were affected equally, urban-rural differences were exacerbated and a study by Erica Pufall et al. in particular has shown how stalled educational development resulted in the disproportionate suffering of girls (Pufall et al. 2016). Migration from Zimbabwe to countries in the region accelerated (Ersado 2005;Shadreck 2012;Mugweni and Dakwa 2013;Ncube 2009;Pufall et al. 2016;Takaindisa 2020). ...
How African migrants establish themselves within new contexts through struggles for education is a relatively under-researched phenomenon in South Africa. The notion of "idioms of rootlessness" has been developed to make sense of migrants' understandings of new hostile environments. This article troubles this botanical metaphor through an exploration of the life-history of one Zimbabwean woman who migrated to South Africa and the specific role of education in her trajectory in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Her story is examined against the backdrop of the changing political economy of education in Zimbabwe and South Africa. In highlighting how she navigates borders for the education of her children and decides which children to educate where it shows how educational values, beliefs and practices also migrate. The paper argues that her struggle for the education of her children can also be interpreted as an expression of the desire for attachment in both spaces and as a means of claiming a place in both countries, across borders, for herself and her children.
... The amount of time spent in these work-related activities is often traded off with children's time spent on schooling and other educational activities (Dornan & Woodhead, 2015;Hsin, 2007;Larson & Verma, 1999). Particularly, children from poor households in rural areas are more likely to engage in child labor (Ersado, 2004). Although little is known about how children from developing countries use their free time, there is accumulating evidence that children in developing countries also spend a significant amount of time on leisure activities (Larson & Verma, 1999;Rees, 2017;Singer et al., 2009). ...
Despite the importance of children’s time use to their quality of life, relatively few international comparative studies have focused on the patterns of children’s time use and their relationship with quality of life. This study, therefore, aimed to examine the typologies of time use among 12-year-old children by gender and their relationship with their quality of life. We used the second wave of data from the International Survey of Children’s Well-Being collected from 16 countries. Children’s time use, gender, satisfaction with time use, and life satisfaction were included as the key variables. Latent class analysis using MPLUS 7.0 was utilized. Gender differences in the classification of time-use patterns were identified. Three latent classes (G1, G2, and G3) were identified for girls. Overall high activity group (G1) had the highest level of satisfaction, whereas family helpers (G3) had the lowest level of satisfaction with their time use and life in general. Boys, however, were classified into four classes (B1, B2, B3, and B4). Overall high activity group (B4) had the highest levels of satisfaction with their time use and life in general. The results show that children who actively engage in various activities experience the most satisfaction with their lives and time. Substantial gender differences in time use, particularly around typical gender roles (e.g., housework and family caring), are noteworthy. Programs and policies that encourage children to reduce digital time and enhance activities in other areas are also discussed.
... In addition, Ersado (2005), mentioned that poverty has an effect on students' attendance at school. To combat poverty, it was recommended that children have access to good schools and that institutions support adult wages. ...
In today's culture, it is possible to see an increase in the number of kid employees. Many youngsters believe they have no choice but to labor to provide for their families survival. With this study, the researchers want to get a better understanding of the lived experiences, challenges, and coping mechanisms of child laborers who are caught in the center of the COVID-19 pandemic. Interviews were used by the researchers for the data collection process. This interview was divided into three categories, which were anchored in the following codes: (1) lived experiences as a child laborer; (2) problems experienced as a child laborer; and (3) coping mechanisms. According to the findings of the research, children who are exposed to work at a young age are more likely to suffer from a disease, food shortages, and a lack of access to education and health care as a consequence of their families' limited financial resources. These youngsters tend to cling to their dreams and pray to be able to continue battling through the difficulties in their lives.
... Besides household wealth, the educational level and labour market position of the parents is expected to play a role. There is ample evidence that children from better educated parents more often go to school and tend to drop out less (UNESCO, 2010;Huisman and Smits, 2009;Ersado, 2005;Buchmann & Brakewood, 2000;Colclough, Rose & Tembon, 2000). Parents who have reached a certain educational level might want their children to achieve at least that level. ...
The study examined the enrolment of children in public pre-primary schools from 2010 to 2014 and investigated parents' attitudes
towards enrolment of children in Ondo state public pre-primary schools. These were with the view to providing information on
enrolment of children in pre-primary schools in Ondo State. The research design that was adopted was the descriptive survey research
design. The population for the study consisted parents and teachers of public primary school pupils as well as ministry of education
officials. The sample comprised 360 teachers of pre-primary school children and 360 parents as well as 60 Ministry of Education
officials. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select the sample for the study. Two instruments were used for the study. The
result showed that there was 13.44% enrolment in year 2010, 13.21% in year 2011, 16.76 in year 2012, 20.73 in 2013 and 35.86% in
2014. The study also showed that 16.1% of the parents had negative attitudes towards the enrolment of children in Ondo State public
pre-primary schools while the vast majority (83.9%) of the parents had positive attitudes towards the enrolment of children in public
pre-primary schools in Ondo State. The study concluded that there has been increase in enrolment of children in public pre-primary
schools in Ondo state. Parents' attitudes towards enrolment of children in Ondo state public pre-primary schools is positive. It is
recommended that relevant authorities should concentrate on developing and improving school administration, as this will further
improve enrolment in schools.
... La literatura que estudia los efectos del trabajo infantil sobre el desempeño escolar revela tres enfoques principales para el análisis de la interacción entre el trabajo infantil y la educación. Una parte de la investigación se enfoca principalmente en mostrar las asociaciones entre el trabajo y la asistencia escolar entre los niños (Deb y Rosati, 2004;Paul Shultz, 2004;Ersado, 2005;Khanan y Rusell, 2005;Emerson y Souza, 2007;Chamarbagwala, 2008;Shimamura y Lastarria-Cornhiel, 2010). Algunos estudios han encontrado que reducir el trabajo infantil no necesariamente garantiza incrementos en el logro educativo. ...
... La literatura que estudia los efectos del trabajo infantil sobre el desempeño escolar revela tres enfoques principales para el análisis de la interacción entre el trabajo infantil y la educación. Una parte de la investigación se enfoca principalmente en mostrar las asociaciones entre el trabajo y la asistencia escolar entre los niños (Deb y Rosati, 2004;Paul Shultz, 2004;Ersado, 2005;Khanan y Rusell, 2005;Emerson y Souza, 2007;Chamarbagwala, 2008;Shimamura y Lastarria-Cornhiel, 2010). Algunos estudios han encontrado que reducir el trabajo infantil no necesariamente garantiza incrementos en el logro educativo. ...
... Lower density of schools and the travelling distance to school can become an obstacle to access for rural children, resulting in out-of-school status or late attendance (Vasconcellos, 1997;Glick, 2008). Relatively stronger persistence of traditional norms on child labour, often interacted with wealth and gender, can keep children out of school or risk dropout (Ersado, 2005; UNESCO, 2014). MDG does not explicitly state the need to address the educational disparities between urban and rural areas. ...
Existing research has acknowledged the importance of pre-primary education and pointed out numerous dimensions where we find significant gaps in access. But how large are these gaps relative to each other and which ones demand highest priorities in education policy? To answer this, we use survey data from 83 countries between 2010 and 2016 and estimate and compare the extent to which pre-primary education access is determined by gender, urban-rural status, socioeconomic status, and subnational unit. The results suggest that traditional focus on gender and urban-rural residence is not sufficient for equity in pre-primary education access, as we find the gaps between subnational units to be the largest. There is also a substantial regional and cross-sectional variation for each dimension.
... A total of 786 records from five databases were retrieved with screening resulting in 9 studies, capturing self-reported data from 6247 child laborers. Studies from urban areas and Bangladesh were largely prevalent, despite there being evidence of abuses being highly prevalent in many rural precincts (Ersado, 2005;ILO, 2017). The majority of children work in the domestic and agricultural workforce, with the behaviour of employers in these sectors is akin to slavery (Gamlin, Ong, Camacho, & Hesketh, 2013). ...
Background
Child maltreatment is a global health concern, which adversely affects millions of children. Among them, child laborers are highly susceptible to maltreatment due to their economic vulnerability and workplace practices.
Objectives
This review seeks to identify the extent, risk factors and psychological impairments associated with the maltreatment of child laborers in four South East Asian countries.
Methods
A scoping review was adopted, in accordance with the PRISMA framework. Scopus, Medline, PsycINFO, ProQuest, Web of Sciences, and grey literature from relevant institutional websites were searched. Search date parameters were 1960–2020. A thematic synthesis and a proportion test were adopted to analyse data.
Results
A total of 9 studies were retrieved. The physical maltreatment against child laborers (15.14 %) was found across all studies with high heterogeneity (from 2.3%–73.27%). The prevalence of emotional maltreatment was more than three times that of physical abuse. Sexual abuse rate was measured (16.82 %) followed by neglect against child laborers (12.9 %). Witness victimization, financial exploitation, forced work, and work intensification were also observed as notable forms of maltreatment. A thematic analysis suggests that the victims and caregivers’ characteristics and socio-cultural practices are strong predictors of maltreatment. Parental dysfunctions were also associated with rates of child labor victimization followed by poverty. The review found maltreated children were often traumatized and manifest specific phobias (38.79 %), social phobias (30.2 %), conduct disorders (20.6 %), and obsessions (18.21 %), which are significantly associated (p < 0.05) across studies.
Conclusions
While the methodical study base is limited, the results of this review can inform further research on violence against child laborers.
... Access to schools or provision of education is not the only factors behind keeping the children out of school. According to some studies Colclough, Rose and Tembon (2000) quality of the education provided by the schools matters (Handa, 2002;Ersado, 2005). If we analyzed the provision of facilities in schools, the climate of schools could be categorically distributed into three spheres e.g. ...
The present research article deals with the perspective of parents regarding the future of their out of school children and their concept of educational development. Qualitative research techniques which includes in-depth interviews, participant observation and FGDs were used for data collection. Bari Imam, near Quaid i Azam University Islamabad was the research site. Purposive sampling technique was used and only those parents were chosen who had out of school children. To understand the parents' perspective about out of school children, the concepts have been borrowed from Social Learning Theory, which has three major components e.g. observation, imitating and then modeling. Results of the study indicated that parents had serious reservations about the educational system of Pakistan and the future outcome of education. They preferred short-term to boost their household economy rather than a long term investment on their children's education which is necessary for the social as well as the personal development. Under the influence of social learning, parents imitating others started sending their children to acquire technical skills, which brought early monetary rewards. Study concluded that, parents were forced to send their children for earning rather than to the schools. Mainstream culture prevailing in the area was to send the children for vocational and technical trainings for rapid monetary benefits. In the current scenario the natives influenced each other which was positive in the context of money and rewards, but negative for the child's educational development.
... Another study by (Ersado, 2005)focused on child labor and schooling dropout decisions in urban and rural areas. This study was particularly set out to compare evidence from Nepal, Peru, and Zimbabwe through funds devoted exclusively for this purpose as part of world development projects in the lowincome countries. ...
Child labour disrupts education, but there is scant research on the reciprocal relationship: education disrupting child labour. We examined the link between school quality and child cocoa agricultural work in a sample of 2168 fifth-grade children from forty-one primary schools in rural Côte d’Ivoire. Children attending a higher quality school were less likely to work on a cocoa plantation. Specifically, quality infrastructure and teaching materials were associated with reduced cocoa agricultural activities, but not with domestic and economic activities. Against the backdrop of a global focus on improving education quality, we suggest that investments in quality education may serve the dual purpose of reducing child labour alongside improving children’s learning outcomes.
Secondary education serves as a link between the elementary and higher education, which in turns help in developing a reservoir of intellectual human resource. A larger number of students get excluded from the secondary school education every year. Expectedly, in coming years the public demand for secondary education is going to rise and it is imperative to develop an impressive and acceptable framework of secondary education. For this, a concerted effort is needed to minimize exclusion at this level. Thus, pressing challenge before us is to know why the children opt to remain away from schools after completing elementary education. It is necessary to find out what really makes them quit the school? What exactly is the way the social dynamics works around such children? What compels the parents to accept the situation as such? The context necessitates a deeper probe into the problem of exclusion of children from secondary education in rural Punjab. To answer these questions, the present study was conducted using qualitative approach. Interview with parents and teachers of dropped out children brings forth a few fundamental structural issues that require redressal.
Au Bénin, bien que les différentes politiques en faveur de l'éducation aient montré leurs preuves, la pauvreté continue d'être un frein à la scolarisation. Cet article analyse l'effet de la pauvreté sur la scolarisation des enfants au Bénin selon le sexe du chef de ménage. La méthode Probit à Changement de Régime (PCR) est utilisée sur des données de l'Enquête Nationale sur le Travail des Enfants (ENTE) réalisée au Bénin. Les résultats révèlent que les ménages dirigés par les femmes sont moins exposés à la pauvreté. De plus, la pauvreté réduit de 58% et de 37% le gain d'être scolarisé d'un enfant issu d'un ménage pauvre dirigé respectivement par une femme et par un homme. En effet, il s'avère nécessaire de renforcer l'autonomisation et le pouvoir décisionnel des femmes pour booster la scolarisation des enfants. Aussi, il est indispensable que les politiques d'amélioration des conditions d'école soient renforcées et pérennisées. Abstract: In Benin, although the various policies in favor of education have proven their worth, poverty continues to be an obstacle to schooling. This paper analyzes the effect of poverty on children's schooling in Benin according to the gender of the household head. The Regime Change Probit (RCP) method is used on data from the National Child Labor Survey (NCLS) conducted in Benin. The results reveal that female-headed households are less exposed to poverty. Moreover, poverty reduces the chances of a child from a poor female-and male-headed household attending school by 58% and 37%, respectively. Indeed, it is necessary to strengthen the women's empowerment and decision-making power to boost children's schooling. It is also essential that policies to improve school conditions be strengthened and made permanent.
With an emphasis on comparing data from April 2018 to April 2023, this longitudinal study investigates the prevalence and features of child labor in the district of Haripur, Pakistan. Individual information including age, family income, geography, and family type were looked at, along with common factors like father's occupation, education level, type of job, and reasons for child labor. Before selecting a sample for this study, an informal survey was conducted in the three tehsils of Haripur, Ghazi, and Khanpur. Workshops (street hawkers and brick-kiln workers) were the main businesses, stores, restaurants, and other establishments in these tehsils that employed children. The business district was left out. The sample respondents were chosen from a range of occupations, primarily from retail, dining, and other businesses (such as street vendors and bricklayers). The interviews included kids from various socioeconomic and professional backgrounds. The data for this study were collected over the months of March and April in both 2018 and 2023 using a pre-tested interview schedule. After being gathered, the data was then entered into the statistical program SPSS. In order to enter the variables into the software, the variables were formed, their scales were established, and the necessary values were set to each variable. The analysis was supported by the construction of frequency tables, and the study was descriptive. It also gathered the frequency for each of the research's following objectives. The results show that child labor increased significantly in the Haripur district between April 2018 and April 2023, with a larger frequency in the Ghazi and Khanpur tehsils. The study also shows that the fundamental causes of child labor, poverty and lack of access to school, have mainly not altered over time. These findings demonstrate the pressing need for policies and actions to address the problem of child labor in the district of Haripur.
The study’s overarching goal was to look into the factors that contribute to school dropout among primary school students in Fagita Lekoma District. To this end, this study used a convergent parallel research design. The participants of the study comprised District Education Officers, school principals, teachers, PTA members, and dropout pupils. The data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics and the content analysis method for qualitative data. One of the findings of this study indicated that there was a high dropout rate in the study area. The findings from different respondents with different instruments showed that many factors contribute to students dropping out, which could fall under the dimensions of family-based factors, school-based factors, sociocultural factors, and economic conditions. Thus, the school management, in collaboration with stakeholders in the school, is expected to minimise the dropout rate by addressing the causes identified by the study.
Child labor and low schooling of children are still serious issues in many developing countries and finding a breakthrough to substantially reduce these phenomena are urgent according to the International Labor Organization (ILO). This study investigated how child labor and schooling vary with intrahousehold gender relations in rural Ethiopia, using data from the 2009 Ethiopian Rural Household Survey (ERHS). The sample includes 1,922 children between the ages of 5 and 15 years in 755 households. Indicators are used to measure mothers’ and fathers’ roles on various tasks within a household. The study examines how the distribution of gender relations within a household influences children’s time use in schooling and labor activities. One innovation used in the study is the construction of intrahousehold gender relations on a continuum. The findings indicate that balanced intrahousehold relations and gender roles between parents increase the chances of both boys and girls going to school while reducing the hours they spend on domestic work. Findings from the other covariates point to the gendered processes behind human capital formation in rural Ethiopia, which warrant separate investigations of boys’ and girls’ labor and schooling activities.
In Nigeria, children lack access to primary school education, and this hinders their social, cognitive, emotional, and physical skills' development. With one in every five of the world's out-of-school children in Nigeria, achieving universal primary education by 2030 remains a challenge. Several studies have investigated the factors that have led to an increase in out-of-school children (OOSC); however, these studies are based on individual level and household predictors with little evidence on the geographical determinants. Hence, this study examines the relationship between OOSC and the socioeconomic attributes of the geographical location where they reside. Findings of the spatial analysis show that Sokoto, Zamfara, Yobe, Taraba, and Plateau are the hotspots of out-of-school children. The result further reveals that there is spatial variation in the predictors of out-of-school children in the country. Poverty and internally generated revenue (IGR) predict more cases of school non-attendance in northern Nigeria while foreign direct investment determines the number of children that are out-of-school in the southern region. The study recommends spatially explicit policies to reduce the number of OOSC in Nigeria.
The study looked at secondary school dropout in the Yammatawa Communities of Nigeria’s Kebbi State. The study was conducted to examine how demographic traits and educational factors affect secondary school dropout in Kebbi State, specifically in the Yammatawa areas. With more than 11,000 secondary school shuttered, 18.5 million student dropout of school in Nigeria in 2020 report stated. 6,167 dropout students from the academic year 2020-2021 made up the study’s population. For data collection 400 dropout were employed. Data gathering methods included using student records, a class attendance log, and a structured questionnaire. In order to address the study questions, the acquired data were statistically analyzed, and the Pearson product moment correlation was employed to test the hypothesis. The study discovered that there were a number of trends that contributed to dropout rates. It is clear that there is no one reason why kids drop out of school; rather, a variety of factors interact with one another in a complex manner. The consequences of the secondary school dropout rate are that it will have a variety of effects on community and national educational development.
Motivation
Sub-Saharan African governments have subsidized farm inputs—fertilizer and seed especially—to increase food production by small-scale farmers to improve food security. A potential drawback of such schemes is that they may encourage farmers to put their children to work in the fields, harming their education.
Purpose
Did the Malawi Farm Input Subsidy Programme that began in 2005/2006 increase child labour on the holdings of beneficiary smallholders?
Methods and approach
The article analyses data from the Malawi Integrated Household Panel Survey to examine the effect of seed and fertilizer subsidies on child labour. The study employs a correlated-random-effects-control function regression, using district coupon allocation as an instrumental variable for coupons received by households.
Findings
There was statistically significant evidence that the Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP) increased child labour. The effect, however, was relatively small. At the sample mean, it was estimated that the programme led to a 12 percentage point increase in the likelihood that children would work on the farm and that the children would work an additional 72 minutes a week on the fields. The FISP, however, did not affect the enrolment of children in school.
Effects varied socially: children in male-headed, uneducated, and smallholder households were the most affected.
Policy implications
Although the observed effects are not large, they are unwelcome. Two policy corrections could eliminate them. One, the award of subsidy coupons could be made conditional on children's school performance. Two, given that the effects barely applied in households where parents had been to school, agricultural training should stress the importance of children attending school and not working in the fields.
Purpose
This study aims to empirically test the variation in household assets and the incidence of child labour using data from Ethiopia.
Design/methodology/approach
The study was cross-sectional in design and used a sample of 3,500 observations (children aged 5–17 years) collected from 2,231 households in the rural and urban areas of Amhara and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' regions in Ethiopia. The logistic regression model was used to estimate the extent to which predictor variables are associated with the incidence of child labour.
Findings
The results indicate statistically significant child labour participation by those households who own assets than those who do not. The findings suggest that parents who own assets such as land, livestock and other endowments are likely to employ children in labour than the opposite, i.e. child labour increases with household asset ownership. However, this study did not investigate child labour response to wealth increment at the individual household level.
Practical implications
Any initiative to reduce child labour needs to be accompanied by parental awareness and compulsory schooling as one of the key policy tools.
Originality/value
This is one of those studies that question the poverty assumption as a cause of child labour and suggests parental selfishness playing a role in accentuating child labour.
Abstract:
This paper investigated the probability of employment
of mothers and children (aged 10–18) in Iranian urban
household and the factors which influence them with
expansion of neoclassic model. Bprobit model and the
Stata Software were used to that end. The sample size
includes 6517 Iranian urban households (in 2014) who
had children aged 10–18. The data was extracted from
the Urban Household National Survey. 46. 4% of the
sample are females and 54. 6% are males. 93. 97% of
children are unemployed and 6. 03% are employed. The
results showed that children do not necessarily drop out
of school to work and be employed. An increase in the
level of education of parents negatively influences the
employment of the children aged 10–18, and the effect
of father’s education is more decisive in this regard.
Furthermore, the increasing of father’s education
reduces the possibility of mother’s employment in this
household. The substitution effect showed that mother’s
and child’s employment are substitutes, as is father’s
employment with mother’s and child’s employment. The
wealth effect showed that an increase in household per
capita income reduces the possibility of children’s
employment and raises the possibility of mother’s
employment. Furthermore, the size of the family reduces
the possibility of mother’s employment and raises the
possibility of children’s employment.
Child labor indicators have shown a significant decline since registration began. This is an area where policies and programs have been relatively effective, and there are some evidence-based practices. Actions promoted by the International Labor Organization have followed an institutional approach, involving governments, trade unions, business associations and other social actors. The introduction of legal regulations and social dialogue policies have established the framework for changing sociocultural norms on child labor. In this context, the two types of specific interventions that have proved most effective are conditional cash transfers and programs to guarantee compulsory education.
The article investigates the effects of secondary (including vocational) and higher-education subsidies on wage inequalities between skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers, and unemployment in a small open developing economy in terms of a two-sector Harris–Todaro dynamic general equilibrium framework. The results show that skilled–unskilled and skilled–semi-skilled wage inequalities depend on factor intensity conditions, while semi-skilled–unskilled wage inequality is determined by the level of skill formation in the economy. There is a trade-off between the wage inequalities of skilled–semi-skilled and semi-skilled–unskilled workers due to secondary education subsidy; the trade-off also exists with respect to higher-education subsidy if the manufacturing sector is more skilled labour intensive. However, if the manufacturing sector is capital intensive, higher-education subsidy is detrimental for both types of wage inequalities in the initial years of skill formation but might have favourable effects when the skill endowment is high. Both types of subsidies reduce unemployment in the initial periods, but higher-education subsidy accentuates it when skilled labour supply expands in the economy.
This study uses data from a representative survey of households with preschoolers in Accra, Ghana to: (a) examine the importance of care practices for children’s height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ); and (b) identify subgroups of children for whom good maternal care practices may be particularly important. Good caregiving practices related to child feeding and use of preventive health services were a strong determinant of children’s HAZ, specially among children from the two lower income terciles and children whose mothers had less than secondary schooling. In this population, good care practices could compensate for the negative effects of poverty and low maternal schooling on children’s HAZ. Thus, effective targeting of specific education messages to improve child feeding practices and use of preventive health care could have a major impact on reducing childhood malnutrition in Accra.
We draw attention to two problems associated with the use of instrumental variables (IV), the importance of which for empirical work has not been fully appreciated. First, the use of instruments that explain little of the variation in the endogenous explanatory variables can lead to large inconsistencies in the IV estimates even if only a weak relationship exists between the instruments and the error in the structural equation. Second, in finite samples, IV estimates are biased in the same direction as ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates. The magnitude of the bias of IV estimates approaches that of OLS estimates as the R(2) between the instruments and the endogenous explanatory variable approaches 0. To illustrate these problems, we reexamine the results of a recent paper by Angrist and Krueger, who used large samples from the U.S. Census to estimate wage equations in which quarter of birth is used as an instrument for educational attainment. We find evidence that, despite huge sample sizes, their IV estimates may suffer from finite-sample bias and may be inconsistent as well. These findings suggest that valid instruments may be more difficult to find than previously imagined. They also indicate that the use of large data sets does not necessarily insulate researchers from quantitatively important finite-sample biases. We suggest that the partial R(2) and the F statistic of the identifying instruments in the first-stage estimation are useful indicators of the quality of the IV estimates and should be routinely reported.d
In this paper we review the available summary measures for the magnitude of socio-economic inequalities in health. Measures which have been used differ in a number of important respects, including (1) the measurement of "relative" or "absolute" differences; (2) the measurement of an "effect" of lower socio-economic status, or of the "total impact" of socio-economic inequalities in-health upon the health status of the population; (3) simple versus sophisticated measurement techniques. Based on this analysis of summary measures which have previously been applied, eight different classes of summary measures can be distinguished. Because measures of "total impact" can be further subdivided on the basis of their underlying assumptions, we finally arrive at 12 types of summary measure. Each of these has its merits, and choice of a particular type of summary measure will depend partly on technical considerations, partly on one's perspective on socio-economic inequalities in health. In practice, it will often be useful to compare the results of several summary measures. These principles are illustrated with two examples: one on trends in the magnitude of inequalities in mortality by occupational class in Finland, and one on trends in the magnitude of inequalities in self-reported morbidity by level of education in the Netherlands.
This paper examines whether the Solow growth model is consistent with the international variation in the standard of living.
It shows that an augmented Solow model that includes accumulation of human as well as physical capital provides an excellent
description of the cross-country data. The paper also examines the implications of the Solow model for convergence in standards
of living, that is, for whether poor countries tend to grow faster than rich countries. The evidence indicates that, holding
population growth and capital accumulation constant, countries converge at about the rate the augmented Solow model predicts.
The author examines, taking into account the urban-rural divides, the changes and welfare implications of income diversification in Zimbabwe following macroeconomic policy changes and droughts of the early 1990s. Data from two comparable national income, consumption and expenditure surveys in 1990-91 and 1995-96, which straddled a period of economic volatility and natural disasters, show that the percentage of households earning income from private and informal sources grew considerably, while that from government and formal sources declined in the aftermath of the drought and policy changes. The author finds that, in general, rural households tend to have a more diversified portfolio of income compared with their urban counterparts, and the degree of diversification decreases with the level of urbanization. However, there are important differences in the level of diversification within the rural and urban areas depending on wealth: While the relatively better-off households have a more diversified income base in rural areas, it is the poor who pursue multiple income sources in urban areas. A decomposition of changes in welfare indicates that the total contribution of income diversification is large and increased between 1990-91 and 1995-96 in both urban and rural areas. On the other hand, there were significant declines in returns to human and physical capital assets during the same period. The findings suggest that households with a more diversified income base are better able to withstand the unfavorable impacts of the policy and weather shocks. The fact that relatively better-off households have a more diversified income base following the shocks implies that the poor are more vulnerable to economic changes unaccompanied by well-designed safety nets.
Child labor is a widespread, growing problem in the developing world. About 250 million of the world's children work, nearly half of them full-time. Child labor (regular participation in the labor force to earn a living or supplement household income) prevents children from participating in school. One constraint on Ghana's economic growth has been inadequate human capital development. According to 1992 data for Ghana, one girl in three and one boy in four does not attend school. The figures are worse in rural areas. The authors studied the dynamics of how households decided whether to send children 7 through 14 to school or to work, using household survey data for 1987-92. They do not address the issue of street kids, which does not imply that they are less important than the others. Unlike child labor in Asia, most child labor in Africa, especially Ghana, is unpaid work in family agricultural enterprises. Of the 28 percent of children engaged in child labor, more than two-thirds were also going to school. Of all children between 7 and 14, about 90 percent helped with household chores. Boys and girls tend to do different types of work. Girls do more household chores while boys work in the labor force. The data do not convincingly show, as most literature claims, that poverty is the main cause of child labor. But poverty is significantly correlated with the decision to send children to school, and there is a significant negative relationship between going to school and working. Increased demand for schooling is the most effective way to reduce child labor and ensure that Ghana's human capital is stabilized. The high cost of schooling and the poor quality and irrelevance of education has also pushed many children into work. And family characteristics play a big role in the child's decision to work or go to school. The father's education has a significant negative effect on child labor; the effect is stronger on girls than on boys. So adult literacy could indirectly reduce the amount of child labor.
This paper analyzes the effects of being indigenous, number of siblings, sibling activities and sibling age structure on
child schooling progress and child non-school activity. The analysis is based on the Peru 1991 Living Standards Survey. The
analysis shows that family size is important. However, the analysis also demonstrates the importance of taking into consideration
the activities of siblings. The number of siblings not entrolled in school proves to be an important control variable in at
least one specification of the empirical model. However, more research is needed on the interactions between siblings, their
activities and their age structure. In other words, an attempt must be made to find ways of taking into account the “life
cycle effects” of one‘s siblings on their schooling performance and labor force activity. The analysis also shows that the
age structure of siblings is important, but in conjunction with their activities. That is, having a greater number of younger
siblings implies less schooling, more age-grade distortion in the classroom and more child labor.
JEL classification: J22, J23, I21
Reviews the theory and evidence on the consequences of high fertility in Pakistan. In addition, several data sets are analyzed to examine the effects of number of children on school participation and labor participation of men, women and children in urban Pakistan. Another data set is utilized to examine the effects of children on savings in urban and rural areas. Results show that the number of children negatively affects schooling of girls, but not boys. Number of boys and girls in the household have differential effects on women's labor participation while female children, but not males, affect adult male's participation. Children 6-15 have negative effects on rural savings, but less effect in urban areas. In general, the effects of high fertility for households in Pakistan seem more negative than in many countries. This may explain the high proportion of women who say they want no more children. Why so few of these women do use contraceptives is more difficult to explain. -Authors
This paper estimates the risk preferences of cotton farmers in Southern Peru, using the results from a multiple-price-list lottery game. Assuming that preferences conform to two of the leading models of decision under risk--Expected Utility Theory (EUT) and Cumulative Prospect Theory (CPT)--we find strong evidence of moderate risk aversion. Once we include individual characteristics in the estimation of risk parameters, we observe that farmers use subjective nonlinear probability weighting, a behavior consistent with CPT. Interestingly, when we allow for preference heterogeneity via the estimation of mixture models--where the proportion of subjects who behave according to EUT or to CPT is endogenously determined--we find that the majority of farmers' choices are best explained by CPT. We further hypothesize that the multiple switching behavior observed in our sample can be explained by nonlinear probability weighting made in a context of large random calculation mistakes; the evidence found on this regard is mixed. Finally, we find that attaining higher education is the single most important individual characteristic correlated with risk preferences, a result that suggests a connection between cognitive abilities and behavior towards risk.
This paper explores the link between financial market incompleteness and human capital accumulation. We examine how child
school attendance responds to seasonal fluctuations in the income of agrarian households using panel data from rural India.
To pinpoint market imperfections, we study responses to aggregate and idiosyncratic, as well as to anticipated and unanticipated,
income shocks. Our main finding is that seasonal fluctuations in school attendance are a form of self-insurance, but one which
does not result in a substantial loss of human capital on average.
The paper brings together the abundant and somewhat anarchic literature on child labor, isolating its central findings and analytical insights. The investigation is especially directed at the micro economics of why child labor occurs and the sort of policy that is likely to succeed in eradicating it. The paper also outlines new directions for analyzing the dynamics of child labor, the possibility of "child-labor traps" and the circumstances in which voluntary contracts should be banned. Various arguments for and against declaring child labor illegal are examined. A final section explores the economics of international child labor standards.
A test of weak exogeneity in the simultaneous equation Tobit model is proposed and illustrated using a female labour supply model estimated using cross-section data. The test statistic can be simply output from any standard Tobit maximum likelihood package, and is asymptotically efficient. The procedure provides consistent estimators for the simultaneous Tobit model whose asymptotic covariance matrix is a simple extension of the usual Tobit formula. We also provide the Lagrange Multiplier test of weak exogeneity.
The study analyzed four urban communities in four very different regions: Chawama, in Lusaka, Zambia; Cisne Dos, in Guayaquil, Ecuador; Commonwealth, in Metro Manila, the Philippines; and Angyalfold, in Budapest, Hungary. Although these four case studies revealed interesting contrasts, they also showed important similarities. The findings show that a community's ability to cope with the stress of economic difficulties, is largely affected by its material well-being, as expected. But they also show that a community's coping ability is influenced by its social capital - the trust, reciprocal arrangements, and social networks linking people in the community. Not surprisingly, the study's findings bring out the role of women in vivid relief. Their networks are therefore extremely important as a defense against increased vulnerability and as a basis for action to overcome the conditions of extreme poverty.
This chapter reviews recent advances in the empirical literature on the role that households and families play in investing in human resources. It describes the estimation of reduced form demands for human capital, particularly education and health. Special attention is paid to the measurement and interpretation of the impact of household resources, particularly parental education, income, and impact of community resources, namely—prices and infrastructure. The process underlying the production of human capital is discussed. The chapter also discusses the difficulties in measuring inputs and input quality, and associated issues of estimation and interpretation. The chapter focuses on evidence regarding the influence of family background, school quality, ability, and self-selection. Models of household behavior in a dynamic setting are reviewed. The chapter discusses extensions to the model that is concerned with the flow and allocation of resources across and within households as well as to extensions that treat household boundaries as fluid.
Starting with the questions "what is a child?' and "what is work?', the authors review data on child labour. Focusing on its determinants, they examine supply factors at household level, including family size, education, wages and risk of income loss, and factors affecting demand, including technology. They argue that given the established link between poverty and child labour there are certain advantages in interventions to improve the lot of employed children even if that induces an increase in the supply of child workers. Economic incentives and legislation are the two pillars on which efforts to help working children should be based. -Authors
This volume presents the main findings of a comparative study of four poor urban communities in countries experiencing economic difficulties during the late 1980s: Chawama (Zambia), Cisne Dos (Ecuador), Commonwealth (the Philippines), and Angyalfold (Hungary). The study extended a longitudinal community panel study begun in Ecuador by using a sociological survey and anthropological participant observations in all four communities. The case studies revealed interesting contrasts among these communities, but they also revealed some important similarities. In all four communities, labor was the greatest asset of the poor, and a frequent response to declining real income was to mobilize additional labor, even that of children. The poor are in many cases less able to earn incomes in the present economic structure. In all these communities housing is an important asset to cushion against severe poverty. Changes in household structure to strengthen family support networks are both a result of vulnerability and a strategy against it in all four communities. Strategies devised to reduce vulnerability sometimes impose unequal burdens on household members, especially women. Economic crisis in all these communities can exert strengthening and weakening pressures that show that a community's ability to cope with economic difficulties is influenced by its social capital. Four appendixes, which contain 2 boxes and 36 tables, describe the communities, study methodology, the analysis of poverty in this study, and community and country statistical data. Tables A4.12 through A4.17 (pages 92-93) provide data on the educational level of household heads or adult population for all four communities studied. (Contains 22 boxes, 10 figures, and 8 tables.) (SLD)
This paper examines features of child labor in an area of high economic growth in western India. Growth was associated with an increase in the number of child workers over the last 15 years. The analysis shows that children work at simple repetitive manual tasks that do not require long years of training or experience. The work is low-paying, involves drudgery and is hazardous. Work forecloses the option of school education for most children. In this context, I argue that economic growth alone is not sufficient to eradicate child labor.
This paper develops an overlapping generations general equilibrium model where inefficient child labor arises due to credit constraints. It derives a positive relationship between inequality in the distribution of income and the incidence of child labor. Looking at policy implications, it shows how trade sanctions against countries using child labor may fail to reduce the incidence of child labor. It discusses some alternative policies to reduce the incidence of child labor. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. JEL classification: J24; D60.
This paper shows how poverty in combination with credit constraints can give rise to the phenomenon of child labor in developing countries. It further shows how banning child labor can reduce the welfare of the households intending to send their children to work, and suggests some alternative policies.
We examine the interaction between credit markets, trade sanctions and the incidence of child labour in a two-good, two-period model with unequally wealthy households. Both poverty and poor education quality, inter alia, are important determinants of child labour. The incidence of child labour decreases as we move from the case of borrowing constraints to the case in which poor households can borrow freely from rich ones and then to the case of perfect international credit markets. Trade sanctions can increase child labour, especially among poor households, a possibility that decreases as their access to credit improves.
This paper investigates community effects in the determination of desired schooling in a sample of more than 300 school children and their parents in three Mexican cities. Community residence is found to be a significant predictor of desired schooling of parents and children, even with comprehensive controls for child and family traits. Measurement error and omitted variable bias are considered, but rejected, as principal causes of this result. A comparison of recent and long-term residents of a community reveals that the predictive power of residence is much stronger for long-term residents. This result is interpreted as evidence of community effects, since the alternative hypothesis of Tiebout behavior predicts a stronger common effect for recent migrants. Potential sources of the community effects are then investigated with neighborhood-level data from the 1990 Mexican Census.
This paper considers the prospects for constructing a neoclassical theory of growth and international trade that is consistent with some of the main features of economic development. Three models are considered and compared to evidence: a model emphasizing physical capital accumulation and technological change, a model emphasizing human capital accumulation through schooling, and a model emphasizing specialized human capital accumulation through learning-by-doing.
Do women in the labor market enjoy the same returns to their human capital investments as men do? Is the different treatment of women in the labor market a cause for the lower educational attainment so often observed among women in the Third World? This paper estimates wage and nonfarm self-employment earnings functions, corrected for selectivity bias based on a choice model of three regions and four employment modes. In Côte d'Ivoire, rates of return to education are high for both men and women, but men's wages exceed women's by a substantial margin for all but the most educated.
Incl. abstract, bibliographical references
"This is an authorized facsimile, made from the microfilm master copy of the original dissertation or master thesis published by UMI." Thesis (D. Phil.)--University of Stanford, 1999. Includes bibliographical references (p. 202-213).
This paper investigates the impact of international migration on technical efficiency, resource allocation and income from agricultural production of family farming in Albania. The results suggest that migration is used by rural households as a pathway out of agriculture: migration is negatively associated with both labour and non-labour input allocation in agriculture, while no significant differences can be detected in terms of farm technical efficiency or agricultural income. Whether the rapid demographic changes in rural areas triggered by massive migration, possibly combined with propitious land and rural development policies, will ultimately produce the conditions for a more viable, high-return agriculture attracting larger investments remains to be seen.
We analyze labor supply behavior and the choice between formal and informal sector work of the two spouses in families in urban areas of a developing country, using cross - section data from Bolivia drawn in 1989. The model generalizes the neoclassical family labor supply model. Nonmonetary returns of formal sector employment capture the fact that the choice between sectors is not exclusively based on wage differentials. Wage equations, nonmonetary returns equations, and labor supply equations are estimated jointly by smooth simulated maximum likelihood. We find substantial cross - wage elasticities of working hours of both partners, and large substitution elasticities between the two sectors. © 2000 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technolog
This paper investigates the effect of borrowing constraints on the timing of human capital investment in a developing country by looking at how quickly children with different family backgrounds progress through the primary school system in Peru. The main findings are that children start withdrawing from school earlier, as indicated by repetition of grades, in households with lower income and durable good holdings and when children are more closely spaced. Behavior also differs as predicted between children from households that appear to be borrowing constrained and those that appear unconstrained. Copyright 1994 by MIT Press.
For 98 countries in the period 1960–1985, the growth rate of real per capita GDP is positively related to initial human capital
(proxied by 1960 school-enrollment rates) and negatively related to the initial (1960) level of real per capita GDP. Countries
with higher human capital also have lower fertility rates and higher ratios of physical investment to GDP. Growth is inversely
related to the share of government consumption in GDP, but insignificantly related to the share of public investment. Growth
rates are positively related to measures of political stability and inversely related to a proxy for market distortions.
This paper analyses child labour participation and its key determinants using data sets from Peru and Pakistan. The results include tests of the `Luxury' and `Substitution' hypotheses that play key roles in recent studies on child labour and child schooling. The results reject both hypotheses in the context of child labour in Pakistan and suggest that income and related variables do not have the expected negative effect on children's work input. Rising wages of adult female labour in Pakistan, and falling adult male wage in Peru lead to increased participation of children in the labour market. The results on the combined country data formally establish the presence of strong individual country effects in the estimated regressions. For example, ceteris paribus, a Peruvian child is more likely to experience schooling than a Pakistani child. However, both countries agree on the positive role that adult female education and infrastructure investment in basic amenities can play in discouraging child labour and encouraging child schooling.
Child labor in Cote d'Ivoire increased in the 1980s because of a severe economic crisis. Two out of three urban children aged 7 to 17 work; half of them also attend school. In rural areas, more than four out of five children work, but only a third of them manage to combine work with schooling. Full-time work is less prevalent, but not negligible. Roughly 7 percent of urban children work full time (an average 46 hours a week). More than a third of rural children work full time (an average of 35 hours a week), with the highest incidence in the Savannah region. The incidence of such full-time work rises with age but is by no means limited to older children. The average age of the full-time child worker in Cote d'Ivoire is 12.7. These children have received an average 1.2 years of schooling. That child is also more likely to be ill or injured and is less likely to receive medical attention than other children. Urban children in the interior cities are far more likely to work and their working hours are much longer. Among rural children, those in the Savannah region (where educational infrastructure lags far behind the rest of the country) are most likely to work. Five factors affect a household's decision to supply child labor: a) The age and gender of the child (girls are more likely to work, especially when the head of household is a woman). b) The education and employment status of the parents (low parental education is good targeting variable for interventions). c) The availability of within-household employment opportunities. d) The household's poverty status. e) The household's location (calling for geographical targeting). With improved macroeconomic growth, it is hoped, child labor will decline -- but a significant decline could take several generations. Meanwhile, it is important to: i) Use a gradual approach toward the elimination of child work by aiming initial interventions at facilitating combined work and schooling. ii) Support the development of home enterprises as part of poverty alleviation programs, but combine it with incentives for school attendance. iii) Make school hours and vacation periods flexible (accommodating harvest times) in rural areas. This would also improve children's health. iv) Improve rural school attendance by having a school in the village rather than 1 to 5 kilometers away. v) Improve educational investment in the Savannah.
The paper addresses the issue of child labor in relation to the educational attainment of working children. The empirical
analysis is based on household surveys in Bolivia and Venezuela. It was found that labor force participation is non-trivial
among those below the legal working age or supposed to be in school. Working children contribute significantly to total household
income. The fact that a child is working reduces his or her educational attainment by about 2 years of schooling relative
to the control group of non-working children. Grade repetition, a common phenomenon in Latin America, is closely associated
with child labor.
JEL classification: J13, J21, I21
PIP
This study investigates gender differences in the determinants of several schooling indicators in Conakry, Guinea, using ordered and binary probit models incorporating household-level random effects. Such indicators include grade attainment, current enrollment, and withdrawal from school. The survey, which was conducted on 1725 households, contains detailed information on a wide range of socioeconomic factors such as education, labor force activity and earnings, assets and health. Results indicate that increases in household income lead to greater investments in the schooling of girls than in the schooling of boys. Meanwhile, improvements in the education of fathers raise the schooling of both sons and daughters, while the education of mothers only has a significant impact on the schooling of daughters. These estimates show differences in maternal and paternal preferences for schooling daughters relative to sons. Therefore, the importance of gender, parental education, and household income and composition affect the education of children. However, findings also show that education for girls is unnecessary since they only need to work at home. Moreover, policies that raise household incomes will increase gender equity in schooling, which will also depend on whether and how these policies change the opportunity costs of girls and boys and the labor market returns to female and male schooling.
Using data from Peru and Pakistan, this article tests two hypotheses: there is a positive association between hours of child labor and poverty, and there is a negative association between child schooling and poverty. Both of these hypotheses are confirmed by the Pakistani data, but not by the Peruvian data. The reduction in poverty rates due to income from children's labor is greater in Pakistan than in Peru. The nature of interaction between adult and child labor markets varies with the gender of the child and the adult. In Peru rising men's wages significantly reduce the labor hours of girls, whereas in Pakistan there is a strong complementarity between women's and girls' labor markets. Both data sets agree on the positive role that increasing adult education can play in improving child welfare. Copyright 2000 by Oxford University Press.
The paper provides a comprehensive update of the profitability of investment in education at a global scale. The rate of return patterns established in earlier reviews are upheld: namely, that primary education continues to be the number one investment priority in developing countries; the returns decline by the level of schooling and the country's per capita income; investment in women's education is in general more profitable than that for men; returns in the private competitive sector of the economy are higher than among those working in the public sector; and that the public financing of higher education is regressive. The above findings are discussed in the context of controversies in the field, concluding that investment in education continues to be a very attractive investment opportunity in the world today - both from the private and the social point of view.
Over the past decade child labour practices in developing countries and thier implications for international trade have received increasing attention on the international agenda. Pursuant to these concerns, many countries in the Western Hemisphere have adopted programmes designed to discourage the worst child labour practices and to provide families and communities with incentives to reduce child labour and increase educational attainment. Given the increased attention to child labour and the threat of trade sanctions for weak child labour protections, it is worth evaluating the policies that have been adopted with the intent of improving working conditions for children. There is a growing empirical literature concerning the causes and consequences of child labour. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate these policy initiatives in light of the newly emerging empirical evidence. We will focus in particular on programmes to address child labour practices in Latin America and attempt to evaluate these programmes given the empirical evidence concerning the primary determinants of when and why children work. In the following section we briefly review some recent legislative action and international agreements that are designed to pressure developing countries to improve child labour practices. We then turn to the empirical evidence concerning the determinants of child labour and thier implications for the types of policies that are likely to influence household decision-making in a manner that reduces the incidence of child labour and increases educational attainment. We then discuss the likely effectiveness of some of the recent initiatives targetting child labour in the Western Hemisphere. Conclusions follow.
This paper estimates the risk preferences of cotton farmers in Southern Peru, using the results from a multiple-price-list lottery game. Assuming that preferences conform to two of the leading models of decision under risk--Expected Utility Theory (EUT) and Cumulative Prospect Theory (CPT)--we find strong evidence of moderate risk aversion. Once we include individual characteristics in the estimation of risk parameters, we observe that farmers use subjective nonlinear probability weighting, a behavior consistent with CPT. Interestingly, when we allow for preference heterogeneity via the estimation of mixture models--where the proportion of subjects who behave according to EUT or to CPT is endogenously determined--we find that the majority of farmers' choices are best explained by CPT. We further hypothesize that the multiple switching behavior observed in our sample can be explained by nonlinear probability weighting made in a context of large random calculation mistakes; the evidence found on this regard is mixed. Finally, we find that attaining higher education is the single most important individual characteristic correlated with risk preferences, a result that suggests a connection between cognitive abilities and behavior towards risk.
If child labor as a mass phenomenon occurs not because of parental selfishness but because of the parents' concern for the household's survival, the popular argument for banning child labor loses much of its force. However, this assumption about parental decision making, coupled with the assumption of substitutability in production between child and adult labor, could result in multiple equilibria in the labor market, with one equilibrium where children work and another where adult wage is high and children do not work. The paper establishes this result and discusses its policy implications. Copyright 1998 by American Economic Association.
The implications of high fertility for chil-dren?s time use in the Philippines Fertility, family size and structure—Conse-quences for families and children
- D S Degraff
- R E Bilsborrow
- A N Herrin
DeGraff, D. S., Bilsborrow, R. E., & Herrin, A. N. (1993). The implications of high fertility for chil-dren?s time use in the Philippines. In C. B. Lloyd (Ed.), Fertility, family size and structure—Conse-quences for families and children. Proceedings of a Economic Review, 88(3), Population Council Seminar, New York, 9–10 June, 1992
Is child work necessary? STICERD Working Papers
- S Bhalotra
Bhalotra, S., (2000a). Is child work necessary? STIC-ERD Working Papers, DEDPS 26, London School of Economics
Youth education and work in Mexico On the mechanics of economic development A contribution to the empirics of economic growth
- Uk Mimeograph
- D Levison
- K S Moe
- F M Knaul
Mimeograph, Department of Economics, University of Essex, UK. Levison, D., Moe, K. S., & Knaul, F. M. (2001). Youth education and work in Mexico. World Development, 29(1), 167–188. Lucas, R. (1988). On the mechanics of economic development. Journal of Monetary Economics, 22, 3–42. 478 WORLD DEVELOPMENT rMankiw, N. G., Romer, D., & Weil, D. N. (1992). A contribution to the empirics of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(2), 407–437