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A Critical Evaluation of Bone Weathering as an Indication of Bone Assemblage Formation
Abstract
Weathering of bones has been defined as chemical and mechanical deterioration and destruction occurring over Time (the periodic system of solar years). Actualistically documented correlations between the years since animal death and weathering stages, and between weathering stages and depositional habitats, lead to hypothesized relationships between prehistoric weathered bones and exposure and accumulation histories of those bones. Detailed review of those hypothesized relationships reveals accumulation and exposure histories are not readily inferred from assemblages of weathered bones. The relationships minimally involve assuming the values of one or more kinds of taphonomic time which can at best be measured at ordinal scales. Simulated accumulation histories and inspection of actualistic data indicate an assemblage of weathered bones may be formed in various ways. Control of skeletal element type and interdependence, taxon, depositional environment, and subsurface weathering are serious analytical challenges seldom fully met, thereby rendering interpretations of weathered bones debatable.
... They are produced due to changes in temperature, humidity, sunlight exposure, water precipitation and wind impact. Nevertheless, the type of soil on which the remains are placed, the time exposure and the body size and skeletal part of the specimen significantly determine the degree and speed of the bone modifications (Lyman, 1994). Weathering stages (0-5), initially defined by Behrensmeyer (1978) for medium-large mammalian vertebrates, have been traditionally used for estimating bone surface exposure. ...
... However, the different climates can favour or inhibit the gradual weathering stages (Andrews, 1990;Tappen, 1994;Andrews and Whybrow, 2005). Besides, weathering can affect bone preservation both on the surface and within the sediment, such as chemical weathering (Lyman and Fox, 1989). ...
... Our preliminary results, in conjunction with the absence of the highest degrees of weathering in experiments conducted in temperate climates, suggest that the weathering process would be much slower than in other warmer environments (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Tappen, 1994;Andrews and Whybrow, 2005). In this sense, other alteration agents such as pH soil, vegetation or even sedimentation may begin to alter the archaeological records before weathering reaches its highest stages or bones disappear (Lyman and Fox, 1989). Therefore, weathering modifications cannot be the only explanation for the region's lack of prehistoric open-air sites and probably is related to a multicausal phenomenon (Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2016). ...
... A variety of factors may act to degrade organic and inorganic components of bones and teeth as part of the weathering equation, including diurnal and seasonal temperature changes, wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, and UV exposure (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Shipman, 1981;Johnson, 1985;Lyman and Fox, 1989;Andrews, 1990;Tappen, 1994;Fiorillo, 1995). Many of the more vigorous agents of weathering operate in subaerial settings, and the actualistic studies that address the topic focus on a relatively small selection of terrestrial habitats (e.g., Behrensmeyer, 1978;Andrews, 1990;Tappen, 1994). ...
... Based on actualistic observations, it is often possible to use weathering stages to estimate the duration of exposure of bones and teeth (e.g., Potts, 1986;Lyman and Fox, 1989;Behrensmeyer, 1991;Tappen, 1994;Fiorillo, 1995). However, the complex interplay of factors that can influence the rate of weathering and the progression of weathering stages in modern systems beg caution when exploring this phenomenon in the fossil record. ...
... The relative frequency of bones in a bonebed assemblage that exhibit different weathering stages can be presented in a table or, more effectively, as a group of simple histograms (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Gifford, 1984;Potts, 1986;Fiorillo, 1989Fiorillo, , 1995Lyman and Fox, 1989;Smith, 1993;Cook, 1995;Varricchio, 1995;Coombs and Coombs, 1997). When data are presented in histogram format they define a weathering profile for the assemblage. ...
... The term weathering refers to the effects of any "physical and chemical agents operating on … bone in situ, either on the [ground] surface or within the soil zone" (Behrensmeyer, 1978: 153). Weathering data can aid in reconstructing local micro-environments of deposition and original conditions of bone preservation in fossil and recent bone assemblages, although the pathways of reasoning towards these interpretations are not simple (Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018;Lyman & Fox, 1989). ...
... Numerous local variables are known to affect the weathering of bones from different sized animals in diverse environments (Andrews, 1990;Fiorillo, 1995;Andrews & Armour-Chelu, 1998;Andrews & Cook, 1985;Andrews & Whybrow, 2005;Haynes, 1981Haynes, , 2018Fosse et al., 2004;Conard et al., 2008;Gifford, 1981;Lyman and Fox, 1989;Tappen, 1994). Behrensmeyer (1978;Behrensmeyer and Faith, 2006;Behrensmeyer & Miller, 2012) published influential descriptive studies of bone weathering in mosaic habitats of southern Kenya, east Africa. ...
... As with other taxa, weathering effects vary for different proboscidean elements. Some elements in the elephant skeleton show unique effects of weathering, as also recorded for other vertebrate taxa (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman & Fox, 1989). Juvenile elephant bones weather faster than adult bones, as also noted for mammoth (Todd & Frison, 1986: 40) and extant nonproboscidean taxa (e.g., Behrensmeyer, 1978). ...
This paper describes weathering modifications to elephant bones in Zimbabwe, southern Africa, and discusses possible implications about conditions of deposition and the time elapsed since death or skeletonization. The observed patterns of proboscidean bone weathering, the times elapsed since death, and burial times may not be same as for bones of smaller terrestrial mammals typically found in fossil assemblages. A system of weathering stages is proposed for proboscidean long bones, flat bones, mandibles, and ribs. Special attention is given to drying cracks that affect breakage patterns when weathered bones are trampled or impacted. Weathering effects on elephant bones vary for several reasons, such as differences between juvenile and adult cortical bone and frequency of wet/dry cycling. Also briefly discussed are the observed or possible effects of burning, dissolution, organic erosion such as root etching, and inorganic carbonate (calcite) encrustation. Comparable weathering effects are also reported on bones of Mammuthus spp., supporting the probability that (1) bone weathering in fossil proboscidean assemblages can be described in corresponding terms, and (2) implications about assemblage origins may be similar, although this inference must be cautiously drawn. The data reported here will allow analysts to describe assemblage materials in consistent terms.
... The nature and quantity of all surface modifications originating from trampling (Fiorillo, 1989), carnivore and rodent gnawing, digestion (Fisher, 1995;Lyman, 1994), subaerial weathering (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman & Fox, 1989), abrasion (Shipman & Rose, 1988), and root etching (Binford, 1981;Lyman, 1994) were studied. NISP were used to express the bone surface modification data. ...
... Weathering as it applies to bone assemblages is defined by Behrensmeyer (1978) as the process by which the original microscopic organic and inorganic components of a bone are separated from each other and destroyed by physical and chemical agents operating on the bone in situ, either on the surface or within the soil zone. Since the pattern of the variation in the weathering stages of bones can be attributed to variation in exposure duration and depositional microenvironment (Lyman & Fox, 1989), the lack of weathering stages 4 or 5 in the TP assemblages most likely results from them not being exposed sufficiently long to reach these stages. Consequently, our results show that animal bones from TP middens display weathering stages 1-3. ...
... The contemporary climate of Turkey is semiarid continental (Köppen classification), with cold moist winters (−25°C) and hot dry summers (35°C), with average temperatures at about 0 and 22°C, respectively (De Meester, 1970). As Lyman and Fox (1989) suspect that the magnitude of seasonal changes in weather and durations of season are critical, and that the moisture content, temperature, and nature and texture of the sediment on which a bone lies may also be important in bone weathering. The climate at the time corresponding to the upper levels at Çatalhöyük can be inferred from the significant impact of chemical processes on bones in the form of large quantities of gypsum. ...
The disposal of cultural material at Çatalhöyük, Turkey (7100–5950 cal BCE) has created substantial midden deposits between buildings and within abandoned houses. These consist of a variety of materials, including environmental remains such as eggshell, mollusks, seeds, phytoliths, charcoal, fecal material, along with artefacts including pottery, figurines, beads, and lithics. Animal bone and human bone also form a significant component. Understanding the taphonomy of these deposits and their formation processes is essential in order to interpret the activities represented. Here we present a taphonomic analysis of middens from the TP Area of the site (Late Neolithic, Final Phase), in terms of natural and cultural alterations to bone, through a combination of zooarchaeological analysis, with micromorphological analysis of associated sedimentary contexts. Comparisons with studies of the earlier middens enable us to account for post-depositional processes, and the implications they have for interpreting past activities and waste management practices. Integrating sediment micromorphological analysis enables refinement of the taphonomic interpretations from the analysis of faunal remains and highlights the advantages of a multi-proxy approach.
... En este sentido, los elementos que se encuentran expuestos en las superficies terrestres comienzan a agrietarse y exfoliarse progresivamente, principalmente en función del tiempo de exposición, las propiedades del entorno al que estuvo expuesto, el tamaño y la forma del hueso, así como el grado de mineralización ósea (Janjua y Rogers, 2008;Gutierrez et al., 2016;Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018;Fisk et al., 2019). Asimismo, algunos autores utilizan el término meteorización también para aquellos huesos que habiendo estado en condiciones de sepultura (subsuperficial), presentan modificaciones óseas similares a las ocurridas por exposición superficial (Lyman y Fox, 1989); no obstante, la definición del proceso de meteorización implica la exposición a factores meteorológicos (González, 2013). En este sentido, la disolución y exfoliación cortical de huesos enterrados pueden ser resultado de la diagénesis sin mediación de la intemperie (González, 2013). ...
... En este sentido, la disolución y exfoliación cortical de huesos enterrados pueden ser resultado de la diagénesis sin mediación de la intemperie (González, 2013). Behrensmeyer (1978) propuso seis estadios para cuantificar las alteraciones físicas continuas en función de un progresivo deterioro físico-químico de la superficie hasta que el hueso se deshace, que han permitido cuantificar los tiempos relativos de exposición del hueso y la tasa a la que sucede la meteorización (Lyman y Fox, 1989;Janjua y Rogers, 2008;Gutierrez et al., 2016;Schultz et al., 2018). Con lo cual, la identificación de los estadios de meteorización es un indicador útil para evaluar la integridad de la superficie cortical ósea y eventualmente, pueden servir para predecir el grado de preservación de las microestructuras del remodelado óseo. ...
... El estadio de meteorización alcanzado por un hueso está sujeto a diversas propiedades del entorno al que estuvo expuesto, como las fluctuaciones de temperatura y humedad, la radiación solar, la composición del sustrato y la cubierta vegetal (Behresmeyer, 1978;Janjua y Rogers, 2008;Gutierrez et al., 2016;Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018;Schultz et al., 2018). En efecto, los estadios propuestos por Behresmeyer (1978) son continuamente revisados y se han planteado modificaciones en función de las características particulares del entorno estudiado (Lyman y Fox, 1989;Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018;Schultz et al., 2018). Es esperable en este sentido que la disparidad entre las condiciones locales de los dos contextos de procedencia de las muestras haya influido en la preservación diferencial por edad registrada entre Pampa Grande y Chubut. ...
El estudio de los patrones de remodelado óseo en el esqueleto facial es de interés en estudios arqueológicos y bioarqueológicos, ya que brindan información sobre los procesos de crecimiento y el efecto de la dureza de la dieta sobre las cargas masticatorias, entre otros. Sin embargo, las alteraciones post-depositacionales a las que están expuestos los restos pueden afectar la superficie cortical del hueso y, en consecuencia, dificultar la identificación de los rasgos histológicos asociados al remodelado óseo. Particularmente, uno de los procesos que pueden alterar la superficie cortical en contextos arqueológicos es la meteorización. El objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar el efecto de la meteorización en la identificación del remodelado óseo en el esqueleto facial a partir del análisis de individuos subadultos de dos muestras procedentes del Noroeste Argentino y Patagonia. Se evaluó el grado de asociación entre el estadio de meteorización del esqueleto facial y el porcentaje de remodelado óseo relevado. Se observó mayor incidencia de meteorización en la muestra de Patagonia, principalmente en individuos de menor edad, asociada a un mayor porcentaje de datos de remodelado. Por el contrario, los individuos del NOA presentaron mejor preservación de las superficies, principalmente a menor edad, pero menor porcentaje de datos de remodelado óseo. Los resultados obtenidos indican la necesidad de profundizar los análisis que abordan el impacto de los procesos post-depositacionales en la reconstrucción de los patrones de remodelado óseo.
... Numerous authors have approached this subject through actualistic studies (e.g. Behrensmeyer, 1978;Kreutzer, 1992;Lyman et al, 1989Lyman et al, , 1994. Lyman et al (1989) demonstrate that the density/bone survival relationship is dependent upon three factors. ...
... Behrensmeyer, 1978;Kreutzer, 1992;Lyman et al, 1989Lyman et al, , 1994. Lyman et al (1989) demonstrate that the density/bone survival relationship is dependent upon three factors. ...
... In addition, the epiphyses are easier to identify and assign to species within archaeological assemblages. The epiphyses may be less dense in comparison to the shafts but bone density studies (Kreutzer, 1992;Lyman 1989; demonstrate that these are still a relatively dense portion of the longbone. The metaphyses (point where the epiphysis and diaphysis meet) are particularly dense, which may account for the relatively common presence of both proximal and distal epiphyses plus shaft (9.1% and 7.8% respectively) (Figure 11). ...
To investigate the fauna recovered from Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe during Waechter‟s excavations (1968-1972) and to assess whether the faunal assemblage can be used to support existing models of human subsistence (e.g. Waechter, 1968, 1969; Binford, 1985).
Analysis of the Cervid and bovid faunal information from the Barnfield Pit monograph (Conway et al, 1996) and first hand observations of the faunal material at the Natural History Museum.
Cervid and Bovid Body Part Representation (BPR) was dominated by dense elements. Longbone epiphyses fall well within Binford‟s (1981) „zone of destruction‟, suggesting considerable taphonomic modification. Comparative data from Stopp (1997) demonstrated that the faunal assemblage might have undergone more fluvial modification than previously appreciated. The high cervid tooth/vertebrae ratio demonstrated considerable fluvial winnowing. Extensive weathering on the assemblage prevented the analysis of carnivore and human modification.
The Swanscombe assemblage demonstrates that an association between lithics and bones can no longer be assumed and that a more specifically taphonomic methodology needs to be employed. It is important to develop a European rather than African model when assessing the taphonomic collectors and modifiers upon European sites. Only when all taphonomic modifiers have been assessed can conclusions be drawn.
... Entre los primeros procesos que actúan en la biósfera posterior a la muerte y descomposición biológica de un organismo, se menciona la meteorización. Este proceso es un indicador de la interacción físico-química entre los agentes atmosféricos y ambientales con la superficie ósea, e indica indirectamente el tiempo de exposición superficial de los huesos antes del entierro (Behrensmeyer, 1978(Behrensmeyer, , 1991Lyman y Fox, 1989). Las evidencias de esta interacción con los restos de Katepensaurus revelan una intensa meteorización y un tiempo relativamente prolongado de exposición subaérea que degradó los tejidos blandos y alteró las partes duras mineralizadas del esqueleto ( Fig. 9.1). ...
... Existe una variedad de factores que pueden actuar en la degradación de los componentes orgánicos e inorgánicos de huesos y dientes como parte de la meteorización, incluyendo cambios de temperatura diurnos y estacionales, humectación y secado, congelación y descongelación, y exposición a los rayos UV (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman y Fox, 1989;Fiorillo, 1995;Eberth et al., 2007;entre otros). Consi-derando las condiciones paleoclimáticas cálidas y húmedas (Pujana et al., 2007;Paredes et al., 2020), y la posible variación estacional Greppi et al., 2022) determinadas en la Formación Bajo Barreal, es posible considerar preliminarmente la exposición de los huesos a los rayos UV de la luz solar y la humedad ambiente, entre los factores preponderantes en la meteorización del esqueleto de Katepensaurus. ...
Se analizan los factores intrínsecos y extrínsecos que controlaron la preservación del saurópodo rebaquisáurido Katepensaurus goicoecheai, procedente de la Formación Bajo Barreal (Grupo Chubut-Cretácico Superior) en el centro-sur de Chubut, cuenca del Golfo San Jorge, Patagonia central, Argentina. Los restos se preservaron en un depósito de desbordamiento no canalizado, de geometría lobulada, de 30 cm de potencia y vinculado a canales fluviales arenosos. Litológicamente está integrado por areniscas gruesas con abundante matriz pelítica y tobácea,que permiten caracterizarlo como un flujo hiperconcentrado. Los elementos recuperados, que corresponden principalmente al esqueleto axial, yacían sobre depósitos pelíticos de una planicie de inundación distal mal drenada y fueron parcialmente cubiertos por el lóbulo de desbordamiento, quedando estructuras expuestas que fueron intensamente erosionadas. Los restos se encontraron incompletos, desarticulados y exhibiendo evidencias de una exposición subaérea prolongada. Fueron poco movilizados por procesos hidráulicos y reorientados de forma normal a la dirección del desbordamiento. La dispersión lateral muestra grupos de huesos producto de entrampamientos hidráulicos causados por los restos de mayor tamaño en la parte central del lóbulo y los más pequeños hacia los laterales acorde a la distribución de energía del depósito. La escasa potencia del desbordamiento no sepultó completamente los restos. Finalmente, un nuevo desbordamiento cubrió completamente los materiales. La acumulación de huesos de Katepensaurus sería una concentración ósea residual y representa una acumulación parautóctona de origen sedimentológico.
... Skeletal elements are not independent, since more than one element can come from the same individual, and this could bias weathering analyses (assuming bones from a single individual will be at the same or adjacent weathering stages, which is usually, but not always the case). A way around the interdependency problem is to tally weathering stages from a single element from one side of the body, thereby calculating weathering by the MNI (Lyman and Fox, 1989). The cost is that sample size becomes much smaller. ...
... The pattern is like the trends seen for all bone specimens in Block 2N, with at least 83% of specimens in WS 0 or 1. It is possible that individual skeletal elements may weather more quickly than others (Lyman and Fox, 1989), but this has not yet been demonstrated, although it could account for the slight difference in proportions when only using right humerii. The basic unweathered signature remains. ...
There are many hypotheses regarding influences on the early hominin biogeographic spread into Eurasia; among them is increased meat-eating. Dmanisi in Georgia is one of the rare Early Pleistocene sites in Eurasia, and here we present primary information and analysis of the medium and large mammal taphonomy, contributing information about site formation and the hominins' interaction with the fauna. Nearly 85% of the specimens come from the B1 stratum. Relative abundances of mammal families demonstrate some bias toward carnivores, especially Canis borjgali, and diverse Felidae species. Bones display little weathering. Post-depositional surface modifications and matrix obscure many bone surfaces, but carnivore tooth marking is the most common bone surface modification from the nutritive taphonomic phase. Tooth pits are large, in the size range of those made by modern Crocuta crocuta and Panthera leo. Breakage variables indicate most breaks occurred while the bones were still fresh, many by carnivore consumption. Fairly even limb bone representation of herbivores suggests carcasses were introduced to the site nearly whole. Hominin tool marks are present in low frequencies, but they suggest a variety of behaviors. These marks are found on Equus, Palaeotragus, Bison, large cervids, Pseudodama, Canis, and Mammuthus. Some were made by filleting proximal limb segments, and so are likely indicative of early access to carcasses, while other marks suggest scavenging. The Homo taphonomic variables resemble the rest of the taphonomic signatures from the site with little weathering, a slightly higher percentage of their bones are whole, but only a few have probable carnivore damage. The assemblage characteristics are compared to modern actualistic and experimental assemblages, and it is concluded that Dmanisi presents a palimpsest of hyena denning, felid activity, hominin meat-eating and likely natural deaths.
... Together with a global understanding of the taphonomic and geological context, the evaluation of the degree of weathering affecting a fossil assemblage can provide important information concerning the local environmental conditions in which the animals have decomposed and, in some cases, the time of exposure of the bones (between death and burial) (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman and Fox, 1989). For the analysis of the Malapa faunal assemblage, I refer to the last five stages of weathering established by Behrensmeyer (1978), from 1 to 5 (stage 0 is consistent with fresh bones and therefore never occurring in a fossil assemblage). ...
... In any case, cracks on bones only appear once the soft tissue has been removed and the bone surface is exposed (Miller, 1975;Behrensmeyer, 1978). The fact that the MH2 skeleton was located in a cave means that is was protected from elements responsible for weathering, such as direct sun, extreme temperature variations and moisture fluctuations (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman and Fox, 1989). In subaerial context, weathering does not stop, but is inhibited (Miller, 1975;Behrensmeyer, 1978;Potts, 1986;Shipman, 1981a;Todd and Frison, 1986). ...
The cave deposits at Malapa have yielded the remains of two extremely well preserved
hominins (Australopithecus sediba) and associated fauna, dated to 1.977-1.8 Ma. The state of preservation of the hominins and some of the non-hominin material is remarkable in the context of Plio-Pleistocene fossil assemblages accumulated in caves and indicates a unique combination of taphonomic processes, not yet observed in contemporaneous cave deposits in the region. A comprehensive approach, including palaeontological, physical, and spatial analyses of the hominins and associated fauna was undertaken to determine, describe and interpret the taphonomy of the faunal material, with particular reference to hominins. An innovative combination of Computed-Tomography (CT), micro-CT scanning and virtual reconstruction techniques was applied to create a 3D model of a selected area of the Malapa cave, with renderings of the two near complete Au. sediba skeletons. The original burial position of the hominins was reconstructed. The results indicate that the majority of the faunal material recovered was most likely accumulated via a natural death trap. Their bodies came to rest in a deep area of the cave system with restricted access to scavengers. Results show that both individuals did probably not enter the cave system at the same time. They reached skeletonization and were slightly weathered before final burial, indicating several years of exposure before burial. Insects proved to be the primary modifiers of the hominin remains. Evidence of natural mummification before burial for MH1 and MH2 suggests the possible preservation of soft tissue.
... Behrensmeyer's seminal article (1978) defined six weathering stages, which range from bone appearing fresh and still greasy (Stage 0), through increasing stages of surface cracking and exfoliation (Stages 1 and 2), to deeper cracks opening in bone (Stages 3 and 4), until bone eventually falls apart (Stage 5). There has been considerable subsequent discussion about whether stages can be usefully related to periods of time that bone has been left exposed aboveground before burial (e.g., Lyman and Fox 1989). Studies conclude that so many factors are at play-such as variations in bone size, element morphology, the microenvironment of burial, and temperatures and moisture (even before differences in prediscard treatment of bone is considered)-that weathering stages cannot be employed to read even approximate lengths of time between bone deposition and subsequent burial. ...
... Studies conclude that so many factors are at play-such as variations in bone size, element morphology, the microenvironment of burial, and temperatures and moisture (even before differences in prediscard treatment of bone is considered)-that weathering stages cannot be employed to read even approximate lengths of time between bone deposition and subsequent burial. It is now also acknowledged that bone weathering does not stop with burial, although it probably slows down, depending on the stability of the burial environment (Lyman and Fox 1989). Bone buried in deposits that continue to experience variation in moisture and temperature is likely to continue the weathering process, particularly if burial is shallow. ...
on December 31, 2005, Louise Martin, Lisa Usman, and Joy McCorriston settled on a hard floor in a sparse hotel in Mukalla to watch Pakistan ring in the New Year a few hours to the east. Toddler Jojo slept a cherubic sleep propped up by all the available pillows, having exhausted all episodes of Balamory. During the day, Louise and Lisa unwrapped 6,000-year-old cattle skulls and cleaned them for photographs, measurements, and curation. To say the conservation lab was improvised would overly gloss a battered room with rigged lighting and peeling floors. But the onshore breeze fills the Mukalla Museum, there’s a five-star overlook of the brilliant sea, and you could get a rock lobster dinner for two dollars in those days. ʿAbdalʿazīz Bin ʿAqīl left us only for the morning of Eid al-Fitr, working through his holiday and the final Ramadan vigil. He and Joy kept Jojo busy so that his mother, Louise, could measure the frontal bones and wear patterns on cattle molars. This chapter is the outcome of her analysis, sup- ported by Lisa’s clever conservation solutions and Joe Roe’s statistical skills in the comparison with East African cattle.
... A total of 261 remains were examined for the presence of natural and anthropogenic marks. The taphonomic analysis thus included a record of marks of burning, carnivora and rodent gnawing, digestion, weathering, trampling, abrasion of specimen surface and edges, including pitting (non-linear, edge bounded features), polishing, and human induced marks, such as butchery marks, those related to manufacturing, and anthropic fractures (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Binford, 1981;Fiorillo, 1989;Fisher, 1995;Lyman, 1994;Lyman and Fox, 1989;Pawłowska, 2017 with further references; Shipman and Rose, 1988). Specimens with compact bone removal and exposed spongy bones were classified as stage 3 according to the Gutierrez and Kaufmann (2007), which points to sedimentary abrasion of elements during fluvial transport, in contrast to stages 1 and 2, which can be linked to abrasion in situ. ...
... The tibial tuberosity is fused, indicating it is from an adult, and this is consistent with its size and cortical thickness. Its taphonomic signature is broadly similar to that of TPL 6 with the exception of the longitudinal cracking that is common in long bone diagenesis 44 , likely due to the differential organization of microstructure between the two 45 . There is no observable abrasion consistent with water transport, which is expected given the low-energy depositional environment in which it was found. ...
The timing of the first arrival of Homo sapiens in East Asia from Africa and the degree to which they interbred with or replaced local archaic populations is controversial. Previous discoveries from Tam Pà Ling cave (Laos) identified H. sapiens in Southeast Asia by at least 46 kyr. We report on a recently discovered frontal bone (TPL 6) and tibial fragment (TPL 7) found in the deepest layers of TPL. Bayesian modeling of luminescence dating of sediments and U-series and combined U-series-ESR dating of mammalian teeth reveals a depositional sequence spanning ~86 kyr. TPL 6 confirms the presence of H. sapiens by 70 ± 3 kyr, and TPL 7 extends this range to 77 ± 9 kyr, supporting an early dispersal of H. sapiens into Southeast Asia. Geometric morphometric analyses of TPL 6 suggest descent from a gracile immigrant population rather than evolution from or admixture with local archaic populations.
... Since megalithic palimpsests are created by overlapping depositional events during variable periods of time and the variable erasing of previous material traces (Lucas 2005;Bailey 2007), our ability to build precise narratives for these societies largely depends on an accurate understanding of bone assemblage formation. Their study is a challenging task that is additionally hindered by the fact that undisturbed megalithic burials are either unusual or were excavated many years ago without the use of systematic recording techniques. ...
Our ability to build precise narratives regarding megalithic funerary rituals largely depends on an accurate understanding of bone assemblage formation. The cemetery of Panoría offers an excellent opportunity for exploring the ritual variability through the study of funerary taphonomy, as four of the nine recently excavated dolmens are remarkably well-preserved. Based on a multi-proxy approach that includes the contextual archaeological features, skeletal preservation and representation indexes, taphonomic processes, and radiocarbon chronology, three main ritual practices can be outlined: (i) primary sequential inhumations followed by the differential in situ decomposition of skeletal remains; (ii) the selective removal of crania and long bones; and (iii) the curation of subadult crania and probably long bones. The use-life of tombs, the intensity of mortuary depositions, and the intentional protection of specific bones appear as key aspects for understanding the variability in bone assemblage formation.
... Behrensmeyer (1978) postulated, in the first formal definition of bone weathering (of unburnt bone), that it is the process of separating and destroying the microscopic structure of the organic and inorganic components of bone [6]. This research and additional contributions [6][7][8] led to an index for classifying the effects of the deposition environment on the physical breakdown of bone. The potential effects of extrinsic and intrinsic variables should be taken into consideration when interpreting weathering stages [9]. ...
This study investigates how environmental variables, such as temperature and rainfall, affect previously induced cut marks on burnt bones. This research used non-serrated and serrated blade knives to inflict trauma on Sus scrofa ribs (n = 240). The bones were later burnt and left for 1 month in a taphonomic experimental facility. Qualitative and quantitative examinations were conducted using macroscopic and microscopic techniques to assess specific characteristics of the cut marks. Any changes to the dimension and morphology of the cut marks as well as their level of fragmentation were recorded.
This study has led to three important outcomes: (1) identification of pre-existing cut marks is possible in reconstructed burnt bone fragments; (2) cut marks from different types of knife blades showed dissimilar responses to heat and the environment; and (3) specific environmental variables affect burnt bone fragmentation. These results have implications for trauma analysis on burnt remains in forensic anthropology casework.
... We used the weathering stages outlined by Behrensmeyer (1978), which provided a well-known comparative standard, even though they were developed to describe patterns of diagenesis noted for largebodied African animals rather than the patterns of weathering affecting small animals from coastal southern California. Therefore, these stages were used on a descriptive basis only, and we did not assume they can be used to estimate the duration of exposure prior to burial (see Lyman and Fox 1989;Potts 1988). Further, there are no published descriptions of weathering stages for any nonmammalian species; thus, even though weathering was frequently noted on the bones of birds and reptiles, there are no criteria for describing these patterns. ...
This report details the archaeological monitoring and data recovery efforts undertaken by Statistical Research, Inc. (SRI), at CA-LAN-63, CA-LAN-64 and CA-LAN-206A, archaeological sites located at the West Bluffs property in Playa del Rey, California. This report is divided into 16 chapters. In Chapter 1, we laid the interpretive foundation for this report by presenting the background to the current project. This included both a regulatory and historical back-ground to the project. After this introduction, Chapter 2 presents a detailed summary of the prehistoric and historical-period background for both the specific project area at West Bluffs, as well as the larger regional background in the Ballona and greater Los Angeles. Chapter 3 presents both previous research in the Ballona and at West Bluffs and outlines the current research questions and foci for the project area in light of these previous excavations. Chapter 4 presents a detailed analysis of the soils and stratigraphy on the project area and how this relates to the archaeological investigations. Chapter 5 explains the methods and results of geophysical work at West Bluffs conducted prior to SRI’s hand excavation on the property in 2000. Chapter 6 outlines the methods used during the various phases of the project and summarizes the
results of the data recovery program. In a related role, Chapter 7 describes specific features studied as part of the analytical sample for this report. Chapters 8 through 11 detail specific analyses of different classes of artifacts, respectively flaked and ground stone, beads and ornaments, vertebrate faunal remains, and invertebrate faunal remains. Next, remains related to environmental and subsistence strategies are investigated in the micro- and macrobotanical remains chapter, Chapter 12. Human remains identified at West Bluffs, including descriptions of burials, are discussed in Chapter 13. Chapters 14 and 15 synthesize and evaluate the detailed data presented in Chapters 5–13. In Chapter 14, chronology for both the project area and the greater Ballona area is evaluated, and Chapter 15 discusses subsistence strategies present at the three West Bluffs sites. Finally, in Chapter 16, the various data collected and analyzed are discussed, research questions are evaluated, and conclusions are drawn.
... Weathering is one of the key extrinsic factors in taphonomy. It increases with the time exposed to the atmospheric agents like diurnal and seasonal temperature changes, wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, and exposure to UV rays (Behrensmeyer 1978;Lyman and Fox 1989;Fiorillo 1995). These processes produce cracking parallel to fiber structure, flaking of outer surface (exfoliation), and splinters on the external surfaces of skeletal elements. ...
Most taphonomy studies of South American sauropodomorphs have addressed extrinsic factors such as sedimentary environments, bone dispersal, and mineralogical processes that occurred during fossil diagenesis. These studies provide important data on the taphonomic modes which are associated with bone accumulations in different paleoenvironmental contexts. However, these analyses have generally not considered intrinsic factors like the shape, size, and structural integrity of the skeletal elements, variables that can produce some taphonomic bias. Sauropodomorphs include dinosaurs of highly varied sizes, ranging from small (less than 8 m long) to remarkably giant forms (around 30 m long). In the largest sauropods, such as the huge titanosaurs, very incomplete skeletons are commonly found and most notably skull and articulated pedes rarely are preserved. We focus here on some intrinsic anatomical factors as they relate to articulation in some key parts of the skeletons. Further, this study suggests that the preservation of fragile portions of sauropodomorph skeletons was possible only under specific combinations of sedimentological and biological processes.
... Weathering is one of the key extrinsic factors in taphonomy. It increases with the time exposed to the atmospheric agents like diurnal and seasonal temperature changes, wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, and exposure to UV rays (Behrensmeyer 1978;Lyman and Fox 1989;Fiorillo 1995). These processes produce cracking parallel to fiber structure, flaking of outer surface (exfoliation), and splinters on the external surfaces of skeletal elements. ...
After the extinction of rebbachisaurids during the Cenomanian–Turonian interval, titanosaurs were the only group of sauropods to face the K–Pg event. This same global pattern also holds for the end-Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) titanosaur record in South America, where their remains can be found from southern Argentina to Ecuador, with more frequent findings in Argentina and Brazil. In this chapter, we review these fossil findings and the main aspects of the taxonomy, systematics, and paleogeographic implications of this record and briefly discuss the importance of these occurrences for the understanding of titanosaur evolution. The diversity and abundance of end-Cretaceous titanosaur taxa in South America represent about 25% of the known Titanosauria species in the world, which makes them the most common group of large terrestrial herbivores of that time. Cretaceous titanosaurs from South America also vary highly in morphology and size, comprising small to large-sized taxa, for example. Their record mainly consists of appendicular and axial remains, including rare skull material, but also comprises eggs, nests, footprints, and coprolites. In South America, by the end of the Late Cretaceous, titanosaurs were generally represented by more derived titanosaurians that are mainly taxonomically assigned to more derived species within Aeolosaurini and Saltasaurinae.
... Its identification is indicative of a more or less prolonged exposure of the remains in the open-air (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Junod & Pokines, 2014). "Taphonomic times" could be very different among environment, reason why the analysis of weathering does not always allow us to make inferences about the time of formation of the assemblages (Lyman, 1994;Lyman & Fox, 1989). This premise is especially relevant if we take into account that the environmental conditions that could affect our assemblages are not comparable to those in which Behrensmeyer (1978) conducted her experiments (Amboseli Park, Kenya). ...
A commonly identified problem in open-air sites is the poor preservation of bone surfaces because of the multiple agents and processes that act on them. In these assemblages, surface modifications of anthropic origin can be scarce or null, and its activity is mainly inferred through the stone tools and evidence of anthropogenic breakage. Carnivore activity is also frequent. La Mina and El Forn (Barranc de la Boella), Isernia La Pineta, and Torralba are open-air assemblages from the Early and Middle Pleistocene that have contributed to our knowledge of the activities that Lower Paleolithic hominins developed in open spaces. These sites show poorly preserved bone surfaces, evidence of carnivore activity, and few indications of human use on the faunal remains, although stone tools recovered are unequivocal sign of a hominin presence at those sites. Here, we present a synthesis of the taphonomic conducted at these sites with the aim of describing how this kind of work can be conducted at Paleolithic open-air sites using several different proxies, considering the limitations commonly identified in assemblages with poorly preserved bone surfaces. The absence or scarcity of cut marks could be related to the poor preservation of the faunal remains. However, it is impossible to affirm that any such marks were originally present, as hominins may have performed activities not linked to animal carcasses. Anatomical profiles have been presented as a useful tool for reconstructing the paleoecological environments and for allowing inferences to be made about the levels of competition among large predators. The assemblages reflect similarities in the deposition type of the remains and the use of these open spaces by hominins at different times during the Lower Paleolithic.
... In this sense, the lack of skeletal weathering evidence in our sample suggests the interval of exposure was not excessive (Behrensmeyer 1978). However, bone transformations due to outdoor exposure are dependent on numerous local environmental factors, and their validity as an indicator of time must be considered with caution (Lyman and Fox 1989). ...
This article addresses the study of an indigenous burial at Mina Mountain (Lanzarote), dating from cal A.D. 1300 to 1402. Pre-European funerary contexts in Lanzarote are scarce, resulting in a particular historical situation for a population that lived on the island for at least 1,400 years, whose dead people and burial sites are virtually unknown. We analyze the available data on mortuary practices of the native population, adding a new example to the limited existing evidence. This is the first archaeological study carried out on the island that focuses on a funerary context, providing clear evidence for canine scavenging on a corpse placed in a pit and the subsequent rearrangement of the disarticulated skeletal remains in a secondary hollow. The study advances bioanthropological description and specific taphonomic data of bone modifications as evidence of the events that took place at the site, providing data to interpret this singular burial. In addition, the chronological framework, together with the references of the narrative sources describing the Franco-Norman conquest of the island in 1402, allows us to propose a potential scenario explaining this unique site.
... Según estos autores, los restos óseos de individuos crías y juveniles, por su estructura mineral y orgánica diferencial, son más propicios a alcanzar estadios de meteorización más avanzados en un período más corto de exposición a las condiciones meteóricas (Massigoge et al. 2010). Por tal motivo, si bien como sugiere Behrensmeyer (1978) la meteorización ósea es un indicador del grado de exposición relativo a las condiciones ambientales, la presencia de distintos estadios de meteorización no solo es el resultado de un aumento gradual en el tiempo de exposición y/o reexposición, sino que, como dicen Lyman & Fox (1989), refleja la interacción de un conjunto de variables tafonómicas durante la formación de un conjunto óseo. En el caso de RB1, si bien no se registró una relación creciente entre el aumento de la meteorización y el incremento de especímenes sin fusionar en los tres primeros bloques temporales, el registro da cuenta de un elevado porcentaje de especímenes y de elementos cuya fusión no se completó. ...
ln this paper we perform an exploratory study of the formation processes involved in the case of RB1 site, based on the analysis of the zooarchaeological record of stratified layers dated between ca. 4.200 and 350 years BP. To do that, we evaluated the degree of intervention of different agents and studied the preservation and the integrity of the zooarchaeological record in relation to changes in site morphology, to be able to discuss the human role in the formation of assemblages. The results indicate that humans were the main accumulator agent, and their actions have varied throughout the analyzed sequence. The zooarchaeological record suggests changes in the preservation of bone remains, which, according to the results are closely related to environmental variations in the area.
... Según estos autores, los restos óseos de individuos crías y juveniles, por su estructura mineral y orgánica diferencial, son más propicios a alcanzar estadios de meteorización más avanzados en un período más corto de exposición a las condiciones meteóricas (Massigoge et al. 2010). Por tal motivo, si bien como sugiere Behrensmeyer (1978) la meteorización ósea es un indicador del grado de exposición relativo a las condiciones ambientales, la presencia de distintos estadios de meteorización no solo es el resultado de un aumento gradual en el tiempo de exposición y/o reexposición, sino que, como dicen Lyman & Fox (1989), refleja la interacción de un conjunto de variables tafonómicas durante la formación de un conjunto óseo. En el caso de RB1, si bien no se registró una relación creciente entre el aumento de la meteorización y el incremento de especímenes sin fusionar en los tres primeros bloques temporales, el registro da cuenta de un elevado porcentaje de especímenes y de elementos cuya fusión no se completó. ...
En este trabajo realizamos un estudio exploratorio de los procesos de formación del sitio RB1, a partir del análisis del registro zooarqueológico comprendido en capas estratificadas entre ca. 4.200 y 350 años AP. Para ello evaluamos el grado de intervención de diferentes agentes y estudiamos la preservación e integridad del registro en relación con los cambios en la morfología del sitio para discutir el rol humano en la formación de los conjuntos. Los resultados indican que el ser humano habría sido el principal agente acumulador y que su accionar habría variado a lo largo de la secuencia analizada. A su vez, el registro faunístico sugiere cambios en la preservación de los restos óseos, los cuales se encuentran en estrecha relación con las variaciones ambientales del área.
... In its early stages, subaerial weathering can be superficial (Chapter 11), but areas affected on the bone do not normally terminate abruptly except in cases where the bone was partially buried while the exposed portion was affected (Figure 20.4). Subaerial weathering effects can blend so gradually in their lateral extent that an individual bone often has multiple identifiable stages present at once (Behrensmeyer 1978;Lyman and Fox 1997; see also Chapter 11, Figure 11.5). Abrupt terminations are normally indicators that another, later effect has removed part of the weathered bone. ...
The taphonomic effects described in this volume often occur multiply to osseous remains, and it is frequently necessary to decipher multiple overlapping or co-occurring alterations on the same bone. Taphonomic effects can be associated with earlier (decomposition and scavenging of fresh remains) or later postmortem phases (staining of bone surfaces, subaerial weathering, loss of organic content, abrasion, biological colonization, and scavenging upon dry remains). These individual effects follow laws of relative timing, whereby their relative order can be determined and aid in their separation from human-caused alterations (i.e., trauma). These taphonomic laws are similar to those of archaeological/geological stratigraphy, including superposition, original horizontality, and cross-cutting of strata. The four laws examined here are (1) The Law of Taphonomic Superposition, (2) The Law of Taphonomic Positional Aspect Discontinuity, (3) The Law of Taphonomic Original Continuity, and (4) The Law of Taphonomic Succession. Multiple examples illustrate these laws and include common temporal sequences among terrestrial and former cemetery remains.
... Son aspect est tout à fait classique et rien ne permet a priori de le distinguer des vestiges dont l'évolution se serait déroulée dans le sol. Cette question de l'altération de l'os par les agents atmosphériques (intempérisation), a été débattue par plusieurs auteurs (Behrensmeyer 1978 ;Lyman, Fox 1989). Nous nous rangeons à l'avis de B. ...
... Bones entering a fluvial system are also susceptible to transport potential based on the type and size of element or body part [47][48][49][50][51], the intact nature of the bone [52], and the fluvial velocity [53]. Analysis of the extent of weathering on the bone while on the surface was performed to evaluate the consistency of weathering from across the site as an indicator of the amount of exposure the fossils experienced prior to either partial or final burial [49,[54][55][56]. All the potential pre-burial taphonomic processes at Mata Menge are thought to have ceased abruptly after 6.5 m thick mudflows sealed off the sandstone layer and the bones that were present on the surface at the time. ...
The Middle Pleistocene fluvial channel site of the Upper Fossil-bearing Interval at Mata Menge in the So’a Basin, Flores, Indonesia, has yielded the earliest fossil evidence for Homo floresiensis in association with stone artefacts and fossils of highly endemic insular fauna, including Stegodon, giant rats, crocodiles, Komodo dragons, and various birds. A preliminary taphonomic review of the fossil material here aimed to provide additional context for the hominin remains in this bonebed. Analysis was performed on two subsets of material from the same fluvial sandstone layer. Subset 1 comprised all material from two adjacent one-metre square quadrants (n = 91), and Subset 2 all Stegodon long limb bones excavated from the same layer (n = 17). Key analytical parameters included species and skeletal element identification; fossil size measurements and fragmentation; weathering stages; bone fracture characteristics; and other biological and geological bone surface modifications. Analysis of Subset 1 material identified a highly fragmented assemblage with a significant bias towards Stegodon. A large portion of these bones were likely fractured by trampling prior to entering the fluvial channel and were transported away from the death-site, undergoing surface modification causing rounding. Subset 2 material was less likely to have been transported far based on its limited susceptibility to fluvial transport. There was no significant difference in weathering for the long limb bones and fragments, with the highest portion exhibiting Stage 2 weathering, indicating that prior to final burial, all material was exposed to prolonged periods of surface exposure. Approximately 10% of all material have characteristics of fracturing on fresh bone, contributing to the taphonomic context for this bonebed; however insufficient evidence was found for anthropogenic modification.
... Weathering was estimated according to Behrensmeyer's (1978) scale from 0 (not weathered, exposed for <1 year before burial) to Stage 5 (extremely weathered, exposed for 15-30 years before burial). Note that other authors, such as Lyman & Fox (1989) have warned that direct correlations between weathering stages and time should be considered with caution as other taphonomic factors (microenvironment, skeletal element, taxon, agents of exposure and burial) might produce deviations. ...
Carnivoran‐dominated fossil sites are scarce in the fossil record but provide precious information on the diversity and ecology of past carnivoran guilds. The Cerro de los Batallones sites host the oldest carnivoran‐dominated assemblages, with the highest carnivoran abundances observed in the fossil record. Batallones‐3 (Late Miocene, Madrid Basin, Spain) hosts three discrete, carnivoran‐dominated fossiliferous levels deposited in a 15m‐diameter, 4m‐high pseudokarstic cavity with 1m‐high talus cone located beneath the mouth of the cavity on the roof. Levels I, II and III are multitaxic multidominant assemblages, with the sabretooth cats Promegantereon ogygia and Machairodus aphanistus and the ursid Indarctos arctoides being the most abundant species. These carnivoran‐dominated assemblages are autochthonous and show diagenetically fractured but well‐preserved remains (complete, little to no weathering or abrasion). Root marks and manganese oxide precipitation are common and more abundant in Level III, due to modern pedogenic processes. There are also a few allochthonous, badly preserved (weathered and abraded) herbivore remains that were washed into the cavity. The taphonomic homogeneity of all three levels suggests recurring taphonomic and geologic processes throughout the accumulation of infill in the cave. The trap‐like nature of the cave, unbroken and largely unweathered carnivoran bones suggest these predators intentionally jumped into the cave but were unable to escape.
... The extent and pattern of weathering on a bone's surface was scored following categories in Behrensmeyer (1982). Surface weathering provides some indication as to the history of a carcass after death, especially whether bones were left exposed on the surface or buried, as well as something about the conditions prevailing in the depositional habitat (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman and Fox, 1989). Weathering was uncommon, most of the bone being in good condition (Table 6). ...
Canteen Kopje was a prominent location within the late nineteenth century alluvial diamond diggings within the spread of 19th century mining camps at Klipdrift along the Vaal River. This article presents the results of excavation of the historical component of Canteen Kopje that produced an artifact assemblage in which European manufactured ceramics and glass are associated with objects of local manufacture, which attests to the cultural interaction that took place in the context of early mining. These finds of material culture are associated with a faunal assemblage of wild animals primarily the remains of quagga, a species that was soon to go in extinct. Based on historical documentation and pictorial representation it is argued that the earliest Vaal River diamond diggings here represent a stage of extractive economies in southern Africa when the rigid control of space and people that emerged subsequently was not yet fully developed.
... Example of three different stages of taphonomic conditions in radius (Aranzadi Society of Sciences): 1) no signs of deterioration, like cracking and/or flaking, can be observed; 2) an initial stage of flaking, usually associated with cracks, can be observed; 3) the periosteum is completely gone, and only the fibrous part or cancellous part of the bone is left exposed (when present). Description adapted from Behrensmeyer [4], Lyman and Fox [5], Tuross et al. [6], Cutler et al. [7] and Todisco and Monchot [8]. different extrinsic factors that can affect the conservation or, rather, the degradation of the corpses [12][13][14][15]. ...
The identification of skeletal human remains, severely compromised by putrefaction, or highly deteriorated, is important for legal and humanitarian reasons. There are different tools that can help in the identification process such as anthropological and genetic studies. The success observed during the last decade in genetic analysis of skeletal remains has been possible especially due to the refinements of DNA extraction and posterior analysis techniques. However, despite these progresses, many challenges keep influencing the results of such analysis, mainly the limited amount and the degradation of the DNA recovered from badly preserved samples. By now, there is still no wide-range knowledge about post-mortem kinetics of DNA degradation. Therefore, taphonomy studies can play a key role in the reconstruction of post-mortem transformations that skeletal remains, and consequently DNA, have undergone. Thus, the goal of the present review focuses on the assessment of the literature regarding the possible effect of intrinsic (characteristics of the bone) and extrinsic (environmental) factors on the state of preservation of skeletal remains recovered in a terrestrial environment and their genetic material. The establishment of useful indicators describing the state of the remains is a key factor in order to determine their suitability for posterior biomolecular analysis.
... In addition, this specimen possesses several features suggesting a taphonomic context where the skeletal elements laid exposed on the surface for a long-time postmortem, which likely subjected it to subaerial weathering before burial (Behrensmeyer, 1978;Lyman and Fox, 1989;Andrews, 1995;Junod and Pokines, 2013). Insecterosion damage is most commonly found on joint surfaces that in life would have thick soft tissue coverings and takes the form of shallow pitting and furrowsdpatterns often seen due to dermestid beetle activity (Britt et al., 2008). ...
The postcranium of a large-bodied colobine monkey attributed to Paracolobus mutiwa from the site of Lomekwi, West Turkana, Kenya, is described. The partial skeleton (KNM-WT 16827) was recovered from locality LO 1, dated to 2.58–2.53 Ma, and preserves postcranial elements including fragments of scapula, humerus, proximal ulna, proximal radius, os coxae, proximal femur, astragalus, and calcaneus. KNM-WT 16827 was identified as P. mutiwa based on cranial similarities to the holotype female maxilla (KNM-ER 3843) and the holotype of Paracolobus chemeroni (KNM-BC 3), but is currently the only specimen of this taxon with associated cranial and postcranial elements. The skeleton is morphologically distinct from other large cercopithecid specimens from the Turkana Basin, including several assigned to Cercopithecoides williamsi, Cercopithecoides kimeui, Rhinocolobus turkanaensis, and Theropithecus oswaldi and differs from KNM-BC 3 in the larger cranium and shorter and more robust long bones. KNM-WT 16827 has forelimb and hindlimb features exhibiting a mixture of traits more associated with terrestrial locomotor behavior, including robust humeral deltoid tuberosity, retroflexed humeral medial epicondyle, deep ulnar trochlear notch, relatively short lower iliac height, prominent femoral greater trochanter, asymmetrical astragalar trochlea, and weak digit flexor grooves on the calcaneus. KNM-WT 16827 is also proportionally distinct from KNM-BC 3 and other Turkana Basin specimens attributed to large-bodied taxa such as C. williamsi, C. kimeui, R. turkanaensis, and T. oswaldi in having relatively shorter limbs and smaller tarsals. The traits shared with P. chemeroni and other extinct taxa are either typical for colobines, or likely due to P. mutiwa and P. chemeroni sharing adaptations for terrestrial locomotion relative to extant colobinans. Although a full cranial assessment is needed, based on its postcranial morphology KNM-WT 16827 is distinct from KNM-BC 3, C. williamsi, R. turkanaensis, Theropithecus, and extant colobines, warranting further analyses to better assess the taxonomic assignment of the specimen.
... Fragments were often very small (1-3 cm) making it impossible to see any signs of intentional breakage. Bone surface weathering was also recorded, developed from Behrensmeyer (1978), where low, moderate, or high weathering can indicate not only degrees of bone exposure but also the stability of the burial environment (Lyman and Fox, 1989). Burning of fragments was recorded by colour, with brown/black indicating lower temperature fire-sources, and white/blues/greys (calcined) indicating higher temperatures (following Shipman et al., 1984), although relationships between bone colour and temperatures are complex. ...
Hearth sites are characteristic of Holocene occupation in the Arabian sand seas but remain mostly unstudied. Excavations of two multi-period hearth sites in the Jebel Oraf palaeolake basin, in the oasis of Jubbah, now substantially increase our knowledge of these sites. In total, 17 of 170 identified hearths were excavated at Jebel Oraf 2 (ORF2), an open-air site on the edge of a palaeolake. In addition, 11 hearths were excavated at the stratified site of Jebel Oraf 115 (ORF115), a rockshelter formed by two boulders. Radiocarbon dating and lithic assemblages indicate that the majority of these hearths were in use in the second half of the 6th millennium BCE, and that both sites were used sporadically until the recent past. All hearths appear to have been extremely short-lived, and faunal remains suggest they may have been used to cook meat from hunted or trapped wildlife, and occasionally from livestock. The frequent use of grinding stones, often broken into fragments and used to cover hearths is also attested. Evidence for the exceptionally early use of metal from dated occupation deposits as well as from rock art, shows that these short-lived sites were well connected to technological innovations in the wider region.
... Bone surface weathering is widely evaluated using a five-stage scale developed from observations in an east African savannah (Behrensmeyer, 1978). Multiple factors encouraged a quantitative approach to weathering, including the author's caution that the stages of the scale were provisional and hypothetical, as well as concerns about user subjectivity (Lyman and Fox, 1989). In response, Vietti (2016) applied a texture analysis method to quantify average surface roughness (Ra), finding that Ra correlated with each stage of the Behrensmeyer scale, and was proportional to weathering intensity. ...
The prevailing method for measuring taphonomic abrasion on bone surfaces is the ‗Fiorillo scale‘, an ordinal qualitative scale based on a subjective visual assessment. Despite wide use, the scale has not yet been formally validated. This study investigates the reliability and validity of the Fiorillo scale. An inter-rater reliability (IRR) experiment tested the degree of rater agreement among and between early stage raters, nonspecialists and specialists, for abrasion on vertebrate fossil surfaces.
Overall, Fiorillo scale IRR was fair. Experienced nonspecialist raters were more reliable than either early stage raters or specialists, and specialist reliability was not significantly different from that of early stage raters. It is suggested that due to the brevity of description in the Fiorillo scale, the method fails to control for specialists‘ preconceptions developed from prior rating events. High-quality comparative visual examples could be used to control this influence. In addition, the reliability of early stage raters was shown to double during the rating session, while the other groups were unaffected. It is recommended that early stage raters complete a training session prior to collecting abrasion data. Additionally, the validity of abrasion measurement was investigated with a novel quantitative approach. Three-dimensional meshes of abraded and unabraded bones were generated using a laser surface scanner, and manipulated to identify meaningful changes to mesh shape or volume attributable to sedimentary abrasion. Results from qualitative and quantitative approaches were associated, albeit with a high degree of error caused in part by limited sample size. Results indicate that taphonomic abrasion can be captured without the observer bias inherent in the Fiorillo scale. This pilot method could be further developed using higher-resolution imagery and experimental reproductions of abrasion features, to convincingly infer palaeoenvironmental conditions from isolated taphonomic data.
... Some researchers have suggested that preservation cannot be solely assessed on a macroscopic level (e.g. Behrensmeyer et al. 1989;Hanson and Buikstra 1987;Jans et al. 2002, 344;Locock et al. 1992;Lyman and Fox 1989;Nicholson 1998) and consequently favour the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM). However SEM is expensive and time consuming and considerable disagreement exists about the level of microscopy needed to recognise different marks reliably (see Blumenschine 1995;Blumenschine and Marean 1993;Blumenschine and Selvaggio 1988;Bunn 1981;Bunn and Kroll 1986;Capaldo 1995;Potts and Shipman 1981;Shipman 1981;Shipman and Rose 1983). ...
Madgwick R 2008. Patterns in the modification of animal and human bones in Iron Age Wessex: Revisiting the excarnation debate. In O Davis, N Sharples, K Waddington (eds.) Changing Perspectives on the First Millennium BC. pp. 99-118, Oxbow.
Social practices concerning the treatment of human and animal remains in the Iron Age have long been a focus of debate in archaeological literature. The absence of evidence of a formal burial rite and the regular retrieval of human remains from 'special' deposits or ABG's has led to widespread discussion surrounding what majority rite was practised in Iron Age Wessex and excarnation has been a popular explanation. The deposition of unusual configurations of faunal remains, often associated with human remains may be suggestive of an interrelated pre-depositional and depositional practise between the different classes of remains. This paper explores how a holistic analysis of bone taphonomy can contribute to the understanding of social practises surrounding the pre-depositional treatment of humans and animals. In a case study of the sites of Winnall Down and Danebury, it was demonstrated that humans and animals were treated significantly differently. Human remains exhibited far less modification than faunal material, suggesting that excarnation was unlikely to have been the majority rite. However, results indicate that either exposure in a protective environment or exhumation was practised so that partial or total disarticulation could occur with little taphonomic modification. Taphonomic analysis of faunal material demonstrates that it is not only humans and animals that were treated differently, as dog and horse remains exhibit significantly different patterns of modification to other animals. Results are indicative of rigidly controlled culturally constituted social practices relating to the treatment of different classes of bone.
... However, the rate at which bones reach, and the length of time they remain within, each stage varies considerably due to macro-and microenvironmental factors that affect levels of solar radiation, rates of moisture loss and gain, fluctuations in temperature, and the crystallization and recrystallization of minerals within pore spaces. Intrinsic properties of bones like microstructure, size, shape, and density also affect the rate of surficial weathering (Lyman & Fox, 1989). What is more, most actualistic research on weathering and PMI uses nonhuman mammal bones, which are distinct microstructurally from adult human bones. ...
The reconstruction of perimortem and postmortem events is of critical importance to criminal investigations. In many cases, the information required for these reconstructions can be accessed through the analysis of skeletal remains. One particular class of skeletal data—trauma to the surfaces of bones, or bone surface modifications (BSMs)—can reveal much about the perimortem and postmortem intervals. While the study of BSMs originated within the fields of paleontology and archeology and was only later integrated into forensic science, a fruitful interdisciplinary exchange of data and methods is now commonplace. BSMs from thermal alteration, sharp‐force trauma, terrestrial and aquatic scavengers and predators, bacteria and fungi, insects, weathering, and sediment abrasion can supply investigators with valuable information about the agents and events of a corpse's deposition, including weapon type, local environmental conditions, the postmortem interval, and the presence, temperature(s), and/or length(s) of thermal exposure. Based on a review of this rich body of literature, we argue that (a) all associations between a BSM and its alleged source must rest on observational cause‐and‐effect studies; (b) secure identifications of BSMs should rely both on the intrinsic features of the modifications themselves and relevant contextual data; (c) the scientific validity of BSM research depends, ultimately, on rigorous blind‐testing and the establishment of error rates; and (d) researchers need to make a concerted effort to enhance interanalyst correspondence through objective definitions, measurements, and/or codes of BSM features. The most promising path forward lies in the combination of digital image analysis and multivariate predictive modeling.
This article is categorized under: Forensic Anthropology > Trauma Analysis
Forensic Anthropology > Taphonomic Changes and the Environment
Forensic Anthropology > Time Since Death Estimation
... Los cambios químicos ocurridos a nivel de los constituyentes orgánicos e inorgánicos del hueso son contemporáneos, y probablemente una de las múltiples causas concurrentes, a las modificaciones en las propiedades físicas a escala macroestructural (Behrensmeyer 1978(Behrensmeyer , 1990. Hasta el presente, se sabe muy poco respecto de los procesos de meteorización sub-superficiales, a excepción de que actúan a una tasa menor respecto a los que ocurren sobre la superficie (Lyman y Fox 1989). Los cambios físicos a nivel macroscópico incluyen fisuramiento, lascado, descamación y fragmentación, como correlato de los cambios a nivel microscópico que afectan a la microestructura, tales como rotura de los componentes orgánicos (principalmente colágeno), disolución, recristalización y/o alteración química de los componentes minerales (Behrensmeyer 1990). ...
... The six stages describe the process of destruction, from greasy bones (stage 0) to surface cracking, flaking, and loose splinters (stages 1-4), to "bone falling apart" (stage 5), for mammals over 5 kg in body weight (Behrensmeyer 1978:151). Lyman and Fox (1997) have stated that these stages need not have any correlation to time since assemblage formation, but they may nevertheless be seen as stages of the decomposition process. Lyman and Fox (1997:227) also point out that different elements could degrade at different rates, suggesting that only one skeletal element from the same taxon should be used for comparisons. ...
In the ringfort Sandby borg (A.D. 400–550) on Öland, Sweden, remains of 26 unburied humans were excavated between 2010 and 2016. Several of the skeletons display traces of lethal interpersonal violence. This study pres¬ents taphonomic analyses of unburied bodies, a situation seldom encountered archaeologically. The depositional context allows us to investigate human taphonomy in interaction with natural agents both “indoors” and “out¬doors.” A set of various techniques, including documentation of preservation via zoning, weathering stages, frac¬ture analysis, and archaeothanatology, were applied to understand the perimortem and postmortem fate of the human remains. The results of the taphonomic analysis showed no indications of manipulation postmortem. Expected differences in preservation between in-and outdoor skeletons were not observed. Perimortem fire al¬terations were interpreted as the result of burning hearths and smoldering roofs. The analysis indicates that the bodies have decomposed in voids. New observations for “unconfined void” taphonomy are presented. The ab¬duction of limbs could be the result of bloating and, hence, indicate a primary deposit of bodies. Atypical lack of splaying of bones might be caused by decomposition in unconfined voids, possibly allowing quicker drainage of putrefaction liquids than in confined voids such as coffins. These observations suggest that processes behind decomposition in voids are not completely understood archaeologically, and might challenge interpretations of mortuary treatment from human remains. In der Wallburg Sandby borg (400-550 n. Chr.) auf Öland, Schweden, wurden die Überreste von 26 nicht bestat¬teten Menschen gefunden, die zu einem großen Teil Spuren von tödlicher Gewalteinwirkung aufwiesen. In dieser Studie werden die Ergebnisse taphonomischer Untersuchungen von nicht bestatteten menschlichen Überresten präsentiert, auf die man im archäologischen Kontext nur selten trifft. Diese Art der Niederlegung und Auffindung erlaubt es uns die Taphonomie von menschlichen Überresten unter natürlichen Einflüssen von sowohl ”drinnen—im Haus” als auch ”draußen—außer Haus” zu untersuchen. Mehrere unterschiedliche Methoden wurden angewendet um sowohl das perimortale als auch das postmortale Schicksal der menschli¬chen Überreste zu verstehen, darunter Dokumentation der bewahrten Knochenteile, Stadien der Verwitterung, Bruchanalysen und Archäothanatologie. Die Ergebnisse der taphonomischen Untersuchungen zeigten keine postmortalen Veränderungen. Die erwarteten Unterschiede im Zustand der drinnen und draußen bewahrten Skeletten ließen sich nicht bestätigen. Perimortale Veränderungen der verbrannten Knochen wurden als Resul¬tat von aktiven Feuerherden und brennenden Dächern gedeutet. Die Analyse spricht dafür, dass die Körper in Hohlräumen verwesten. Neue Beobachtungen von Taphonomie in ”unbegrenzten Hohlräumen” werden eben¬falls präsentiert. Die Abduktion von Körpergliedern kann auf Aufblähungen beruhen, und spricht damit für eine primäre Niederlegung von Körpern. Der atypische Mangel an verteilten Knochenmaterial kann durch die Verwesung in unbegrenzten Hohlräumen verursacht worden sein, und damit einen schnelleren Abfluss von Verwesungsflüssigkeit erlauben, als es in begrenzten Hohlräumen wie z. B. Särgen der Fall ist. Diese Ergebnisse sprechen dafür, dass Verwesungsprozesse in Hohlräumen archäologisch noch nicht vollständig zu verstehen sind, und daher die Deutung wie menschliche Überreste behandelt wurden in Frage stellen können.
... crocodiles (Fig. 2v) and Thylacoleo sp. bite marks ( Supplementary Fig. 10d)) to dry and wet bone fractures dominated by weathering stage 0, indicating short-term exposure 35 Table 3). We acknowledge the complex taphonomic processes at play within fluvial systems 37 ; however, the presence of articulated and associated remains with limited predepositional weathering at two sites in particular (QML1470 (SW9) and QML1470 (SW3)) demonstrates low levels of transport prior to burial ( Fig. 2w; Supplementary Note 2 & 4). ...
Explanations for the Upper Pleistocene extinction of megafauna from Sahul (Australia and New Guinea) remain unresolved. Extinction hypotheses have advanced climate or human-driven scenarios, in spite of over three quarters of Sahul lacking reliable biogeographic or chronologic data. Here we present new megafauna from north-eastern Australia that suffered extinction sometime after 40,100 (±1700) years ago. Megafauna fossils preserved alongside leaves, seeds, pollen and insects, indicate a sclerophyllous forest with heathy understorey that was home to aquatic and terrestrial carnivorous reptiles and megaherbivores, including the world’s largest kangaroo. Megafauna species diversity is greater compared to southern sites of similar age, which is contrary to expectations if extinctions followed proposed migration routes for people across Sahul. Our results do not support rapid or synchronous human-mediated continental-wide extinction, or the proposed timing of peak extinction events. Instead, megafauna extinctions coincide with regionally staggered spatio-temporal deterioration in hydroclimate coupled with sustained environmental change. The causes of the Upper Pleistocene megafauna extinction in Australia and New Guinea are debated, but fossil data are lacking for much of this region. Here, Hocknull and colleagues report a new, diverse megafauna assemblage from north-eastern Australia that persisted until ~40,000 years ago.
Este artículo presenta el hallazgo de entierros murales en el edificio A del sector Cerro de las Monjas, del complejo arqueológico Marcahuamachuco. El edificio A forma parte de un conjunto de residencias multifamiliares. Se hace una descripción y análisis bioarqueológico de los restos óseos encontrados y se sugiere, de acuerdo a datos etnográficos, que las almas de los individuos enterrados habrían cumplido la función de guardianes y protectores de los edificios y sus ocupantes.
This article examines evidence for the curation of human remains during the 1st century AD in Ewell. Taphonomic analysis of human remains recovered from the structured deposit on the Nescot College former animal husbandry site revealed that eleven bones appeared to have a ‘polished’ surface, indicating a different post-mortem treatment to the rest of the assemblage. This paper evaluates the possible taphonomic causes of this effect to establish the likelihood of curation of the remains during the early Roman period. The polished state of a selection of the bones indicates that they were subject to different taphonomic pathways, indicating they were probably curated for a period before redeposition. The idea of curating parts of the body after death, while non-normative in Roman culture, is well attested in the British Iron Age. The Ewell example, therefore, has the potential to illustrate the continuity of belief and ritual immediately after the Roman conquest, as well as widening understanding of non-normative mortuary behaviours in Roman Britain.
We have considered a range of commensality in Neolithic Çatalhöyük using ceramics, animal bones, and architecture. Integrating the data allowed us to capture the change in commensal practices over the Final occupational phase (ca. 6300-5950 cal BC). The shift from community commensality to family commensality is marked by a decrease in the size of jars, accompanied by slight changes in the size of bowls. These types of vessels were used both for cooking, as shown by soot and lipid residue analysis, and for serving, as can be inferred from the more open form, apparent with the bowls. In the case of bowls, this result contrasts with previous findings suggesting that they had relevance for plant foods only. When we consider feasting events, the data on everyday commensal practice can be seen to contrast with this exceptional commensality. In both, the main role is played by cattle, which are the driver of change as the status of the taxon moves from wild to domestic. Changes in culinary and social practices are embedded in architectural changes in the form of growing number of open spaces which served as places where people could share a meal.
The archaeological evidence for foodstuffs is an underappreciated topic within the field of Classics. While syntheses and narratives exist for prehistoric periods, this project foregrounds evidence for foodstuffs within an examination of animals and social change in ancient Greece. This study presents primary datasets of animal bones and teeth from three ancient Greek settlements framed in a larger narrative of changing food practices and urbanism in Greece: the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age village at Nichoria, the Archaic town at Azoria, and the urban center of Classical Athens. Classical Greek urbanism is accompanied by significant changes in the mobilization, processing, and distribution of animal resources within communities. While Homeric heroes might have feasted on heroic portions of meat, their Early Iron Age audience did not. By the Archaic period, corporate groups (cultic or civic in nature) provided meat to members in expressions of communal identity through feasting. There is a shift in how animals were processed related to the development of professional butchery. It is possible to trace the development of an urban cuisine – from textual sources, ceramic vessels, and organic remains – a meatier cuisine prepared in new ways within the Greek cityscape. Food production strategies shift from a fairly homogenous set of strategies in the Late Bronze Age to a fairly heterogenous set of strategies in the first millennium B.C. It is perhaps possible to conceive this shift as an adaptation to changing climate around this time, with heterogenous strategies a better fit for various ecological niches. These heterogenous production strategies, wherein different settlements practiced different productive strategies, perhaps contributed to an increase in connectivity in the Mediterranean. A narrative foregrounding animal bones contextualizes our understanding of ancient Greek feasting, butchery, animal husbandry, sacrificial ritual, and refuse disposal within a historical study of social changes.
Although there has been extensive experimental research on the thermal modification of bone, the results have rarely been applied to complex legacy funerary assemblages. The human skeletal remains from an Early Bronze Age IA tomb at Jericho were analysed to assess the utility of macroscopic taphonomic approaches both to interpreting intentionality in complex funerary practices involving the burning of human bones, and in understanding legacy assemblages that often lack the depth of contextual information available for their modern counterparts. These analyses generated valuable evidence for the interpretation of complex funerary practices in legacy assemblages, including the state of remains prior to burning, the approximate intensity of thermal modification and the deposition practice. This investigation highlights the value of non-destructive macroscopic taphonomic analysis as the foundation in the investigation of burning in complex legacy assemblages.
Bones exposed in terrestrial environments undergo subaerial weathering, which encompasses multiple taphonomic effects that include sun-bleaching, loss of moisture, cracking, flaking, and spalling, leading over the long term to destruction of the bone. This chapter examines the environmental causes of subaerial weathering, which include solar radiation, thermal expansion-contraction, freezing-thawing, wetting-drying, mineral crystallization, and chemical dissolution. Subaerial weathering effects are also distinguished from those with different causes, as multiple taphonomic processes will bleach/whiten or crack bone. In addition, the stages of subaerial weathering can be used to estimate the postmortem interval (PMI), especially in the temporal zone between early (decomposition, arthropod succession, etc.) and later (radiocarbon, etc.) methods. The many factors that are known to alter the rate of bone weathering are examined, including macroenvironmental and microenvironmental, which indicate that geographic and localized contextual variation must be considered when estimating the PMI using this method. This chapter includes other taphonomic effects that tend to accrue in exposed terrestrial environments, including soil staining and algae formation.
In the analysis of taphonomic effects that have occurred to osseous remains, it is often necessary to interpret multiple overlapping changes. Individual taphonomic effects can be isolated from each other, and these follow rules of relative timing, whereby earlier or later effects can be determined. These rules are similar to those of archaeological and geological stratigraphy, from which the basic concepts of superposition and other physical relationships are derived. Taphonomic effects can be caused by multiple processes associated with early phases (death, decomposition, and scavenging of fresh remains) or with later phases (staining of bone surfaces, breakdown of the bone, and scavenging upon dry remains). The relative sequencing of the taphonomic effects to a set of remains can be used to reconstruct their postmortem history and to separate human activity, including trauma, from scavengers and other biological agencies. The four laws presented here pertain to (1) superposition, (2) positional aspect continuity, (3) original continuity, and (4) succession of changes. These laws can be applied more broadly in some archaeological/paleoanthropological situations, but the specific examples used to illustrate them here come from forensic settings.
Identification of incinerated human remains may rely on genetic analysis of burned bone which can prove far more challenging than fresh tissues. Severe thermal insult results in the destruction or denaturation of DNA in soft tissues, however genetic material may be preserved in the skeletal tissues. Considerations for DNA retrieval from these samples include low levels of exogenous DNA, the dense, mineralised nature of bone, and the presence of contamination, and qPCR inhibitors. This review collates current knowledge in three areas relating to optimising DNA recovery from burned bone: 1) impact of burning on bone and subsequent effects on sample collection, 2) difficulties of preparing burned samples for DNA extraction, and 3) protocols for bone decalcification and DNA extraction. Bone decalcification and various DNA extraction protocols have been tested and optimised for ancient bone, suggesting that prolonged EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) demineralisation followed by solid-phased silica-based extraction techniques provide the greatest DNA yield. However, there is significantly less literature exploring the optimal protocol for incinerated bones. Although burned bone, like ancient and diagenetic bone, can be considered “low-copy”, the taphonomic processes occurring are likely different. As techniques developed for ancient samples are tailored to deal with bone that has been altered in a particular way, it is important to understand if burned bone undergoes similar or different changes. Currently the effects of burning on bone and the DNA within it is not fully understood. Future research should focus on increasing our understanding of the effects of heat on bone and on comparing the outcome of various DNA extraction protocols for these tissues.
Reliable methods are needed to distinguish anthropogenic from non-anthropogenic causes of proboscidean limb bone breakage in fossil assemblages because of theoretical uncertainty about human-proboscidean relationships in the Pleistocene. This paper compares experimentally broken bones of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and mammoths (Mammuthus spp.) after establishing that limb bone fracture dynamics are the same for those proboscidean taxa. We show that features thought exclusively diagnostic of percussive fracturing of green proboscidean long bones such as notched fracture edges, smooth fracture surfaces, and curvilinear fracture outlines also can be created on non-green bones and on bones affected by non-anthropogenic processes. The information reported here can be applied in analyses or re-analyses of fossil proboscidean bone assemblages and may either support or potentially alter current interpretations of hominin behavior.
This paper presents the faunal analyses carried on a newly excavated sector at El Tigre site (Patagones, Argentina). Unlike the first excavation, which evidenced archaeological integrity of the assemblage, the newly excavated area evidenced highly disturbed stratigraphy, with burrows and galleries suggestive of the activity of fossorial animals. An analysis of taphonomic trajectories and site formation processes was conducted to identify the disturbing agents and assess the nature of the disturbances they caused on the faunal assemblages. These analyses revealed armadillos to be the agents causing such disturbances. Still, although their action impacted heavily on the distribution of materials through the stratigraphic sequence and on the distinctiveness of boundaries across units, they barely altered the faunal composition and preservation of remains.
Some of the most spectacular and potentially informative archaeological sites found on the Plains are the large kill-butchery sites. Investigation of sites where stone tools are found in associations with the bones of groups of large animals have played a major role in the development of current ideas about the prehistoric inhabitants of this area. Attempting to understand these complex archaeological deposits is, however, by no means a straightforward process. One of the primary objectives of the analysis of a bonebed must be an investigation of the role that both human action and the action of natural process have had in the formation of the site as we see it today. A field of investigation known as taphonomy provides a useful starting point in the attempt to distinguish intentional human action from the operation of natural process of decay and dispersal that affect carcasses. The integration of information gained from the study of contemporary carcass groups with the data that are collected from mass kill sites can provide the archaeologist with powerful interpretative tools.
This chapter provides an overview of the records from the 1949 to 1952 excavations at the Horner site. Although the Princeton–Smithsonian excavations at the Horner site were completed over 30 years ago and only brief reports on the site have been prepared and published (Jepsen 1953a,b; Wedel 1961:68–70; Wormington 1957:127–128), the data documented in the field notes and maps provides a valuable source of information about this important site. In addition to documenting the procedures used and materials recovered during the Princeton–Smithsonian excavations, an evaluation of the integrity and resolution of the archaeological materials recovered from 1949–1952 becomes necessary to analyze archaeological materials and make assessments of the relative integrity and resolution of the assemblages under investigation. In 1949, the grid system used during the 1949–1952 excavation period was established. The origin of the grid system was to the northeast of the site. Although both bone and chipped stone were mapped, only the chipped stone items were given identification numbers and systematically saved. During the 1950 field season, geological field work was conducted at the Horner site by Sheldon Judson, John Moss, and a Princeton University student, John Schulungen. The program of geologic investigations included the drilling of a series of auger holes to the surface of the Cody Terrace gravels to document the sequence of deposits. In the initial phase of the investigation, these holes were drilled using a hand auger. Several types of features were recorded during the Princeton–Smithsonian excavations. These included hearth areas, charcoal scatters, areas of burnt earth or bone, clusters of lithic debitage, and a series of pits or depressions.
This chapter presents the taphonomy of the Homer II bone bed. Analysis of the bone bed exposed by the 1977–1978 University of Wyoming excavations at Horner emphasizes the need to further develop taphonomic techniques for the interpretation of kill-butchery sites. The excavations by the University of Wyoming were directed, in part, toward the collection of a range of information to allow more refined statements about the taphonomic history of the deposit. Particularly in Paleoindian studies, where much of the database is derived from kill-butchery sites, interpretations of formational histories of these bone beds play key roles in the evaluation of models of past adaptive systems. Although there has been a growing awareness of the potential of bone bed analysis in archaeological interpretation, difficulties in the implementation of comparative study of kill-butchery sites still exist. The study of the formation of bone beds requires an understanding of both human action and the range of post-occupational processes that can add to the complex patterns recorded within such deposits. Most taphonomic investigation has dealt with single-carcass death site. However, the large multi-animal bone beds that characterize mass death sites present a range of taphonomic problems somewhat different than those that can be investigated using single-carcass studies. An archaeological kill-butchery site is, however, only one possible subset of a broader universe of bone bed localities and will share some forms of patterning in common with strictly paleontological deposits. Bone beds can be highly structured, internally differentiated, patterned occurrences without the slightest intervention of a human agent in their creation.
This chapter discusses land-mammal bones, their biological properties, the various modification processes they can undergo, and the agencies responsible for those modifications. The chapter focuses on how to distinguish hominid-modified bones, particularly fracture patterns, from bones modified by natural—biological and geological—agencies. It also focuses on cultural reconstruction and on how hominids modified bones from large land mammals. Considerable controversy revolves around these issues. Of primary concern is the fracture pattern known as spiral fracturing, how it is induced and under what conditions, and what its relationship is to the way hominids manipulate bone versus manipulation by other agencies. The spiral morphology is helical and is the shape of a curve through a series of planes as it circles around the diaphysis. Another concern is the type of surficial damage bone undergoes once it has been fractured and how that damage relates to the way hominids manipulate bone versus manipulation by other agencies.
This chapter discusses taphonomy and paleoecology. It is always refreshing and sometimes informative to look at the same thing from a different point of view. Paleontologists and archaeologists look at the same thing from different points of view, and a comparison of the ways in which practitioners of these two disciplines go about their work can clarify the unique features and common problems of each. Taphonomy is a word coined by the Russian paleontologist I. A. Efremov from the Greek words for tomb or burial—taphos—and for law or systems of laws—nomos—to denote that subdiscipline of paleontology devoted to the study of processes that operate on organic remains after death to form fossil deposits. In common with many other branches of historical science, taphonomy involves two distinct but necessarily related lines of investigation. The first is devoted to studying observable contemporary processes involved in this transition of organic remains from biosphere to lithosphere, focusing on those that produce effects analogous to those traces observed in the fossil evidence. The second is devoted to analysis of the prehistoric evidence in light of findings derived from the first line of investigation. Properly pursued, taphonomy can provide paleoecologists with information about the spatial, temporal, and biological factors involved in the formation of fossil assemblages.
The paper describes wild wolf (Canis lupus) predation and sequences of feeding on carcasses of whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus) they've killed in the northern Great Lakes forests on North America. The hunting and feeding behaviors of wolf packs vary with prey vulnerability. The degree of carcass utilization may be light or heavy, as measured by bone representation and intensity of bone damage, which are described. Such variability often reflects ecologically important factors, such as snow depth or .
Challenges to increase our understanding of how taphonomic processes potentially affect quantitative and distributional properties of the archaeofaunal record have been responded to by development of an unwieldy terminology and a plethora of control studies on taphonomic processes. A preliminary effort towards integration of concepts and data here involves specification of zooarchaeological analytic goals and a field of study, and alignment of six general taphonomic processes with four general taphonomic effects. The alignment indicates data requisite to taphonomic analyses, and can serve as a reference framework to facilitate construction of a holistic theory of taphonomy from esoteric control study data.
More than 125 carcasses and skeletal remains of wild bison, moose, and whitetail deer were examined in the field. Most were from closely documented episodes of predation, mass drownings, or other natural causes of death. Predictable and unusual kinds of bone and carcass utilization by timber wolves and bears are described. The variables emphasized include sectioning of carcasses by feeding predators, distribution and dispersal of bones at kill sites, gnaw damage to bones in homesites, kill sites and scavenge sites, potential or observed survival of bones at sites of prey carcasses, and the patterns of scatter or accumulation of skeletal remains in moose and bison ranges due to predation or other natural causes of death. Variations in gnaw damage to bones and utilization of carcasses by carnivores reflect significant aspects of predator-prey interactions, and can be deciphered by ecologists interpreting either fossil or modern assemblages of bones.Key words: carnivores, prey carcasses, taphonomy, North America, paleoecology, archeological interpretation
The sequences of skeletal disarticulation in a broad range of African mammals in a tropical
savanna environment suggest that in general the process is very consistent. There is some variation among
species, but this cannot yet be convincingly related to higher taxonomic categories or to body size.
Disarticulation begins shortly after death, proceeds more or less continuously, and is almost complete after
5 yr. Because of the overall predictability of disarticulation, the stage of disarticulation reached by comparable
fossil skeletons provides useful information about their taphonomic history prior to burial
I present a statistical technique for determining the disarticulation sequence of vertebrate
skeletons based on the relative numbers of different intact joints in an assemblage of bones. For remains
of modern Topi (Damaliscus korrigum) on the margin of Lake Turkana, northern Kenya, the disarticulation
pattern is very consistent. This sequence, on dry land, differs from that reported for bovids that
have disarticulated in the presence of water. On land the bones first released as single bones are those
moved least easily by currents of moving water. The last released are those moved most easily. I develop
a model of random scattering that suggests that the rate of dispersion is great at high concentrations of
bones and decreases rapidly as the distance between bones increases. This leads to a condition where
scattering effectively stops. The area of more or less stabilised dispersion is dependent only upon the
mean distance that each random event moves a bone. Tests show that it is unlikely that articulated units
themselves are much involved in scattering, and scattering appears to take place throughout the course
of disarticulation.
This important paper offers a fresh and stimulating approach to the interpretation of a large faunal assemblage from an excavated site. There are interesting implications in regard to present-day land use—an aspect of archaeology to which too little attention has been paid. The principal author, Dr Gifford is Assistant Professor in The Board of Studies in Anthropology, University of California.SummaryThis paper reports in detail on the largest faunal assemblage yet analysed from a Pastoral Neolithic site. Prolonged Drift, located south of Lake Nakuru, Kenya, yielded over 160,000 pieces of bone, reflecting a mixture of wild and domestic species in one midden deposit. A substantial part of our discussion centres on the possible economic systems and practices that may have existed in the Central Rift during the first and second millennia B.C.
Fort Ternan is of unusual interest, both because it is the oldest, directlydated site containing remains of Ramapithecus and because the well-known Early Miocene sites in the area afford the opportunity to trace hominoid evolution in one area over time. A phonolitic lava flow destroyed the lowland forest that had blanketed western Kenya since the Oligocene at about 15 Ma (date obtained by the 39Ar/40Ar step-heat method). The site itself is an inverted basin developed by erosion of a horst upthrust near the foot of the volcano, Tinderet. At 14 Ma, volcanic activity associated with the developing Western Rift Valley produced tuffs that washed into the basin and weathered into paleosols, in which the fossils are preserved. Mica flakes from the upper paleosol gave a date of 13·9 Ma, so the time span sampled is relatively brief. Evidence of the relative abundance and diversity of species and skeletal elements, the state of preservation of the fossils and their spatial distribution suggests that: (1) most of the fauma was locally derived; (2) only a small percentage of the species were derived from the forests on Tinderet; (3) Ramapithecus shared a common taphonomic history with the open-country animals and probably lived with them or in the ecotone; (4) the appearance of Ramapithecus and other new species may have been related to the ecological shift towards more open country.
Longitudinal studies of bone sites in Africa and Canada indicate that both mass death sites and sites of serial predation share many significant characteristics, such as dense bone deposits, representation of multiple taxa, presence of different degrees of gnaw-damage and different weathering stages, and concise spatial areas containing the bones. Surface densities of bone range from 1 per 3m2 in a mass death site to 1 per 125 m2 in a site where serial predation accounted for all bones. The average number of bones per represented individual ranges from a low of about seven elements per animal, to a high of about 20, with no difference between mass death and cumulative death sites.
Bones of recent mammals in the Amboseli Basin, southern Kenya, exhibit distinctive weathering characteristics that can be related to the time since death and to the local conditions of temperature, humidity and soil chemistry. A categorization of weathering characteristics into six stages, recognizable on descriptive criteria, provides a basis for investigation of weathering rates and processes. The time necessary to achieve each successive weathering stage has been calibrated using known-age carcasses. Most bones decompose beyond recognition in 10 to 15 yr. Bones of animals under 100 kg and juveniles appear to weather more rapidly than bones of large animals or adults. Small-scale rather than widespread environmental factors seem to have greatest influence on weathering characteristics and rates. Bone weathering is potentially valuable as evidence for the period of time represented in recent or fossil bone assemblages, including those on archeological sites, and may also be an important tool in censusing populations of animals in modern ecosystems.
This chapter discusses the aspects of a unified approach to intrasite spatial analysis. The nature of the organization of archaeological records within sites, as determined and impacted by human behavior, archaeological formation processes, and archaeological recovery techniques, is expressed as a partially mathematical model. The chapter describes the common techniques of spatial analysis and examines the consistency of their assumptions with the proposed model. It presents alternative approaches to spatial analysis having designs more consistent with the proposed model—some new, others previously available but not applied in archaeology. It is hoped that the proposed model of archaeological deposits and the evaluations of used spatial analytic techniques would make archaeologists aware of these inconsistencies and suggest the means by which they might be overcome. The alternative techniques are a step in the direction of eliminating discordance between data structure and method.
Publisher Summary
This chapter reviews the two major goals of butchery analysis within an historic context of several decades ago. It focuses on analytic techniques that have been and are being used to identify the hominid taphonomic agent in butchery analyses. It presents a brief description of how butchering patterns are infer. It also presents an explicitly taphonomic approach to the analysis of butchery in an attempt to integrate analytical techniques and goals into a coherent whole. The chapter also presents an example of butchery analysis that illustrates the explicitly taphonomic approach. It also explores the more recent attempts aimed specifically at identifying the taphonomic agents involved in faunal processing.
This chapter describes weathering to mean any alteration that occurs to the surface of a material as a consequence of chemical interactions with its atmospheric, aquatic, or soil environment. The resulting surface is often referred to as patina. The international emphasis on the safe disposal of nuclear waste materials has provided the funds and interest required to develop a scientific understanding of weathering. Future problems of chemical waste disposal and acid rain promise to maintain the momentum in this important area of research. The understanding of weathering has been significantly enhanced by the availability of routine surface-analytical equipment capable of submicrometer spatial resolution. New instrumentation can provide assistance in the interpretation of materials from archaeological sites, including how they are transformed through time. One must also keep in mind that the interpretation of data obtained from these techniques relies heavily on the understanding obtained from a variety of archaeological analyses. Previous knowledge on the part of the archaeologist about prehistoric contexts is important in the ability to interpret intelligently the data that result from the application of instrumental techniques. The collaboration of archaeologists, materials scientists, and surface scientists has provided the necessary cross-fertilization to produce a fundamental understanding of the weathering problem. Archaeologists, although interested in weathering for different reasons, have helped to confirm the findings of the materials scientists.
This chapter presents an approach to decipher depositional histories. A useful approach to decipher depositional histories would be to treat the record (in its entirety) as a sedimentological deposit. All components could then be described in sedimentological terms (attributes) and according to the rules established in the geological code of stratigraphic nomenclature, which would allow the archaeologist to determine the contribution of biological (cultural) agents and natural agents in archaeological deposits. A sedimentological deposit is a single sedimentation unit formed under essentially constant physical conditions with constant delivery of the same material during deposition. The material contained in the deposit is called sediment. Each individual sedimentary particle can have a unique depositional history related to its source, transport agent, environment of deposition, and postdepositional alteration. Attributes of the sedimentary particles that can be used to interpret depositional history are texture, composition, and structures. Sedimentary particles are grouped in deposits because the sources, agents of transport, and depositional environments were constant for a sufficiently long period of time to allow them to accumulate.
The terms “meat-eating” and “hunting” are generally used in anthropology in the same sense as “carnivory” and “predation” are used in zoology. This book symbolizes the importance that anthropologists give to hunting as a behavioral adaptation in human evolution. Meat-eating per se seems to provoke less controversy in discussions about early humans than whether the meat was acquired by hunting or scavenging.
A model for attritional bone assemblage formation in fluvial deposits, based on observations of taphonomic processes in modern environments, provides order-of-magnitude estimates for time intervals represented in single unit, 'contemporaneous' vertebrate samples.-from Author Dept of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Inst, Washington, DC 20560, USA.
Bones of mammals exhibit progressive stages of weathering thus the study of bone weathering in fossil assemblages may help to assess the period represented by an accumulation of bones. Stages of bone decomposition due to subaerial weathering have been identified in assemblages of fossil macromammals from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. A modern bone assemblage collected by spotted hyenas is used to devise a method for recognizing attritional accumulations of bones from weathering characteristics. This method, is applied to Plio-Pleistocene faunal assemblages from Olduvai, 1.70-1.85 ma old. Previous work indicates that early hominids had an important role in the collection of fauna at five of the six sites studied. It is shown that animal bones were accumulated at each site over a period of probably 5-10 yr or more. The length of this period, suggests that the processes of bone aggregation at these sites differed from those at the short-term campsites of modern, tropical hunter-gatherers. -from Author
Many palaeoecological analyses utilize estimates of the relative abundances of taxa in fossil or subfossil assemblages. Such estimates depend upon determination of the number of individuals present or some other measure of the amount of material collected for each taxon. I assess the validity of methods currently used to estimate numbers of individuals per taxon in mammalian assemblages. For any method of counting selected, the underlying assumptions about the probability of association among skeletal elements should correspond to processes of accumulation for the assemblage, as inferred from its taphonomic characteristics. No method is appropriate for all mammalian assemblages.-from Author
Human origins research by archaeologists has expanded the evidence of the diet and subsistence activities of ancient hominids. We examine an important component of that evidence, the 1.75-million-year-old faunal assemblage from the FLK Zinjanthropus site at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Skeletal-part frequencies are used to evaluate hominid access to and differential transport of carcass portions of differing nutritional value. Cut-mark frequencies and locations are used to evaluate butchery patterns including skinning, disarticulation, and defleshing of carcasses. In contrast to other recently published assessments of the FLK Zinjanthropus data, we conclude that (1) ancient hominids had full access to meaty carcasses of many small and large animals prior to any substantial loss of meat or marrow bones through other predator or scavenger feeding; (2) ancient hominids were butchering animal carcasses by an efficient and systematic technique that involved skinning, disarticulation, and defleshing; and (3) the FLK Zinjanthropus site represents a place where the secondary butchering of selected carcass portions and the consumption of substantial quantities of meat and marrow occurred.
Many archaeologists have expressed dissatisfaction with the degree of explanatory power provided by the new archaeology. This failure of explanation is due to a continued emphasis on the modal character of archaeological data. The variation in a cultural system's activity structure has not been perceived as influencing the archaeological context. A heuristic device is suggested to help archaeologists conceptualize variation in activities within a cultural system. The detailed study of archaeological features is described as the best way of examining events in the archaeological context. Ethnoarchaeology is proposed as a means of interpreting these events. -Authors
Preliminary taphonomical studies carried out on a Pleistocene faunal assemblages from the Central Narmada Valley, Madhya Pradesh, India reveals that the assemblage has undergone hydrodynamic sorting resulting in the transportation of the fossils. Also there has been a delayed burial of the bones. Field sedimentological evidence supports the occurrence of the assemblage in channel deposits under the influence of moderate currents.
Excavation in the Upper Member of the Koobi Fora Formation in Kenya has revealed a cluster of stone artefacts and broken up bones which accumulated 1–5 million years ago on the banks of a water course. The assemblage had been preserved by layers of silt. The stone artefacts consist of flakes and flake fragments plus simple flaked cobbles. It has been possible to conjoin individual pieces linking about 10 per cent of the artefacts and 4 per cent of the identifiable bones in pairs or sets. In some cases it seems likely that the specimens were fractured on the spot. Some of the fracture patterns on the bones suggest breakage with hammers, and apparent cut marks have also been found on some bones. There are signs of the presence of scavenging carnivores as well as of tool‐making hominids, and both could have contributed to the workings of a complex input‐output system. Whether the site was a home‐base camp or simply a locality used for meat‐eating and tool‐making remains uncertain. Experimental work is being used in testing alternative interpretations.
In the lower 300 m of the fluvial Willwood Formation of northwest Wyoming, most large concentrations of vertebrate fossils consist of disarticulated and broken skeletal remains that occur in widespread, tubular, thin (2 cm-1 m) greenish- and bluish-gray mudstones that are low in percentage of free iron, aluminum, and manganese, relatively high in percentages of organic carbon, and often show evidence of clay eluviation. These units lie atop sesquioxide-rich, sometimes clay-illuviated variegated unit (red, yellow, purple, and mottled variants) and are relicts of the A horizons of podzolic spodosols (aquods).The wide distribution of bone fragments, the numerical proportions of bone elements, weathering of the fragments, and biogenic evidence indicate the vertebrate remains accumulated gradually as litter on the surface of the soils and became incorporated into the A horizon. The bones were disarticulated, broken, and otherwise disturbed by the action of scavengers prior to burial. Occurrence of abundant vertebrate remains in discrete, readily identifiable, and widespread paleosol units makes these units valuable biostratigraphic markers (zonules, faunules). Evidence of geologically short-term lag accumulation of the bones is important to assemblage analysis; the paleosol concentrations result from attritional mortalities that more closely reflect composition of the life assemblage than do remains concentrated by fluvial transport or predators.
Field investigations of caves along Alaska's Porcupine River document three major mechanisms which modify bone in patterns similar to alterations produced by man: (1) carnivore fracture; (2) rodent gnawing; and (3) rock fall and rubble scarring. A late Wisconsin faunal assemblage composed of Equus sp., Rangifer tarandus, Ovis dalli, Bison sp., proboscidean, numerous small mammal species, birds, and fish is well documented. This faunal assemblage suggests a mosaic environment of grassland-tundra-forest in the immediate vicinity of these caves and implies that the late Wisconsin environment in north-central Alaska may have been characterized by a number of microenvironments and colder, dryer, steppe conditions. Taphonomic data which have historically been interpreted to support human occupation of eastern Beringia during the Pleistocene are critically examined and the context of these discoveries (not the specimens themselves) provides the test essential to document the antiquity of man in North America prior to 12,000 yr ago.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Harvard University, 1982. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 473-494). Photocopy of typescript