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A Review Paper: Current Knowledge of Ghee and Related Products
Abstract
Ghee is produced mainly by indigenous methods in Asia, the Middle-East and Africa and the methods of manufacture and characteristics vary. Some ambiguity in the definition of ghee occurs mainly due to regional differences and preferences for the product, commonly used for culinary purposes but also for particular social functions and therapeutic purposes. The characteristic flavour of ghee is its major criterion for acceptance. Flavour is greatly influenced by the fermentation of the cream or butter and the heating processes. Carbonyls, lactones and free fatty acids are reported to be the key ghee flavouring compounds. Ghee is fairly shelf-stable largely because of its low moisture content and possible antioxidative properties. Ghee may contain high amounts of conjugated linoleic acid, a newly reported anticarcinogen. However, it is also reported that, under certain circumstances, it may contain certain amounts of cholesterol oxidation compounds (COPS) which may cause adverse health effects.
... It is used as a frying medium due to its relative stability on exposure to high temperatures and high smoke point (~250 • C) compared to most other edible oils [2,3]. It is also used as a spread or topping on cooked food like rice, khichdi, daal, chappati and coffee [4]. ...
... The findings of Kumar, Sambaiah and Lokesh (1999) found that ghee consumption reduced prostaglandin levels and production of inflammatory leukotrienes in rats and suggested that ghee may not increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases [66]. Sserunjogi et al. (1998) suggest that the natural antioxidants present in ghee such as vitamin A, vitamin E, carotenoids and phospholipids possibly aid to reduce the risk of CVDs [4]. ...
... The findings of Kumar, Sambaiah and Lokesh (1999) found that ghee consumption reduced prostaglandin levels and production of inflammatory leukotrienes in rats and suggested that ghee may not increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases [66]. Sserunjogi et al. (1998) suggest that the natural antioxidants present in ghee such as vitamin A, vitamin E, carotenoids and phospholipids possibly aid to reduce the risk of CVDs [4]. ...
The scientific view on dairy fats is undergoing a change. While at one time they were associated with negative health effects, recent scientific research has provided new insights into the functional benefits of dairy fats and their fatty acids. This changing scientific view on dairy fats is also resulting in a scientific interest in Ghee, the clarified butter obtained from milk. Ghee, besides being a traditional milk product of cultural importance in India and finding extensive use in its cuisines, is also one of the most important ingredients of the materia medica of Ayurveda, the traditional system of medicine that originated in India. While modern scientific literature has limited studies on functional benefits of ghee, Ayurveda literature extensively catalogues the therapeutic potential of ghee and details different types of ghee based on source of milk, manufacturing method, maturation and physical phase. This work reviewed the Ayurveda literature on health benefits of ghee and examined the complementarity and gaps between Ayurveda literature and modern scientific literature to identify research questions and hypotheses for further exploring the therapeutic potential of ghee. The Ayurveda literature review involved curation of references to ghee in eleven important Ayurvedic texts spanning over 3000 years. 4000 references to milk and milk products were curated from these texts, of which 2913 mentions were in the context of therapeutic benefits of milk products. Of these, ghee had 774 mentions, the highest amongst milk-based products. These mentions were grouped into 15 benefit clusters. A review of ghee in modern literature published between 1990 and 2023 was also conducted. A comparison of this with the Ayurveda literature showed that there were major differences in the focus areas of health between the two. While recent research primarily focused on ghee's connection with cardiovascular health, wound healing and skin health, Ayurveda prioritized cognitive benefits, gastrointestinal health, and nourishing. These later areas are of growing importance to human health as global population ages, and chronic and brain related diseases start dominating public health concerns. As scientists search for solutions to these, ghee, its usage and formulations in Ayurveda and the detailed associations between ghee's animal source, processing, maturation, phases and health benefits, may have scientific insights to offer that can guide future research.
... But there are a number of milk products, aromas of baked milk, or pasteurization for which are desirable. Such products are baked milk (Sserunjogi et al., 1998;Yadav et al., 1992), butter, kefir, barbecue cheese, condensed milk, ryazhanka (fermented product typical for Ukraine), taffy, fudge, dulce de leche (Pauletti et al., 1999), and milk chocolate crumb (Muresan et al., 2000). ...
... However, some dietary habits, like 'western dietary pattern' with low fiber and high saturated fat, are considered crucial in the commencement and development of NAFLD (12)(13)(14) . Ghee contains 60.4% SFAs,31.4% MUFAs, 4% PUFA, and 1.5% trans fatty acids and that is clear with utilizing a diet abundant in the SFA; liver fat increases (15)(16)(17)(18) . On the other hand, based on researches, the butyrate of butter could induce insulin sensitivity, and also the Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) of that has beneficial impacts on metabolic illnesses (19,20) . ...
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which is a prevalent hepatic condition worldwide, is expected to develop into the leading reason for end-stage fatty liver in the forthcoming decades. Incorporating Rapeseed oil into a balanced diet may be beneficial in improving NAFLD. The goal of this trial was to evaluate the impact of substituting ghee with rapeseed oil on primary outcomes such as fatty liver and liver enzymes, as well as on secondary outcomes including glycemic variables, lipid profile, and anthropometric measurements in individuals with NAFLD. Over 12 weeks, 110 patients [70 men and 40 women; BMI (mean ± SD): 28.2 ± 1.6 kg/m2; mean age: 42 ± 9.6 y], who daily consumed ghee, were assigned to the intervention or control group through random allocation. The intervention group, was advised to substitute ghee with rapeseed oil in the same amount. The control group continued consumption of ghee and was instructed to adhere a healthy diet. Results showed a significant reduction in the steatosis in the intervention group in comparison to the control group (P<0.001). However, a significant change in the levels of ALT (-14.4 IU/l), GGT (-1.8 IU/l), TG (-39.7 mg/dl), TC (-17.2 mg/dl), LDL (-7.5 mg/dl), FBS (-7.5 mg/dl), Insulin (-3.05 mU/l), HOMA-IR (-0.9), QUICKI (+0.01), weight (-4.3 kg), BMI (-0.04 kg/m ² ), waist (-5.6 cm) and waist to height ratio (-0.04) was seen in the intervention group. The consumption of rapeseed oil instead of ghee caused improvements in liver steatosis and enzymes, glycemic variables, and anthropometric measurements among individuals with NAFLD.
... The reduction in quality was caused by rancidity and bitterness that are related to high levels of free fatty acids and break down of proteins (Dieffenbacher et al., 2000). The standard specifies butter to have 0.3% maximum free fatty acids expressed as oleic acid, and a peroxide value less than 1.0 (Sserunjogi et al., 1998). The mean value of free fatty acid in Mehal Meda, Molale and Zemero are 2.06, 1.55 and 2.67, respectively with an overall mean of 2.09%. ...
Menz has long been known for its quality butter production but traditional milk products are generally reported to be of substandard quality. Therefore, this investigation was conducted to access physiochemical and microbial quality of butter from Menz district along the market value chain. The study was conducted by using laboratory analysis of physiochemical and microbial quality. The microbiological count data were transformed to log10 values before statistical analysis. Overall values of 15., and 12.52%:83.96%:2.82% for moisture, fat and free fatty acid contents were observed in samples from farmers, traders, made by investigators, Tarmaber and Addis Ababa, respectively. In general, an overall mean of 3.94 ×10 9 : 2.66×10 6 : 1.83×10 6 , total aerobic mesophilic bacterial count, total coliform and yeast and mold counts were observed in samples from farmers. Total aerobic mesophilic bacterial count, total coliform and yeast and mold counts values were 3.44×10 9
... The human food culture is inextricably linked to milk and dairy products. As it contributes good sensory and nutritional qualities as well as economy to milk and other food products, milk fat is a very desirable and expensive substance that has been consumed all over the world since antiquity 1 . Cow ghee is a valuable dairy product which is golden yellow colour 2 and produced from cow milk. ...
Cow ghee is a nutritious food with a lot of health benefits and popular ingredient in many vegetarian diets and indigenous medical formulations. Due to high demand, the adulteration of cow ghee with more affordable and widely available vegetable oils and animal fat is common in many industries. The detection of adulteration by instrumental techniques is expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, simple, rapid and cost-effective tests are essential for the detection of adulterants in cow ghee. The aim of this study was to compare the physicochemical parameters of pure cow ghee with the market samples using the SLS 313 and detection of adulteration using chromogenic tests and conformation through GC-MS. A pure cow ghee sample (S-01) was prepared from the curd made in the laboratory. Thirteen market samples (S-02 to S-14) were purchased from Northern, Southern, Western and Central provinces and analyzed for physicochemical parameters (moisture and volatile matter content, relative density, refractive index, acid value, iodine value, saponification value and peroxide value) based on SLS 313 standard protocols. As chromogenic tests, Modified Salkowski, and furfural tests were followed. In the Modified Salkowski test, the pure sample observed a red colour, whereas the adulterated samples showed a reddish brown to dark brown colour. The pure sample showed no colour in the furfural test, while the adulterated sample showed a light pink to crimson red. In conclusion, eleven market samples (from S-02 to S-12) were adulterated in different levels with edible oils and GC-MS analysis confirmed the adulterants and the chemical composition variation from the pure cow ghee samples.
This study aimed to investigate the fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals of ghee from various animal milk from different countries, such as India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Turkey. Ghee consists of 98.9% of fat, irrespective of the animal source. Among the short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids, all samples contain butyric (C4:0), caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), and capric acid (C10:0). Mare and goat ghee additionally contain undecanoic acid (C11:0). Major fatty acids were myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), and monounsaturated fatty acid was oleic acid (C18:1 cis 9). Notably, camel and mare ghee have the highest values of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Regarding minerals, the average levels were 5.48 mg/100 g for calcium,
5.04 mg/100 g for potassium, and 23.6 mg/100 g for phosphorus. Ghee also contains β-carotene at an average of 392 µg/100 g, vitamin A at 606 µg/100 g, and vitamin E at 1650 µg/100 g. The aforementioned results underscore the variation in the nutritional composition of ghee according to its geographical origin and source.
The physicochemical, sensory characteristics, and fatty acids composition of two traditional ghee made from native West Azarbaijan buffalo and cow milk was investigated. In order to determine the oxidative stability, free fatty acids (FFAs) content and peroxide value (PV) of ghee samples were determined during 6 months of storage at ambient temperature (25˚C). The yield of buffalo ghee was significantly higher compared to cow ghee (6.01 versus 3.10%). No significant difference was observed in the saponification value, iodine value, refractive index, and slip melting point between two ghee samples (p >0.05). FFAs content and PV of ghee samples increased significantly during six months of storage (p<0.05). At the end of storage, the PV in buffalo ghee (0.34 meqO2/kg) was significantly lower than that of cow ghee (0.39 meqO2/kg) (p<0.05). Fatty acid composition analysis revealed a high degree of saturation (67.93 and 72.69% in buffalo and cow ghee, respectively), with C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0 being the predominant saturated fatty acids. On the other hand, C18:1 and C18:2 were the main monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in buffalo and cow ghee. Buffalo ghee displayed a significantly higher level of conjugated linoleic acid than that of cow ghee (p<0.05). Significantly higher scores were given to buffalo ghee by the panelists for all evaluated sensory attributes (p<0.05). According to the findings of this study, buffalo ghee has high nutritional potential as well as consumer acceptance, and its development would improve the livelihoods of rural herders by promoting their market share and preventing the stagnation of buffalo breeding activity.
Abstract:
A field survey was conducted of the traditional method used in the manufacture of AlAkkah, Samn , and carob rub produced in Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region, where a
questionnaire was prepared that included 60 questions, The survey was conducted in
several areas surrounding the city of Al-Bayda in the Al-Jabal Al Akhder. The
questionnaire involved the method of making and processing the Al-Akkah, Samn ,carob
rub and its raw materials. Among the most prominent results obtained , it was found that
the raw material used in the Al-Akkah industry was the skin of goats and sheep, where
the percentage of questioners reached 59%, and the percentage of preference for storing
Samn and consuming it in the winter season was 49%.The time storage of Samn the ALAkkah from 6 month to 2 years and the percentage of questioners was 67%. As for the
results of the questionnaire for carob rub, it was found that the raw material used in the
manufacture of carob rub is carob pods, and the percentage questioners was 100%. The
shelf life of traditional carob rub was reached from 6 months to a year and percentage
questioners was 55%. As for the results of the questionnaire for Samn, it was found that
58% used butter from cows and goats’ milk in the manufacture of Samn, while the
percentage of butter produced in the Samn industry was from natural fermentation. From
the process of shaking milk 100% as for filling the Samn with the Al-Akkah , the results
were 34%, and the period of storage in the Al-Akkah ranged from one year to a year and
a half, where the percentage was 48% without spoilage.
Keywords: Carob tree - carob pods - Samn - questionnaire - traditional preparation -
preservation of Samn.
Various methods to assess lipolytic as well as oxidative degradation of milk fat are discussed. For the determination of free fatty acids, extraction titration method, Bureau of Dairy Industry method and autoanalyzer give better results of lipolysis. Among various methods to evaluate oxidative rancidity of milk fat, determinations of peroxide value (by both iodometric and ferric thiocyanate methods) and carbonyl content are more useful.
Formation of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) in ghee during deep-frying was studied, as they were reported to cause arteriosclerotic lesions. COPs were formed, when ghee was used for deep-frying for 15 min. The level of COPs increased with frying time. Ghee residue, being a good antioxidant, delayed the formation of COPs during deep-frying.
We previously isolated and identified a mixture of isomeric derivatives of c-9,c-12-octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid) containing a conjugated double-bond system (designated CLA) in extracts of grilled ground beef. Synthetically prepared CLA was effective in partially inhibiting the initiation of mouse epidermal carcinogenesis by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. We now report that CLA is present in various natural and processed cheeses. A capillary GC/reversed-phase HPLC method was developed that separated nine CLA isomers from samples. Among the dairy products tested, the CLA content ranged from 28.3 ppm (raw whole milk) to 1815 ppm (Cheese Whiz), whereas grilled ground beef contained 994 ppm. Of the isomers, c-9,t-11-, t-10,c-12-, t-9,t-11-, and t-10,t-12-octadecadienoic acids accounted for more than 89% of total CLA, while the c-9,c-11-, t-9,c-11-, c-10,c-12-, c-10,t-12-, and c-11,c-13-octadecadienoic acids were minor contributors. Possible sources and mechanisms of formation of CLA are discussed.
Conjugated dienoic derivatives of linoleic acid (CLA), shown to be anticarcinogenic in several animal models, are present in many natural food sources. However, few quantitative data on CLA in food are available. An improved method for quantifying CLA was developed. The method was used to produce a data base of more than 90 food items including meat, poultry, seafood, dairy products, plant oils, and infant and processed foods. The principal dietary sources of CLA are animal products. In general, meat from ruminants contains considerably more CLA than meat from nonruminants, with veal having the lowest and lamb the highest (2.7 vs 5.6 mg CLA/g fat). Foods derived from nonruminant animals were far lower in CLA content except for turkey. Seafood contained low amounts of CLA, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 mg CLA/g fat. By contrast dairy products (milk, butter, and yogurt) contained considerable amounts of CLA. Natural cheeses were also high in CLA. Among cheeses, those which were aged or ripened more than 10 months had the lowest CLA content. CLA concentrations in an assortment of processed cheeses did not vary much (avg 5.0 mg CLA/g fat). Plant oils contained far less CLA, ranging from 0.1 mg CLA/g fat (coconut oil) to 0.7 mg CLA/g fat (safflower oil). Processed, canned, and infant foods were comparable in CLA content to similar unprocessed foods. Values for foods that contained beef, lamb, and veal were generally high in CLA. However the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer, believed to be the biologically active form, tended to be lower in cooked meats. In animal and dairy products the c-9,t-11 CLA isomer accounted for 75 and 90%, respectively, of the total CLA; in plant oils less than 50% of the total CLA was the c-9,t-1 I CLA isomer. The results show that considerable differences occur in the CLA content of common foods and indicate the possibility of large variations in dietary intakes of CLA.
Phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and p-cresol, indole and skatole have been isolated from good quality butter oil by cold-finger molecular distillation, and separated into phenolic and indolic fractions by solvent extraction and silicic-acid column chromatography. The individual compounds were quantitatively estimated by gas chromatography. When phenol, o-methoxyphenol, m- and; p-cresol, indole and skatole were added to volatile-free butter oil, their recoveries were 94, 47, 90, 75, 71 and 61% respectively. The technique, when applied to fresh butter oil, gave the following ranges of values for the natural levels of these compounds: phenol 0·005–0·022, o-methoxyphenol 0·002–0·10, m-cresol 0·002–0·010, p-cresol 0·002–0·004, indole 0·07–0·13, skatole 0·16–0·22 ppm of butter oil. The results, when compared with flavour threshold studies, showed that indole and skatole are important contributors to the natural flavour of butter oil, but that phenolic compounds are of only borderline significance.