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The Behavior of Organisms
... Therefore, the current study investigates the applicability of this Compassionfocused Pedagogy (CfP) to students' online group work management skills. In this study, however, three other theoretical aspects: constructivism [41,42], constructionism [43][44][45], and reinforcement theory of motivation [46] (a well-known process theory) have also been considered as follows. ...
... It focuses on the consequences of human behaviour as a motivating factor which could be positive or negative. As Gorden [54] confirms, Skinner's [46] reinforcement theory of motivation identifies positive reinforcements-in this study that could mean encouragement, attention, appreciation, validation-as promoting the potentials for more frequent enactments of desired behaviours such as venturing more in response that participants might otherwise be missed, both socially and intellectually. Hence, in relation to the current study's training intervention, this theory too provides insights into the management by students of their group work. ...
... In the box below, please enter the code given to you by the researcher. [46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55] and Humanities Ethics Committee with Delegated Authority, UH protocol No. cHUM/PGT/UH/04345. You are free to withdraw at any stage, just stop answering the questionnaire or leave this page. ...
HE’s pandemic-driven shift to online platforms has increased social and learning disconnection amongst students. In online group work/teamwork, many are reluctant to switch on their cameras to be more present to others. Compassion in group work/teamwork is defined as noticing, not normalizing, one’s own and/or others’ distress or disadvantaging and taking wise action to prevent or reduce this. This notion of compassion is being assessed in the HE sector using filmed task-focused in-class group work meetings to identify levels of both inclusivity and criticality around the team. This study investigates the use and outcomes of using the compassionate communications strategies (that were developed in and for the offline classroom) in online team meetings. In this mixed-methods study, two groups of four international STEM students, each from a sample of five UK universities, were video-recorded in task-focused group work meetings (TGMs) before and after an online interactive 90-min training session (‘the intervention’) on the Cognitive Skills of Compassionate Communications (CSCC) in teams. A comparison of the (pre and post CSCC intervention) quantitative and qualitative data results indicated, post-intervention, a significant increase in students’ screen gaze attentiveness to each other, and reasons why students’ motivation to switch on their cameras had changed.
... To be fair, in a loosely defined sense (e.g., Baum et al., 1973), we must acknowledge that behavior analysts have indeed accounted for the above-mentioned closure of the sensorymotor system. The concept of operant behavior, which B. F. Skinner (1938) advanced, captures this feature of the closed loop account of behavior. Operant behavior 3 can be defined as behavior acquired or maintained by its consequences. ...
... A second aspect of the Skinnerian view that may hinder a full closed-loop account of behavior can be traced back to considering operant and respondent 4 stimulus functions as two fundamentally different phenomena that involve two physiologically dissociable response categories; specifically, respondents as mainly visceral and operants as mainly skeletal. Although Skinner (1938) acknowledged several cases of Pavlovian phenomena involving skeletal muscle contraction 5 and mentioned the possibility of "voluntary" control of visceral activity, he largely overlooked the important role of Pavlovian conditioning in the acquisition of affective value by cues serving as feedback. Some behavior analysts later recognized and began to emphasize this phenomenon, labeling it conditioned reinforcement (e.g., Kelleher & Gollub, 1962). ...
... The obvious answer is that it depends on the case, but it certainly does not happen often. A very simple example is found in Skinner's (1938) studies on satiety curves. Skinner placed hungry rats inside an operant conditioning chamber where they pressed a lever to get food. ...
Behavior can be regarded as the output of a system (action), as a function linking stimulus to response (reaction), or as an abstraction of the bidirectional relationship between the environment and the organism (interaction). When considering the latter possibility, a relevant question arises concerning how an organism can materially and continuously implement such a relationship during its lifetime in order to perpetuate itself. The feedback control approach has taken up the task of answering just that question. During the last several decades, said approach has been progressing and has started to be recognized as a paradigm shift, superseding certain canonical notions in mainstream behavior analysis, cognitive psychology, and even neuroscience. In this paper, we describe the main features of feedback control theory and its associated techniques, concentrating on its critiques of behavior analysis, as well as the commonalities they share. While some of feedback control theory's major critiques of behavior analysis arise from the fact that they focus on different levels of organization, we believe that some are legitimate and meaningful. Moreover, feedback control theory seems to blend with neurobiology more smoothly as compared to canonical behavior analysis, which only subsists in a scattered handful of fields. If this paradigm shift truly takes place, behavior analysts—whether they accept or reject this new currency—should be mindful of the basics of the feedback control approach.
... From a simple behaviorist perspective, the key to motivation is reward (Skinner, 1938;Skinner and Morse, 1958;Niv, 2007;. In short, actions are repeated when reinforced -regardless as to whether this reinforcement occurs internally or from outside of the individual. ...
... There are two primary means of reward: positive reinforcement (providing a pleasurable stimulus) and negative reinforcement (taking away a negative stimulus). The strongest rewards follow those behaviors that result in both forms of reinforcement (Skinner, 1938). While the concept of the current study concerns human perceptions and behaviors, it is easier to demonstrate principles of reward with rodents. ...
... This food also provides an immediate positive reinforcement as it stimulates sensory responses that activate neural pleasure centers. If the food was acquired by pressing a lever (a muscular movement) this behavior will be highly reinforced (Skinner, 1938). Consequently, the rodent will continue to press the lever many times. ...
... On the side not, apart from the positive gain that we have painted, we have also discussed that we are not going to wait forever for people to slowly evolve and embrace the change, because the "bandwagon will leave" and anyone not on it may lose out in terms of promotion opportunities or earning more income. Perhaps the negative reinforcement theory (Skinner, 1938), where the field salespeople are complying so that they do not miss out on more opportunities and income, is a contributing factor. ...
... As such we have increase the motivation for the field salespeople to embrace the change as they will end up with easing up the administrative portion of their work and allowing more time for selling and meeting customers. From a law of effect perspective, this is consistent to Skinner's (1938) positive reinforcement theory, where we are providing the field salespeople the reward of work simplicity to encourage them to adopt the use of the sales effectiveness program. ...
The research study focuses on investigation of the relationships between readiness for change to happen (described as the resulting institutionalized change outcome) and the two proposed influential factors (or drivers for change) of knowledge for change and desire for change, based on the case of an international manufacturing company.
... Operant conditioning was also known as a kind of learning in which one's behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or it can be lessened if followed by a punisher (Skinner, 1938). B F Skinner further elaborated that the psychology should be based on empirical evidence. ...
... Participants "N" Mean Std. Skinner (1938) in an attempt to examine the objectives of this study. 'PRP' model was implemented on the experimental group participants in an eight-week experiment. ...
A common problem was observed at local level weightlifting clubs in Lahore, Pakistan i.e., coaches use inappropriate ways (shouting and abusing) to get desired performance results but, it ends in young weightlifter’s resentment and take them away from their sport targets and some choose to quit weightlifting sport as well. The existing literature about acquiring desired results in sports suggests; only positive approach can be useful i.e., Positive Reinforcement Theory ‘PRT’ developed by B F Skinner (Marzieh Gordan, 2014). Hence, in this applied deductive type quantitative study, an eight-week experiment was conducted in Lahore which tested the implications of Positive Reinforcement Theory on young weightlifters’ performance. The objectives of this study were; (a) to apply Positive Reinforcement Theory in weightlifting sport to examine the cause-and-effect relationship between positive reinforcement and young weightlifter’s performance, (b) to test if the study’s Positive Reinforcement Program ‘PRP’ model helps young weightlifters to achieve desired targets within given timeframe or not? At first, pre-competition was administered to record standard performance results of both groups. Secondly, ‘PRP’ Model based on ‘PRT’ was introduced to experimental group and then post-competition testing was conducted to record and compare performance results of both groups. The results of both groups’ Paired Sample t-test and Independent Sample t-test, using statistical package SPSS version 23, showed a significant impact of ‘PRP’ model on the young weightlifter’s performance. Therefore, it is concluded that; acquisition of young weightlifters’ desired performance results. Coaches should use ‘PRP’ model rather than applying inappropriate ways to motivate young weightlifters. The PRP model also helps young weightlifters to achieve their targeted performance results within given timeframe.
... En el estudio del comportamiento, el argumento de Skinner (1938) respecto a que para medir la conducta se tenían que tomar en cuenta cuatro aspectos: "1) definición de la conducta como aquella parte de la actividad del organismo que afecta el mundo externo; 2) el aislamiento práctico de una unidad de conducta; 3) la definición de la respuesta como una clase de eventos; y 4) la demostración de que la tasa de respuesta es la medida principal de la fuerza de una operante" (p. 58, traducido por los autores), marcó la pauta en la mayoría de las investigaciones que se han conducido hasta la fecha respecto al énfasis en unidades discretas de la conducta y su relación con eventos discretos en el ambiente. ...
... Sin embargo, como han señalado otros autores (Ribes & López, 1985;Schoenfeld & Farmer, 1970), el énfasis en la segmentación arbitraria de la conducta en unidades de respuesta ha traído consigo graves problemas lógicos y metodológicos a la teoría del condicionamiento, principalmente por la dificultad para dar cuenta de respuestas de diferente clase a la especificada por el experimentador como "la respuesta", que forman parte de un mismo contexto (o "flujo") conductual y que, en consecuencia, se encuentran bajo el control de las mismas contingencias. Skinner (1938) y otros autores (e.g., Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950) señalaron la pertinencia de otras medidas, además de la frecuencia, como la latencia, duración y magnitud de la respuesta, entre otras, para dar cuenta del control de la conducta mediante el condicionamiento. Incluso en el campo aplicado del condicionamiento operante a la conducta humana se les considera como las dimensiones de la conducta en las que se debe medir la eficacia de los programas de modificación de conducta (Cooper et al. 2014). ...
Análisis molar del comportamiento en contingencias de emparejamiento tono-agua en ratas (Molar analysis of behavior under tone-water pairings contingencies in rats) Universidad Veracruzana (México) RESUMEN Se analizaron las dimensiones molares del desplazamiento en ratas bajo condiciones de entrega no contingente de agua, mientras se manipuló la presentación de un tono emparejado con la entrega de agua. Se expuso a cuatro ratas privadas de agua a la presentación de agua cada 30 segundos en un espacio experimental ampliado. En una fase se presentó un tono de 5 segundos inmediatamente antes de la entrega de agua para dos ratas y para otras dos ratas se presentó aleatoriamente en alguno de seis pe-riodos en los que se segmentaba el intervalo entre entregas, en la siguiente fase se pre-sentó sólo la entrega de agua para todas las ratas, en una tercera fase se invirtieron las condiciones de la primera fase para cada par de ratas, mientras que en la cuarta fase se volvió a presentar únicamente el agua. Se encontró que las diferentes medidas mo-lares del desplazamiento mostraron cambios progresivos con una tendencia descen-dente a través del experimento, independientemente de las condiciones programadas. Mientras que la frecuencia de respuestas discretas (entradas al bebedero) siguieron una tendencia ascendente. Se discuten los resultados en el contexto de los estudios antecedentes sobre el uso de medidas molares en el análisis del comportamiento. Palabras clave: emparejamiento tono-agua, flujo conductual, análisis continuo, ratas.
... 1. En la literatura sobre conducta operante se puede identificar que la noción de control a partir del estímulo puede tener dos usos (Harrison, 1991;Rilling, 1983;Skinner, 1938). El primero se refiere a la diferencia en la frecuencia de la respuesta dada la presencia o ausencia de un estímulo correlacionado con el reforzamiento (estímulo discriminativo) o de un estímulo correlacionado con el no reforzamiento (estímulo delta); y el segundo se relaciona con las distribuciones temporales del responder típicamente observadas en las contingencias de reforzamiento vigentes (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). ...
... El método sucesivo consiste en la presentación de un estímulo correlacionado con el reforzamiento (E+); posteriormente, se presenta un estímulo ante el cual las respuestas no tienen consecuencias programadas (E-). Skinner (1938) empleó este método para evaluar la adqui-1. ...
... While promotion approaches rooted in applied behavioral science have been developed and implemented (see Geller, 2001;Skinner, 1939), such as the ones described for K-12 schools and college campuses, the union of promotion and prevention within a bystander program remains under-theorized. As a result, we propose an integrative promotion-prevention approach that blends the strategy of affirming desirable behavior from existing promotion programs with the decision-making steps underlying existing prevention-oriented bystander programs. ...
... As a result, we integrate promotion into prevention bystander intervention program design to form an integrative upstanding for promotion-prevention (UPP) program. The UPP model (McCarty, Arnold et al., 2021) and UPP program stand atop a rich theoretical foundation of promotion and prevention science (Catalano et al., 2002;Kia-Keating et al., 2011), regulatory focus and fit theories from motivation science (Higgins, 1997(Higgins, , 2008Scholer et al., 2019), reinforcement theory from applied behavioral science (Biglan, 2003;Biglan, 2015;Geller, 2001;Skinner, 1939), and previous bystander program applications encouraging various forms of upstanding (e.g., Bush et al., 2019;Giglio et al., 2015;Nelson et al., 2011;Vera et al., 2019). Additionally, the program design responds to (and builds upon) prior calls by researchers to address multiple risks and forms of harm (and multiple assets and forms of care) (Hamby & Grych, 2013) and expand bystander prevention opportunities (and promotion opportunities) (McMahon & Banyard, 2012). ...
We developed an integrative Upstanding for Promotion-Prevention (UPP) program based on the decision-making steps of a revised bystander intervention model (i.e., notice an opportunity; interpret the situation; assume responsibility; select a promotion or prevention strategy; take action: Latané & Darley, 1970; McCarty, Arnold, Booker, Pacqué, & Liskey, 2021). Program participants experience a promotion track or prevention track to impact either the promoting pathway by changing assets or the protecting pathway by addressing risks and protective factors. The UPP program offers a motivation science approach to encourage upstanders to promote benefit and prevent harm in schools and on college campuses, within workplaces, online, and throughout communities.
... The original rationale of behaviorism was to cure psychology of the various philosophical assumptions that had persisted from the introspective method and that were leading to empirical dead ends (e.g., Titchener, 1909Titchener, /1926. The cogito of behaviorism might have been, 'I choose, therefore I prefer', except that behaviorists came to regard 'prefer' as introducing extra connotations-choice in a given context should itself be the endpoint of research-and the 'I' was too small a sample from which to generalize (Skinner, 1938). Unfortunately, the useful discipline of seeing what could be discovered by the manipulation of external contingencies morphed into a philosophical stance-that mental processes are superfluous to the explanation of choice, and indeed might be merely epiphenomena (e.g., Rachlin, 1985). ...
Provides motivational bases for the 12 supposedly cognitive anomalies, mostly in Prospect Theory, which originally led to behavioral economics
... Skinner was not trying to explain behavior but rather to describe it through controlled experiments involving a stimulus and studying the response [312]. They believed that analyzing the causes of an action and its consequences is the best way to understand behavior and called this approach operant conditioning [320]. In contrast to what Skinner called respondent conditioning, in operant conditioning, no observable external stimulus is available; the stimulus appears spontaneously. ...
Gamification, the use of game elements in non-game contexts, has been shown to help people reaching their goals, affect people's behavior and enhance the users' experience within interactive systems. However, past research has shown that gamification is not always successful. In fact, literature reviews revealed that almost half of the interventions were only partially successful or even unsuccessful. Therefore, understanding the factors that have an influence on psychological measures and behavioral outcomes of gamified systems is much in need. In this thesis, we contribute to this by considering the context in which gamified systems are applied and by understanding personal factors of users interacting with the system. Guided by Self-Determination Theory, a major theory on human motivation, we investigate gamification and its effects on motivation and behavior in behavior change contexts, provide insights on contextual factors, contribute knowledge on the effect of personal factors on both the perception and effectiveness of gamification elements and lay out ways of utilizing this knowledge to implement personalized gamified systems. Our contribution is manifold: We show that gamification affects motivation through need satisfaction and by evoking positive affective experiences, ultimately leading to changes in people's behavior. Moreover, we show that age, the intention to change behavior, and Hexad user types play an important role in explaining interpersonal differences in the perception of gamification elements and that tailoring gamified systems based on these personal factors has beneficial effects on both psychological and behavioral outcomes. Lastly, we show that Hexad user types can be partially predicted by smartphone data and interaction behavior in gamified systems and that they can be assessed in a gameful way, allowing to utilize our findings in gamification practice. Finally, we propose a conceptual framework to increase motivation in gamified systems, which builds upon our findings and outlines the importance of considering both contextual and personal factors. Based on these contributions, this thesis advances the field of gamification by contributing knowledge to the open questions of how and why gamification works and which factors play a role in this regard.
... For example, the higher the density of reinforcement, the more stimuli come to function as secondary reinforcers. The more opportunities for reinforcement, the more stimuli come to function as discriminating or motivating antecedents (Skinner, 1938). Theoretically, this may create a cycle where more appetitive learning establishes more reinforcers, discriminative stimuli, and motivating or establishing operations, which, in turn, fosters more appetitive learning. ...
The concept of privilege has received increased attention recently, particularly with regard to inequities in privilege in the United States costing Black Americans their lives at the hands of police officers. Despite a nearly two hundred year history, however, the concept of privilege has not been subjected to a behavioral analysis that focuses on the contextual conditions the inequities we call privilege involve. This paper is a first attempt at such a conceptual analysis, approaching privilege as a manipulable aspect of context, with inherent links to the behavioral repertoires of both privileged people and underprivileged people. Specifically, we propose that privilege involves a high proportion of appetitive to aversive stimulation in the learning environment, which subsequently impacts the relative sensitivity of the repertoire to appetitive and aversive learning opportunities. This approach is explicated, and further explored in terms of its implications, along with specific recommendations for extending the consideration of privilege beyond checking.
... Positive reinforcement by food was used to adapt cats to the experimental situation and to engage them in locomotion (Skinner 1938;Pryor 1975). Cats were trained to walk in an experimental chamber that was a rectangular enclosure with two connected parallel corridors 2.5 × 0.3 m each. ...
Area 5 of the parietal cortex is part of the "dorsal stream" cortical pathway which processes visual information for action. The signals that area 5 ultimately conveys to motor cortex, the main area providing output to the spinal cord, are unknown. We analyzed area 5 neuronal activity during vision-independent locomotion on a flat surface and vision-dependent locomotion on a horizontal ladder in cats focusing on corticocortical neurons (CCs) projecting to motor cortex from the upper and deeper cortical layers and compared it to that of neighboring unidentified neurons (noIDs). We found that upon transition from vision-independent to vision-dependent locomotion, the low discharge of CCs in layer V doubled and the proportion of cells with 2 bursts per stride tended to increase. In layer V, the group of 2-bursters developed 2 activity peaks that coincided with peaks of gaze shifts along the surface away from the animal, described previously. One-bursters and either subpopulation in supragranular layers did not transmit any clear unified stride-related signal to the motor cortex. Most CC group activities did not mirror those of their noID counterparts. CCs with receptive fields on the shoulder, elbow, or wrist/paw discharged in opposite phases with the respective groups of pyramidal tract neurons of motor cortex, the cortico-spinal cells.
... Premack's probability-differential provided behavior analysts an alternative perspective to program for reinforcement. Structural descriptions of positive reinforcement have traditionally described it as access to a stimulus in temporal relation to a response (Skinner, 1938), whereas Premack made the distinction that reinforcement could be achieved through access to engaging in a response (Premack, 1959). This led to the Premack principle, which involves arranging the environment to restrict access to certain responses based on relative probabilities of a set of given responses (Timberlake & Farmer-Dougan, 1991). ...
The Premack principle states that any Response A can reinforce any other Response B if the independent rate of A is greater than the independent rate of B. This theory demonstrates reinforcer relativity, where the relative probabilities of responses can be more impactful than preference. Applying the Premack principle involves arranging the environment to restrict access to certain responses based on relative probabilities of a set of given responses. Though the Premack principle is described in modern behavior analytic texts, Konarski et al. identified a lack of empirical evidence to support its application. The purpose of the current paper is to systematically review the extant literature using the Premack principle and evaluate how and if researchers have applied reinforcer relativity as described by Premack and the subsequent effectiveness of these procedures. Additionally, we make recommendations for practitioners and future researchers based on our findings.
... Other key components in the design of the cage were involved in the training process prior to the cortical control trials; two buttons located on either side of the platform (see Fig. 1D,E) were used to move the attention of the rats to the robotic workspace through the training phases depicted in Fig. 2A,B. The buttons were specifically designed to allow the rats to operate them by doing timely, stereotypical and intentional motions in response to environmental cues (Skinner, 1938;Dickinson, 1994;Jin and Costa, 2010;Kawai et al., 2015). These buttons have been suitable to be used by the rats over the course of the shaping process prior to the initiation of the cortical control task. ...
Background
Controlling the trajectory of a neuroprosthesis to reach distant targets is a commonly used brain-machine interface (BMI) task in primates and has not been available for rodents yet.
New Method
Here, we describe a novel, fine-tuned behavioral paradigm and setup which enables this task for rats in one-dimensional space for reaching two distant targets depending on their limited cognitive and visual capabilities compared to those of primates. An online transform was used to convert the activity of a pair of primary motor cortex (M1) units into two robotic actions. The rats were shaped to adapt to the transform and direct the robotic actuator toward the selected target by modulating the activity of the M1 neurons.
Results
All three rats involved in the study were capable of achieving randomly selected targets with at least 78% accuracy. A total of 9 out of 16 pairs of units examined were eligible for exceeding this success criterion. Two out of three rats were capable of reversal learning, where the mapping between the activity of the M1 units and the robotic actions were reversed.
Comparison with Existing Methods
The present work is the first demonstration of trajectory-based control of a neuroprosthetic device by rodents to reach two distant targets using visual feedback.
Conclusion
The behavioral paradigm and setup introduced here can be used as a cost-effective platform for elucidating the information processing principles in the neural circuits related to neuroprosthetic control and for studying the performance of novel BMI technologies using freely moving rats.
... The data obtained are analyzed using psychological approach that analyze factors and situations that affect the character. Burrhus F. Skinner (1938) states that Psychology deals with the responses to any and every kind of situation that life presents. By responses or behavior is meant all forms of processes, adjustments, activities, and experiences of the organism. ...
This study aims to analyze the reflection on the pandemic circumstances and on the attempts to solve such turmoil as portrayed in the film entitled Contagion. As a sort of literary criticism, this study is qualitative in design. Data collection deals with the use of transcript of the speeches and actions of the characters in particular scenes and certain minutes. For data analysis, this study applies a kind of psychological approach especially Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory as means of doing the analytical criticism on the film. The analysis results in the findings such as Contagion illustrates the occurrence of the pandemic as indicated by the presence of the pandemic, its victim and spread. Further, the study also reveals that solution for the pandemic can be performed by the government, society, and individual. This study seems to be significant to inspire and encourage solution for the current pandemic condition.
... Laboratory studies, prioritizing high levels of experimental control, revealed fundamental and well-replicated laws and principles of learning that could then be extended to certain other situations. Thorndike's Law of Effect (Thorndike, 1898) or, later, variable schedules of reinforcement (Skinner, 1938) replicate and apply across a range of animals and contexts. Technology and methods designed for laboratory-based studies of behavior, learning, and cognitionfrom puzzles to videogames-now serve not only in contemporary laboratory studies but also as enrichment for laboratory and zoo animals (Washburn et al., 1994). ...
This year marks the 100th anniversary since the inception of the original Journal of Comparative Psychology. This review highlights the evolution of Journal of Comparative Psychology and the field of comparative psychology over the past century through the lens of the field's contributions in the realms of science practice, science policy, and public opinion. The review culminates with a look ahead to the next 100 years, with both challenges that are likely to remain as well as potential paths to continue growth and success. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... The motivational behavior of employees could be explained by "what" motivates a person and "how" a person is motivated by the working environment; however, the importance and placement of similar needs are different for every individual with an inbuilt element of high subjectivity. 2 There are many influencing factors to job motivation mentioned in previous studies, such as a person's current behavior influenced by past actions, specific incentive schemes targeted at workers, the whole range of health sector reforms that potentially affect organizational culture, reporting structures, channels of accountability, salary, job security, interesting job, working environment, and professional relation with coworkers, links between organization activities, and the external consequences of such activities for employee motivation. [3][4][5] Administrative or clerical staff at healthcare facilities, who are not either doctors or nurses, coordinate and facilitate patient care. ...
Administrative staff at healthcare facilities, who are not either doctors or nurses, coordinate, facilitate patient care, and account for 18–20% of human resources in hospitals. Their contribution to the value chain of healthcare service is crucial, but they are not well recognized either by hospital managers and healthcare staff or by patients. Low recognition may cause low job motivation and repeated tasks may cause boredom for them. Our study aimed to assess the level of job motivation among administrative staff in 2 hospitals of Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam, and explore the influencing factors to job motivation. The exploratory mixed methods design was used in our study with an initial quantitative study with a designed questionnaire and then followed by a qualitative study with focus group discussions. The job motivation index of the administrative staff in our study was not high (4.0). Positive factors were extra income, higher education, healthcare benefits, and a good working environment. Negative factors were low salary index, less chance of higher education, and no separated key performance indicator criteria. The low job motivation index of the administrative staff at public hospitals in our study warns of the negative impact on hospital income in terms of patient satisfaction. In the future, hospitals should have a new strategy in human resource management specifically for administrative staff by maintaining the positive factors and step-by-step overcome the negative factors such as developing separated key performance indicator criteria.
... The theory of least effort (Hull, 1943;Tolman, 1955) posits that animals will behave in a way that maximizes reinforcement while minimizing effort, which suggests that individuals are likely to prefer receiving reinforcement independent of their responding (i.e., freely) as opposed to contingent on some response requirement. Indeed, Skinner (1938Skinner ( , 1948 hypothesized that the availability of response-independent reinforcers should decrease responding for responsedependent reinforcers, a finding that has been demonstrated by other researchers (Nevin et al., 1990;Rescorla and Skucy, 1969). ...
Reinforcers can be delivered dependent on or independent of responding. Both human and nonhuman animals have shown a preference for contexts involving contingent reinforcement, but the generality of this phenomenon to humans and its implications have not yet been described. We present an integrative summary of studies evaluating preference for contingent versus noncontingent reinforcement, including (a) study participants, reinforcer types, response topographies, and contexts; (b) outcomes; (c) potential variables influencing preference outcomes; and (d) suggestions regarding research to expand behavior analysts' ability to design preferred contexts.
... Another perspective of motivation is provided by the behavioral theories pioneered by Pavlov (2010), Watson (1924), andSkinner (1938) and later expanded by proponents of various schools of psychology. These are the most comprehensive theories attempting to define not only drives, but also uncover the means for implementation of motivation, often in the context of an extrinsic environment as well as an inner transient state. ...
We introduce a novel and comprehensive theory of human behavior and motivation, which incorporates within it both the laws of biology and core aspects of the social sciences. In continuation of the governing postulates of natural sciences we formulate the principle of preservation as the primary law of psychology; provide precise criteria for the definition of basic human needs and uncover their origin; explore the relation between body and mind; and show correlations between individual and social perspectives of life. Subsequently, we integrate these concepts into a unified model of human behavior. We reevaluate the place of psychology within the overall domain of social science and postulate the key role of psychological drives in formation of social processes both in the current and historical perspectives. The paper signifies a step towards establishment of a common paradigm of psychology.
... Imperfect control by the structure of the environment may arise because of a misallocation process, which is a stimulus-control account of reinforcer effects. Alternatively, imperfect control might be a result of what is a traditional "law-of-effect" account of reinforcer effects as a combination of response-strengthening and stimulus-control effects (e.g., Skinner, 1938). Such a combination of processes would predict less extreme choice in the switch condition, and more extreme choice in the stay condition-but we observed less extreme choice in both conditions. ...
Nonhuman animal models show that reinforcers control behavior through what they signal about the likelihood of future events, but such control is generally imperfect. Imperfect control by the relation between past and likely future events may result from imperfect detection of those events as they occur, which result in imperfect detection of the relation between events. Such an approach would suggest the involvement of more complex psychological processes like memory in simple operant learning. We extended a research paradigm previously examined with nonhuman animals to test the ability of a quantitative model that assumes imperfect control by the relation between events arises because of (a) occasional misallocation of reinforcers to the wrong response, causing imperfect control by the relation between events; and (b) a tendency to explore or exploit which is independent of the relation between events. Children played a game in which one of two different responses could produce a reinforcer. The likelihood of a reinforcer for the same response that produced the last one varied across three conditions (.1, .5, .9). As with nonhuman animal models, children's choices followed these probabilities closely but not perfectly, suggesting strong control by what one reinforcer signals about subsequent reinforcers. Choice was well described by the quantitative model. This same model also provides a good description of nonhuman animal-model data, suggesting fundamentally similar mechanisms of control across species. These findings suggest reinforcers control behavior to the extent the relation between reinforcers can be detected-that is, simple operant learning may be more complex than is typically assumed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... In this study, operant conditioning by B. F. Skinner (1938) was used to explain the reasonings for drawing gacha. According to Madigan (2015), there appeared to be a psychological reaction that is triggered. ...
... Diseño del estudio Dada la persistencia de la conducta estereotipada a pesar de haber sido tratada con medicamento y la necesidad de hacer énfasis en una metodología que fuera útil a la participante, dejando de lado la generalización de la misma, se optó por un diseño N=1 A1BA2 (Campbell y Stanley, 1963;Castro, 1990;Skinner, 1938) que nos permitió que el participante fuera su propio control, considerando que la presente metodología es consistente con otros estudios descritos previamente donde se ha utilizado el aprendizaje discriminativo, el RDO y el RDI como alternativas de modificación conductual (Ferster y Skinner, 1957;Galindo, et al., 1990;Ribes, 1972; Varela y Ríos, 2014). Antes de iniciar el entrenamiento se hicieron las pruebas de estímulos para seleccionar aquel que podría funcionar como Estímulo ...
The aim of the present work was the reduction of a motor stereotyped behavior of a 13-year-old girl diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder, through the application of a behavioral training sequence based on discriminative learning and Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI). Base-line frequency and duration of the stereotyped behavior was recorded, then a five-phase training was developed, in which stereotyped behavior and reinforcer deliveries were reduced. Non-parametric U of Mann-Whitney tests were carried out for analyzing stereotyped behavior frequency and latency differences. Those statistic tests backed up significant differences. Findings were discussed in terms of stereotyped behavior susceptible of being reduced through discriminative learning and DRI, as well as the importance and design of enriched environments as preventive actions for the presence of stereotypies.
... In the context of this chapter, we focus on drug self-administration procedures, which exploit the positive reinforcing properties of drugs to study voluntary drug intake and the transition to addiction. The concept of operant conditioning was developed and studied extensively by Burrhus Frederic Skinner, who taught pigeons to peck at a predetermined target in order to get food (Skinner, 1938;Catania and Laties, 1999). The delivery of food is contingent upon the operant response, and the presentation of food reinforces that response. ...
In this chapter we first describe the intravenous drug self-administration technique in rats, with a focus on cocaine. Where relevant, we also describe how self-administration procedures can be adapted for use in both female and male rats. We then discuss some of the pharmacokinetic variables that can influence the development of behavioral features of cocaine addiction. These variables include the speed of intravenous drug delivery, the amount and temporal pattern (intermittency) of intake. In this context, we present and compare different self-administration procedures that have been used to model DSM-like features relevant to addiction in rats. These procedures include Short-Access, Long-Access, and Intermittent-Access cocaine self-administration, and variations therein. We highlight that some procedures (i.e., Long-Access) are best suited to study changes in cocaine intake over time. Others (i.e., Intermittent-Access) are especially effective to study increases in incentive motivation for cocaine over time. Work comparing these procedures supports two important conclusions. First, excessive/escalating cocaine intake is not a necessary prerequisite to produce the increased incentive motivation that defines the addicted state. Second, Intermittent-Access cocaine self-administration might not only better model human patterns of cocaine intake, but might also be uniquely suited to study the cocaine-induced changes in neurobiology, psychology, and behavior involved in the addiction process.
... Historically, waiting contingencies have been studied using interval-based reinforcement schedules (fixed interval, or FI, and variable interval, or VI;Skinner, 1938) or differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) schedules (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). Reinforcement in these situations is contingent on how long the participant waited. ...
Choosing how long to wait in order to optimize reward is a complex decision. We embedded these decisions within a video-game environment in which the amount of reward smoothly increased the longer one waited. The availability of external cues varied in order to determine how they affected the decision to wait to achieve the goal of maximizing the reward rate. As a group, people were most optimal when they could directly observe the growth in reward, and this information overshadowed a static color cue that did not require extended observation. These results were considered within the context of improving the choice between acting versus waiting in order to maximize reward rates.
... In this study, operant conditioning by B. F. Skinner (1938) was used to explain the reasonings for drawing gacha. According to Madigan (2015), there appeared to be a psychological reaction that is triggered. ...
Background: Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents is prevalent and its rate has increased in recent years worldwide. The role of parents on adolescents psychological wellbeing is evident in numerous literature, however little is known on the relationship between helicopter parenting and NSSI in a representative sample of adolescents from Malaysia. Aim: The present study aims to identify the relationship between NSSI and helicopter parenting among adolescents in Kedah, Malaysia. Furthermore, the study also examined the gender and place of living differences related to NSSI behavior. Method: A cross-sectional study consisted of 230 adolescents (31.0% male and 68.2% female; Mage 19.4 SD=2.12) completed the helicopter parenting and NSSI questionnaires. The respondents of this study were selected using a convenience sampling method from a private college located in the Kulim district of Kedah, Malaysia. Findings: Analysis revealed that 129 (56.1%) out of 230 respondents reported having engaged in at least one incidence of NSSI in the previous 12 months with females reportedly engaged in a higher frequency of NSSI behaviour (M=14.12, SD=5.42). The finding also demonstrated a large positive correlation between helicopter parenting and NSSI behavior among adolescents. Significant differences in NSSI were found between adolescents from urban and rural areas with higher frequency of NSSI behavior for adolescents from urban areas. Conclusion: NSSI behavior is found to be common among adolescents in Kedah, Malaysia. The development of prevention and intervention strategies should focus on parenting style as an important indicator for preventing or reducing NSSI among adolescents in Malaysia.
Keywords: Helicopter parenting, Nonsuicidal self-injury, NSSI, Adolescents, Malaysia
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... Skinner laid the groundwork for a comprehensive science of behavior within an evolutionary framework. He did so by blending contingencies as they related to survival along with cultural evolution and the role that reinforcement played in all of these processes (Skinner, 1938;1953;1957;1981). The work that has been done in CBS has extended Skinner's views to the study of more complex human behavior. ...
The present paper will detail the evolution of behaviorism and behavior therapy as it progressed from second generation behavior therapy applications such as those espoused by Ellis, Meichenbaum, through the third generation of behavior therapies. The paper is the final piece of a 3 part article detailing the first through the third generations of behavior therapy within the field of behaviorism. The present paper primarily addresses the transition from the second generation of behavior therapy through the ultimate paradigm shift to third generation approaches. The third generation of behavior therapies involved the provision of alternative behavioral accounts to cognitive behavior therapy and the rise of the so called “cognitive revolution.” The importance of grasping the paradigm shift involved in these different generations of the field will assist students and scholars alike in viewing the shaping of the basic scientific tenets of behaviorism. The value is also seen when entertaining the newer ideas that were introduced to the field that brought the science of behaviorism to a wider audience while simultaneously advancing its scope. The rise of the second generation of behavior therapy introduced the concept of mediational variables to the field. The incorporation of a more mediational approach to behavioral processes replaced the earlier views of the environments’ influences on behavioral repertoires. Some of the biggest outgrowths of the second generation of behavioral therapies will be detailed and examined.
... "La conducta verbal es como un tipo especial de conducta operante, cuyos efectos, es decir, su reforzamiento, es mediado por otras personas, subrayando que dicho 'tren' de eventos… no son menos físicos o inevitables que la acción mecánica directa" (Skinner, 1938). Skinner emplea este término para referirse al proceso de interacción lingüística entre comunidades de hablantes, por eso no lo reduce al "habla", al considerar que de esta manera sólo se aludiría a lo vocal y la comunicación entre parlantes, además de tener en cuenta el acto comunicativo en sí, incluye otros elementos, los cuales son soportes o aditivos que complementan el acto de expresión, entre estos aspectos está lo gestual y lo escrito, aparte de implicar un mensaje entre emisor y receptor sin importar el medio. ...
Un grupo de profesores latinoamericanos de variadas disciplinas es convocado para escribir en torno al lenguaje que nos define como seres sociales. Académicos de México, Cuba y Colombia reúnen sus trabajos en temas tan diversos como la migración, las fake news, los cómics o el cine en este tan especial 2020.
La recopilación se hace en un momento en el que experimentamos la separación física provocada por la necesidad del confinamiento de una pandemia sin vacuna, pero que la vivimos más conectados que nunca. Antes que nos pidieran quedarnos en nuestras casas los habitantes de esta región nos habíamos apropiado del nuevo espacio resultante de la existencia de un espacio consolidado en torno a las redes sociales y los dispositivos móviles. Dos tecnologías que, al combinarse, habían iniciado un cambio equivalente al que la humanidad vivió en su momento con el surgimiento de la escritura, primero, y de la imprenta, después.
Cuando la gente enciende las pantallas de sus teléfonos se comunican personas. Muchos rechazan los dispositivos y hablan de adicción a los mismos, olvidando que para nosotros estas máquinas son cada vez más transparentes y lo que tenemos delante es la imagen de personas compartiendo ese momento significativo con los suyos. Tras los violentos estallidos que se dieron en cada rincón del mundo durante
2019, incluyendo ciudades de nuestro continente, se dejó de seguir cuestionando la centralidad de las comunicaciones. La revista New Yorker en el último número de dicho año describió las explosiones sociales como “un pronunciado cambio en el panorama global de la disidencia. La gente en más países está usando el poder popular
más que en ningún otro momento de la historia. Los movimientos sin armas son el principal desafío que enfrentan los gobiernos hoy en día”. Ese artículo confirma la centralidad de la tecnología como aceleración de la organización y eficiencia de las protestas del 2019.
En los años sesenta se protestaba coordinados por teléfono y panfletos, en 2011 aparecieron los móviles tradicionales y las redes sociales, en especial Twitter y Facebook, pero fue recién el año pasado cuando aplicaciones encriptadas como Telegram permitieron espacios seguros y un grado tal de anonimato que incluso dejó de ser necesaria la convocatoria del líder que moviliza. En el cercano 2011, caracterizado por otra ola de protestas internacionales, el fenómeno de las redes no alcanzaba en nuestros países siquiera a 30% de la población. En el caso chileno ya en 2017 el acceso a la Internet superó 90%, no obstante que la penetración de computadores no había cambiado prácticamente nada en esta década. Mientras en Chile en 2014 existían menos de 50 mil dispositivos móviles inteligentes, actualmente casi todos sus habitantes están confinados con dispositivos 4G de última generación.
Manuel Castells, en noviembre pasado, en plena explosión social de Santiago, aseguró que ahora toda la política habita en las comunicaciones, fue fácil adelantar que lo mismo ocurriría pronto con todos los otros grandes temas: emprendimiento, sanidad, seguridad, entre otros. Los que no lo entendieron entonces luego con la universalización de la pandemia no tuvieron más remedio que asumir que el éxito de las políticas para enfrentarla estaba completamente condicionado con la capacidad de comunicación de los gobiernos y sus gobernados. La conclusión de Castells sobre las explosiones sociales había sido que aunque el disparador variaba de país en
país, la demanda siempre fue la misma: la dignidad. “Los ciudadanos ya no tienen confianza en sus parlamentarios ni en sus gobiernos, tampoco en sus presidentes. Hay un rechazo unánime de todos los partidos, no son considerados legítimos ni viables... la gente no puede más y explota. Y explota en algunos lugares con violencia limitada, en otros, con violencia más extrema”.
Yubal Hoha Harari nos recuerda por otro lado que la claridad se ha convertido en la mayor fuente de poder y expresarse con claridad será cada vez más determinante. Los débiles que hasta ahora han sido explotados, hoy deben evitar convertirse en sujetos irrelevantes a los que ni se revisen sus currículums en la búsqueda de empleo ni se consideren sus puntos de vista para la toma de decisiones políticas.
En este contexto se revaloriza la apuesta de este libro en torno al lenguaje. El actual ceo del New York Times, Mark Thompson, dice que “cuando las palabras se corrompen, la comunidad se desintegra”, aludiendo a una frase de Confucio que confirma que las palabras importan mucho más en este contexto. Hoy más que nunca los profesionales universitarios que trabajamos en torno al lenguaje debemos asegurarnos de que todos los graduados aprendan a escribir y analizar las diferentes formas de comunicación: lo que este libro busca garantizar.
Fuentes de información:
Castells, Manuel (2019). La crisis de la democracia liberal en el mundo. 30 de junio de 2020, Centro de Estudios Públicos (cep). Recuperado de: https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/noticias/notas-de-prensa/la-crisis-de-la-democracia-liberal-enel-mundo
Thompson, Mark (2016). Enough said: what’s gone wrong with the language of politics? EUA: St. Martin’s Press.
Wright, Robin (2019). The story of 2019: protests in every corner of the globe. 17 de junio de 2020, en The New Yorker. Recuperado de: https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-story-of-2019-protests-in-every-corner-of-the-globe
Eduardo Arriagada Cardini
Facultad de Comunicaciones
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
... Early in psychology's history, John Watson (1878Watson ( -1958, and Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) explored behavioral conditioning, laying foundation for B.F. Skinner's (1904Skinner's ( -1990) expansion of theory, in his contribution of operant conditioning and reinforcement patterns, which emphasized the importance of environment influence upon behavior (Pavlov, 1927;Phelps, 2015;Pierce, 2008;Skinner 1990Skinner , 1966Skinner , 1957Skinner , 1938Watkins 1924). Albert Bandura (b. ...
In the new era of genomic medicine, the interactive effects of genetic and epigenetic influence upon the development of substance use disorder (SUD), behavioral process addiction (BPA) comorbid mental health disorder (CMHD), as well as upon the development of personality, need to be considered in the design of personalized addiction recovery treatment plans. Twenty-first century holistic addiction treatment planning will consider the individual patient-client’s genome in treatment planning of both neurological and psychological issues. The science of personality psychology will be utilized in the development and personalization of short term, mid-range and long term substance use disorder and addiction recovery plans, which take into consideration personality type, temperament and trait analysis, to predict potential areas of increased risk to sustained abstinence and cessation of self-medication re-instatement of drug use, and those personality strengths which could potentially increase resilience, adaptation and facilitate wellbeing.
Keywords: addiction, substance use disorder, reconceptualizing addiction, reward deficiency syndrome and personality.
... For example, a class may have a single tactile-dominant learner, who prefers a teaching style that incorporates Progressivismusing practice and activity regarding the work. On the other hand, a teacher is often called upon to adhere to a Behaviorist approach (Skinner, 1938) where the environment can be manipulated to encourage learning. The other five philosophies are Essentialism, Perennialism, Existentialism, Constructivism, and Reconstructivism. ...
Personal statement about teaching, preferred methodology, values, and belief in timely feedback. Founded on principles developed by Skinner (1938); and Bandura (1977).
Comte was reborn in B. F. Skinner: both have elaborate (and false) theories of science as descriptive, both were terrified of freedom (it denies their god of “control”). They endorse metaphysical determinism—whereas Chomsky had a god named Creativity, Skinner’s was Control (schedules of reinforcement): no matter what happens, it is strictly determined by schedules of reinforcement. Freedom, dignity, and choice are outmoded, showing lack of awareness of controlling schedules. How to organize society? Put it in a rigid Skinner box—the grand conditioner, a Cartesian god outside the natural order, determines reinforcement and schedules. No “results of human action but not design.” No “inner man” to organize behavior: just schedules of reinforcement controlling behavior. Language? Just behavior. Skinner is Russell without happiness or a soul, with organization replaced by controlling reinforcements. Intellectual historians need to explain how this amalgam of pleonasm and pontification (refuted before Skinner was born) garnered so many followers.
The pedagogical paradigms of Direct instruction behaviorism/objectivism) and Constructivism are often seen as opposing paradigms at the ends of an instructional design continuum.
Unfortunately, this view makes the two approaches mutually exclusive. Designers must use the one at the expense of the other. A previous study proposed that the two approaches should be integrated along two axes, producing a matrix of four quadrants of learning, called “injection”, “immersion”, “construction” and “integration”. This model
maps directly onto the Cynefin framework of knowledge management that contains four knowledge domains, “known”, “chaos”, “complex” and “knowable”. The combined models allow for a mix of direct, or constructivist teaching and learning. The problem is that the model addresses only two elements of the pedagogical triangle of teacher, content, and learner. It integrates knowledge domains (learning material) with direct and generative approaches to teaching but is silent on the needs of learners. In this paper we propose an extension of the model to add learner mastery to the domains of knowledge, and teaching and learning methods to extend the current decision matrix by adding the learning curve. We consider the metrics for deriving a learning curve, and then fit the required- or expected level of competency and the learner’s level of general competency to the learning curve. We then map the curve to the four quadrants to establish when a particular quadrant is appropriate at a specific phase of the learning curve. This improved model may assist teachers, (lecturers, instructional designers) and learners to select appropriate
pedagogical paradigms and methods, based on the domain of knowledge and learners’ mastery of learning outcomes. Finally, we propose a sequential approach to selecting learning paradigms, based on how much of the material has been mastered.
The concept of metacontingency describes a contingent relation between the coordination of two or more individual’s behavior and a selecting consequence. The concept provides several insightful avenues for experimental investigation of social behavior and behavior of people in groups. The present study explores the question of whether operant behavior of individuals and coordinated behavior of multiple individuals can be distinguished as two different conditionable units of analysis. We used rates of individual responding maintained by ratio or interval schedules of reinforcement as a baseline to evaluate the effect of consequences contingent on coordinated behavior of 27 participants in groups of three. Coordination demanded temporal spacing between responses of three participants superimposed on the variable interval or variable ratio individual reinforcement schedules. The results showed that contingency on coordinated behaviors resulted in an increased rate of coordination along with a decreased rate of responding to individual schedules. Interresponse times (IRTs) from all participants were sensitive to the coordination contingency. We discuss the need to distinguish units of analysis that describe individual behavior and units describing coordinated behavior, although these units may occur simultaneously.
Dieses Kapitel führt in das Thema Käuferverhalten ein. Dabei werden Erkenntnisse aus mehreren Forschungsdisziplinen herangezogen. Kenntnisse zu den Komponenten, die das Käuferverhalten steuern, sind für Marketingentscheidungen unentbehrlich. Zu den das Verhalten steuernden Faktoren zählen einerseits die psychischen Prozesse von Konsumenten, welche aktivierende und kognitive Komponenten enthalten. Andererseits sind Umweltfaktoren bedeutsam, denn Konsumenten agieren in einer physischen und sozialen Umwelt, die ebenso auf das Kaufverhalten einwirkt.
The current chapter is about motivation practiced with students inside and outside the school building because of the significant role motivation plays in improving and leading students to their proper education.
The Risk Needs Responsivity (RNR) model has contributed immensely to the contemporary understanding of offending and its treatment, resulting in effective correctional treatment and lowered recidivism rates. Yet, while its strengths are irrefutable, it has also been criticized for having a number of weaknesses, including a narrow focus on risk. The Good Lives Model (GLM; Ward and Maruna in Rehabilitation: Beyond the risk paradigm, Routledge, 2007; Ward and Stewart in Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 34:353–360, 2003) is an alternative, but complementary, approach to offender rehabilitation that aims to promote offenders’ personal goals and reduce their risk of re-offending. This chapter highlights how this strength-based framework provides a very different way of approaching offender rehabilitation that can overcome the limitations of the RNR.
This article explores the workings of power in dog training cultures through an analysis of UK dog training manuals from the mid-19th century to the present. We focus on gundog and companion dog training cultures, investigating the dog-human relations they assume, the changing conceptions of human-animal relations they represent, and the inequalities and relations of power in which they are embedded. Rather than thinking about changing training practices in terms of a shift from dominance to positive training, or from instrumental to affective relations, we argue that training cultures reveal how inter-species inequalities are conceptualised and reproduced in a range of historical periods and cultural spaces. We suggest that dog training cultures can be distinguished by contrasting understandings of dogs as: (1) rational, thinking beings, (2) instinctive creatures, and (3) autonomous active agents as well as by the inequalities of gender, class, race and species structuring the spaces in which they are embedded. Furthermore, the modalities of power which characterise dog training cultures favour different groups of human actors rather than dogs, even in training cultures which are based on partnership and are ‘dog centred’. Our analysis shows how inter-species relations are lived and thought through the cultural practices of dog training.
Chronic lifestyle-related disease is one of the major health problems the world is facing in the twenty-first century. One of the ways to address the problem of chronic lifestyle-related disease is through programs which support lifestyle changes. Research shows the actual benefits of lifestyle changes for patients. However, in reality only a fraction of patients succeeds in changing their lifestyle. Their level and type of motivation appear to be important factors in shaping their chances for success. We devised a second order temporal-causal network for adoption of habit with regards to motivation, focusing on patients with type 2 diabetes who receive advice to exercise. Taking into account a variety of motivational forces, the model clearly shows the benefits of more and repeated interactions. They lead to a more long-lasting change, even though these interactions may also amplify negative emotions. These findings are in accordance with tentative findings in research.
SUMARIO: I. INTRODUCCIÓN. II. DELIMITACIÓN CONCEPTUAL Y CLASIFICACIÓN DE LAS EMOCIONES. III. LAS IMPLICACIONES DE LAS EMOCIONES EN EL CUMPLIMIENTO TRIBUTARIO; 1.-El vínculo entre las percepciones de equidad y las decisiones de cumplimiento; 2.-El componente social de las emociones; 3.-Correlatos fisiológicos de las emociones IV. HACIA LA NECESIDAD DE INTEGRAR LA MULTIDISCIPLINARIEDAD: UNA PERSPECITVA DIFERENTE V. BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Social networks are ubiquitous. The science of networks has shaped how researchers and society understand the spread of disease, the precursors of loneliness, the rise of protest movements, the causes of social inequality, the influence of social media, and much more. Egocentric analysis conceives of each individual, or ego, as embedded in a personal network of alters, a community partially of their creation and nearly unique to them, whose composition and structure have consequences. This volume is dedicated to understanding the history, present, and future of egocentric social network analysis. The text brings together the most important, classic articles foundational to the field with new perspectives to form a comprehensive volume ideal for courses in network analysis. The collection examines where the field of egocentric research has been, what it has uncovered, and where it is headed.
Teachers’ proactive and reactive classroom management strategies are a significant component of teaching effectiveness. Teachers need to develop such strategies to structure a positive classroom environment. In addition, teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs concerning their classroom management strategies are equally significant. This research aimed to identify the teachers’ effective proactive and reactive classroom management strategies. It also sought to investigate the obstacles that inhibit proactive classroom management use and identify the association between teachers’ self-efficacy and classroom management practices. The research adopted a mixed-methods paradigm, consisting of two tools: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The sampling included 80 Saudi teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) participated in the survey and eight teachers participated in the interviews. The results showed that EFL teachers find proactive classroom management strategies more effective than reactive strategies. In addition, there was a difference between novice and experienced teachers’ effective classroom management strategies, in which experienced teachers found proactive strategies more effective. The findings also indicated that there are four types of obstacles that hinder proactive classroom management strategies. System-related obstacles (subject-centered curriculum and institutional rules), system/teacher related obstacles (institutional rules and teachers’ predispositions concerning e-tools), teacher-related obstacles (lack of understanding of the discipline plan), and student-related obstacles (unmotivated students). The final finding cited the positive association between teachers’ high self-efficacy and proactive classroom management application.
Despite a growing acknowledgement of the importance of understanding the impacts of trauma on therapeutic approaches across human service disciplines, discussions of trauma have been relatively infrequent in the behavior analytic literature. In this paper, we delineate some of the barriers to discussing and investigating trauma in applied behavior analysis (ABA) and describe how the core commitments of trauma‐informed care could be applied to behavior analysis. We then provide some examples of how trauma‐informed care might be incorporated into ABA practice. We conclude by suggesting opportunities to approach trauma as a viable avenue for behavior analytic research and argue that omitting trauma‐informed care from ABA could be detrimental not only to the public perception of ABA, but to the effectiveness of our assessment and treatment procedures.
The book is originally intended for postgraduate students of applied linguistics and foreign language teachers who may have some unresolved dilemmas about foreign language education for adults. It opens with a chapter about seven dominant perspectives on the learning process. The book moves across the notions of adulthood, adult learner, adult education, and principles of foreign (the prefix second is interchangeably used) language teaching methodology. The final chapter is designed to help you reflect on your own inclinations towards embracing or rejecting novelties in teaching design. Overall, the first four chapters may appeal to a broad audience, but the final three chapters may require a level of relevant experience and supplementary reading about issues in education and foreign language methodology.
Habits affect nearly every aspect of our physical and mental health. Although the science of habit formation has long been of interest to psychological scientists across disciplines, we propose that applications to clinical psychological science have been insufficiently explored. In particular, evidence-based psychological treatments (EBPTs) are interventions targeting psychological processes that cause and/or maintain mental illness and that have been developed and evaluated scientifically. An implicit goal of EBPTs is to disrupt unwanted habits and develop desired habits. However, there has been insufficient attention given to habit-formation principles, theories, and measures in the development and delivery of EBTPs. Herein we consider whether outcomes following an EBPT would greatly improve if the basic science of habit formation were more fully leveraged. We distill six ingredients that are central to habit formation and demonstrate how these ingredients are relevant to EBPTs. We highlight practice points and an agenda for future research. We propose that there is an urgent need for research to guide the application of the science of habit formation and disruption to the complex “real-life” habits that are the essence of EBPTs.
The centuries-old debate over U.S. immigration policy reflects polarizing beliefs about the extent to which the United States is, and should remain, a White, European, and Christian nation. Those embracing this belief have argued, often by misusing science, that restricting immigration of “undesirables” is essential to preserving the nation’s character; they prevailed regularly over the years as numerous laws were enacted to limit immigration. In actuality, however, immigration, a natural subset of migration, is beneficial in numerous ways to both the host country and the immigrant and is increasing as people move in response to large-scale environmental changes. Current U.S. immigration policy is still framed to restrict rather than encourage immigration. The assumption of power by the Biden administration may open new opportunities for the United States to increase immigration. We propose that culturo-behavior science, unlike racist and culturist science of the past and present, offers a sound mechanism to increase immigration by establishing a new pathway to admission—one based on fostering mutually reinforcing transactional relationships between immigrants and the U.S. host communities. This pathway will require a great deal of research, so we call on culturo-behavior scientists, largely absent from the immigration debate for nearly 100 years, to take up the challenge to apply science in an egalitarian, nonrestrictive, and socially just manner.
This chapter describes the current understanding of the conditioning process as revealed though experimental analyses of both behavior and neuroscience. As such, it represents a continuation of the scientific program envisioned by Skinner in which the integration of these two biological sciences would reveal the functional processes and mediating structures whereby experience changes the environmental guidance of behavior. This integration—the unified reinforcement principle—indicates that the same basic conditioning process is engaged by operant (instrumental) and respondent (Pavlovian) contingencies but that the outcome of this common process differs because of the different environmental and behavioral events that are reliably present at the moment of reinforcement. The conditioning process provides basic insights into the interpretation of complex behavior occurring under circumstances that preclude experimental analysis. Examples include the role of automatic reinforcement in the acquisition of verbal behavior and of deficits in conditioned reinforcement in autistic behavior.
Response to Jorge M. Oliveira-Castro’s comments: “Behavior Analysis and Psychological Concepts: Commentary on Foxall’s Intentional Behaviorism. Intentional Behaviorism addresses an issue that should be familiar to all behavior analysts whose work extends beyond the laboratory, namely the validity of the interpretation of behavior when an experimental analysis is infeasible. The essence of functional analysis is the prediction and control of behavior in the relatively closed settings of the operant chamber, as well as in situations such as field experiments where the requirements of environmental control can be relatively unambiguously observed. But operant analysis is not confined to such settings. As Skinner points out, notably in his analysis of verbal behavior, the principles of behavior established in these “favorable” contexts can provide “plausible” interpretations of behaviors that cannot be studied so rigorously because they lie beyond an experimental analysis (Skinner, 1957, p. 13; see also Skinner, 1969, p. 100; Skinner, 1984, p. 207). He points out that, just as natural sciences like astronomy and the study of species’ phylogenetic histories are not directly amenable to experimentation and yet make use of scientific principles garnered elsewhere, so behavior can be understood by reference to the contingencies of reinforcement and punishment even when experimental control of the subject matter is not feasible. Intentional Behaviorism proposes a methodology for this process which Jorge Oliveira-Castro has critiqued in his chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to respond to his comments and demonstrate the viability of intentional-behaviorist interpretation.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.