Soybean: Africa's Potential Cinderella Food Crop

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Soybean:
Africa’s Potential Cinderella Food Crop
Kolapo Adelodun Lawrence
Biology Department, The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Nigeria
1. Introduction
Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merrill) is an important oriental crop whose agronomic
characteristics were apparently well known in China before 2200 BC. It is a legume that grows
in tropical, sub tropical and temperate climates. Originally domesticated in China around
1700-1000 BC, soybean is now cultivated throughout East and South East Asia where people
depend on it for food, animal feed and medicine. Soybean reached North America in 1765 via
London, and Africa through missionaries in the early 19th century (CGIAR, 2005).
The fact that soybean is fastly becoming the ‘toast’ of many countries beside China is not in
doubt. However, this cannot be rightly said of African countries as a whole. According to
FAO data of 2005, 95.2 million ha of land were used for soybean cultivation worldwide and
total production was 212.6 million tones. The three major soybean-producing countries were
USA (29 million ha), Brazil (23 million ha) and Argentina (14 million ha). Seed production
from the cultivated hectares of land were 83, 51 and 38 million tones for USA, Brazil and
Argentina respectively. In a strong contrast, the same source revealed that in the whole of
Africa, soybean was grown on an average of 1.16 million ha with an average production of
1.26 million tones.
Malnutrition and food insecurity are not being eradicated fast enough; in Africa, they are on
the increase. The resources to significantly reduce this tragedy are not that large (Hadad &
Martorell, 2002). Already, it is projected that Sub Saharan Africa, with its combination of
high population growth and lagging economic performance, the number of malnourished
children is expected to increase by six million compared with 1997 (Rosegrant & Meijer,
2002). As it has been earlier opined that resources to tackle the menace of malnutrition is not
all that large in Africa, there is a need for critical analysis of what Africa has, and how best it
could be utilized, in surmounting the hydra-headed problems of hunger and malnutrition
which incidentally constitute the major African challenges.
Considering both Africa’s climatic and edaphic factors, tropical soybean varieties can be
cultivated in about half of Africa’s land. In addition, there is a greater possibility with the
introduction of newly developed IITA genetically modified drought tolerant soybean. On
the understanding of the well established soybean’s medicinal and food values,
incorporation of soybean into Africans’ diet is a sure way of stemming the tide of
malnutrition in Africa. The present review article is focusing on the role of soybean in
tackling the menace of malnutrition in the past, present and future Africa.

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2. Soybean improvement programme in Africa
In 1908, soybean seeds (which were sourced from Manchuria) were found to be suitable
replacement for linseed and cottonseed in the city of Hull, Great Britain. However,
subsequent to Sino-Japanese war (which Japan won), Britain, which owned many colonies
in Africa, decided to test systematically, the ability of soybeans to produce good yields in
British colonies. Sir Alfred Jones and Mr. Grenville Turner were the leader of the British
expendition. Incidentally, in the year 2007, the five leading soybean producers in Africa
namely Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Egypt all have strong historical ties
to Great Britain (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2009). However, it is worthy of note that the
introduction of soybeans into Africa was characterized with many pitfalls such as no or poor
germination, crop failure after germination and low yields. For instance, in 1908, soybeans
planted on 1.35 acres at Moor Plantation, Ibadan. Nigeria failed. While still recounting on
Nigeria’s soybean experience, Ezendinma (1964), reported that in 1937, ten varieties were
obtained from USA and one each from Malaya and British Guiana. Of these, only one US
variety, Otootan, the Malayan and Creole from British Guiana survived; the rest either failed
to germinate in the first planting. Furthermore, in 1940 more introductions were made from
Philiphines and Trinidad. It was also reported that eight varieties were introduced from
Southern Rhodesia in 1942, and in 1949 a total of eleven varieties were brought into Nigeria
from India, Ceylon and the Philiphines. The sudden change in ambient temperature in
transit was thought to be responsible for the rapid deterioration of the embryos and the
subsequent failure of the seeds to germinate (Ezendinma, 1964). However, later advances in
scientific knowledge pointed to other directions as Bradyrhizobium japonicum populations
required for effective nodulation of soybeans are found to be non-endemic to African soils
(Hadley & Hymowitz, 1973). Also, in the 1970s, there was a little interest and effort in Africa
to grow and improve soybean because of extremely low yields and seed viability, high
shattering rate and limited postharvest use.
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) soybean research is
based in Sub Saharan Africa and has progressed very well in both crop improvement and
postharvest processing and utilization. To avoid the need to inoculate soybean with B.
japonicum, soybean breeders at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
(which was founded by CGIAR), Nigeria, developed new soybean genotypes for Africa,
known as Glycine cross (TGX), which nodulate with Bradyrhizobium spp populations
indigenous to African soils (Pulver et. al., 1985). Also, since the 1970s soybean breeders at
the CGIAR’s IITA in Ibadan, Nigeria have been successfully working on developing
improved varieties of soybean that fix more nitrogen from the atmosphere without
Rhizobium inoculation, are high yielding, store well, and are resistant to pod shattering.
Furthermore, soybean improvement activities in IITA include the development of dual-
purpose varieties that are tolerant to phosphorus-deficient soils and have enhanced capacity
to kill seeds of the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica which attack cereals. Such varieties were
found to have high grain yield and produce large amounts of biomass, making them useful
as a soil-building rotation crop and as fodder for livestock. So far, seventeen IITA-bred
tropical soybean varieties have been released by national agricultural research and extension
system (NARES) of several West and Central African countries including Nigeria, Benin,
Ghana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Togo and Uganda. Unfortunately, support for
soybean research among NARES has declined in the recent time.

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The great landmark of IITA’s breeding effort on soybean is far from being obscured. It was
reported that when IITA started soybean improvement research in 1974, the average yield
per hectare in Africa was 660 kg/ha and total production was only 0.2 million tones. Thirty
years later, using IITA-developed varieties, the average yield in West African countries
increased by more than 50% and 67% in the whole of Africa. Currently, twenty-one African
countries now produce soybean with Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda being the highest
three producers (IITA, 2008)
3. Soybean production and utilization in Africa
Africa is the most tropical of the continents. Most of Africa has high temperatures
throughout the year. The most important factor differentiating its climates is the amount,
duration and seasonal distribution of rainfall. The different climatic zones found in Africa
include tropical wet, tropical summer rainfall, semiarid, arid, highland and Mediterranean
(Newman et al., 2007). Due to the different climatic zones found in Africa and other biotic
and abiotic constraints, soybean cannot readily grow in all parts of Africa.
The extent to which soybean can be cultivated in different regions of Africa is shown in
Figure 1. With the influx of IITA genetically modified drought tolerant soybean variety,
there is a possibility of growing soybean in semiarid and arid regions which have earlier
being dubbed unsuitable for soybean cultivation. Going by the 2008-2009 records, Nigeria is
still the highest Africa’s soybean producer (39%), closely followed by South Africa (35%)
while Uganda is the third highest African producer (14%). Figure 2 shows the significant
soybean producers in Africa. A critical comparison of Figures 1and 2 would reveal that
maximizing Africa’s soybean production potential is far from being realized.
According to Newman et al. (2007), since at least the mid-19th century African economies
were increasingly reworked to meet the needs of industrial Europe. Soybean, one of the
Agricultural raw materials from the turn of the 20th century was not an exception. The
British effort of systematically testing soybean in her colonies was targeted at ensuring a
sustainable raw materials supplies for the Great Britain. A comparison of Nigeria’s
contribution to the Commonwealth and World’s soybean production between 1938 and 1960
is presented in Table 1. The fact that soybean has not been largely incorporated into African
diet up to the first eighty years of the 20th century also contributed to its being majorly an
export crop then. However, sequel to the soybean awareness in some African countries in
the 1980s, the situation has greatly changed as many soy based African meals were
developed. Presently, Africa’s soybean production cannot match up with her demand.
According to FAO, Africa spent US$ 1 billion in 2004 to import soybean and soy oil. Of this,
US$752 million was for soybean oil and US$254 million was for soybean grain/meal.
Year Nigeria Commonwealth World
1938/39 Nil 4 12,562
1954/55 9 144 19,661
1955/56 10 162 20,666
1956/57 16 159 23,780
1957/58 15 190 24,581
1958/59 14 182 27,570
1959/60 4 188 27,501
Table 1. Commonwealth and World’s soybean production (000 tonnes) between 1938 and
1960

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Fig. 1. Soybean suitability map for Africa (IITA, 2008)

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Fig. 2. Significant soybean producers in Africa (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2009)

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4. Soy foods in Africa
Although the value of soybean as high protein source has been recognized, its use as human
food was not immediately developed in Africa. Difficulties of soaking, preparation, cooking
and a certain lack of palatability apparently precluded its use by many African people in the
past era (Onichie, 1965). However, it should be stressed that as far back as 1938 commercial
soy food products began to find their way into Africa, even where soybean was not
cultivated. For instance, ProNutro, the earliest known commercial soy food product in
Africa, was introduced into South Africa by Hind Brothers and Co Ltd (Odendal, 1965). Soy
foods appeared in Ethiopia in 1945 (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2009), while Cape Verde, Eritrea
and Liberia had their first contact with soy foods in 1960. Furthermore, in 1965, a black
American and Seventh-day Adventist medical missionary, Dr D.W. Harrison started black
Africa’s first soy foods Company- Africa Basic Foods in Uganda. In a bid to incorporate
soybean into Africa diet and improve nutrition, in 1965, a west African gruel derived from
maize was fortified with soybean to produce Soy-Ogi by Akinrele in Nigeria. Much more
later, the United State Development Agency (USDA) Food for Peace Programme employed
soy food in her program in Mauritania and Djibouti in 1973 and 1978 respectively to solve
problems of Malnutrition and Protein deficiency.
The recent expansion of soybean farming in Nigeria is attributable to both the development of
improved varieties and soy-based food products. It is in this regards, that CGIAR’s IITA also
focused on soybean post harvest research. At IITA, post harvest researchers, have developed
appropriate technologies that reduce labor and time requirements for processing, and improve
the product quality and quantity. Various soybean-processing machines, such as a flour mill
(dry mill or grinder, an extruder/expeller), a screw press and thresher, have been adapted for
use in Sub- Saharan Africa and have been widely adopted by both small and medium scale
processors (CGIAR, 2005). Altogether, about one hundred and fifty food products with good
nutritive value and consumer acceptability have been developed by IITA food technologists.
Many of these new products have been tried out in villages across the region, modified by
local people to suit local culinary tastes, and ultimately adopted with increasing popularity.
In addition to IITA research efforts on incorporation of soybean into African diet, various
independent researchers have reported on the possible use of soybean in addressing the
major Africa’s challenges- Hunger and Malnutrition. Soybean seeds have been exploited for
the production of food products such as Soybean daddawa (Popoola & Akueshi, 1986),
Soybean fortified gari and tapioca (Sanni & Sobamiwa 1994; Kolapo & Sanni 2005; Kolapo &
Sanni 2009), cereal-based traditional weaning food (Osundahunsi & Awor 2003), Soy-
Coconut milk based yoghurt (Olubamiwa & Kolapo 2008a), Soy-Cow milk based yoghurt
((Olubamiwa & Kolapo, 2008b) and Soy-corn milk (Kolapo & Oladimeji, 2008).
The utilization of soybean food product in Africa is rapidly gaining momentum. In Nigeria,
for example, the private sector is becoming a major player in the market for soybean and soy
products. Nigeria now has more than 65 soybean processing plants ranging in size from
small village-level mills to plants established by food processing giants such as Nestle Plc
and Cadbury Plc. These big processors use soybean to boost the protein contents of baked
goods, breakfast cereals, weaning foods and dairy products. In a related development, an
alliance between Sun Opta Inc and Specialized Protein Products (SPP) of South Africa is
targeted at manufacturing and selling liquid and powdered soy ingredients and soy milk
beverages in Africa and other International markets. Sales of liquid and powdered products
from this alliance are expected to grow over time to over $15 million.

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5. Soybean in nutrition and health
Soybean is often described as the miracle golden bean, the pearl of the Orient, the Cinderella
crop of the century, the meat that grows on vines, the protein hope of the future and the
salvation crop among others. These attributions are mainly due to the relatively high protein
content (about 40%) contained in soybean seeds. It also contains approximately 20% fat.
The fatty acids in soybean are majorly unsaturated types e.g. oleic and linoleic acid.
Unlike the saturated fat in animal protein, it is suitable in reducing heart ailment which may
be caused or aggravated by excessive intake of cholesterol from animal fat. Soybean also
provide adequate amount of carbohydrate, digestible fibres, minerals, vitamins etc. In
addition to its high food value, it is one of the least expensive sources of protein when
compared to eggs, milk, beef and cowpea (IAR&T, 1988).
Soybean is a major source of vegetable protein and oil for human and animal consumption
and also for industrial use. Soybean oil is widely used throughout the world for human
consumption as margarine, salad, cooking oils and shortenings (Lapades, 1977).
Nutritionally, soy proteins are superior among vegetable proteins since they contain good
supplies of essential amino acids, though they are slightly deficient in some sulphur
containing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine. In a report by IAR&T (1987), it was
shown that soybean ranks the highest among leguminous crops in terms of protein
utilization and efficient ratio compared with other plant sources. For instance, soybean has a
higher total digestible nutrient percentage of 91.99% compared to cowpea with 79.52%. Thus
soybean consumption is more relatively helpful in solving nutrition protein-intake problem
among the poor people. Though it lack starches, soybean contain such other carbohydrates
as cellulose, pectin and phytic acid. Not only does cellulose promote good elimination
together with other indigestible fibre, it helps in maintaining good physical condition and
preventing rectal cancer. (Tokuji & Asako, 1984).
Studies by Lassitar (1981) revealed that soybean oil is highly digestible, high in
polyunsaturated fatty acids, about 85.0% with no cholestrol. The studies also showed that
mature soybean seed contains vitamins such as thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, cholin, vitamins
E and K. These vitamins are necessary for normal body growth and development. Whole
soybean contains 1.6% potassium, 0.3% calcium, 0.3% magnesium and minute quantity of
iron, zinc and copper. The mineral present in soy products can contribute to the overall
requirement especially for children and pregnant women. (NAERLS/FDA, 1994)
Lecithin is also present in soybean. Davis (1979) reported that adequate diet including soya
lecithin will free the cholestrol deposits in the blood vessels, suspend the particles in the
blood, carry them away and metabolise them. In this way, the blood vessels are free and
blood pressure returns to normal. It is on this premise that Sanni (2000) recommends that
people who cannot afford lecithin should include soyabeans in their diet.
There is no doubt, a strong nexus between nutrition and health. The treatise by Scrimshaw
et al. (1968): Interaction of Nutrition and Infection, set out a paradigm which has endured
for almost a half century. Similarly, Solomon (2007) stated that demographics, food supply
and epidemiological transitions determine the specific relevance of the malnutrition-
infection interaction in individual circumstances. The strong link between a good nutrition
and a good health must have been responsible for the invaluable role which soybean has
been playing in maintaining a better health in its consumers for many centuries. Data from
different regions of the world have shown that consumption of food containing soybean and
soybean products has been associated with improved heart disease risk factor, reduced
osteoporosis, alleviation of menopausal symptoms, reduced cancer risk, diabetes and serum

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cholesterol. Soybean consumption also help in reducing obesity; this is consequent upon
soybean isoflavones especially which cause production of fewer and smaller fat cells (Naaz
et al., 2003). Report has shown that soybean could help minimize coronary heart disease
through controlling cholesterol, blood pressure, vascular function and direct effects on the
cells of the artery wall (AHA, 2000). Men which were at risk of developing coronary heart
disease consuming soybean diets have been found to have significant reductions in both
diastolic and systolic blood pressure (Sagara et al., 2004).
Studies have established the beneficial effect of soybean to diabetic patients particularly
Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM). The protein and fibre in soybeans can
prevent high blood sugar level and help in keeping blood sugar levels under control. In
addition, the proportion of potassium to sodium (3/1- 11/1) makes soybean an ideal food
for diabetes mellitus patients (Lijuan et al., 2000). Furthermore, Texeira et al. (2000)
submitted that soy protein help diabetic patients prevent kidney diseases and improve the
cholesterol profile. There are evidences that soy foods may help reduce bone loss that
typically occurs after menopause. Soya isoflavone can help women with low bone mineral
content prevent hip fractures in post menopausal years (Chen et al. 2003; Anderson 2003;
Koh et al. 2009). In areas of the world where soybeans are eaten regularly, rates of colon
cancer, as well as some other cancers including breast cancer tend to be low. Soybean
contains relatively high amounts of glucosycermide, which may be the reason for the cancer
–preventive effect of eating soy foods (Symolon et al., 2004). In more recent studies, it was
established that soy food consumption was significantly associated with decreased cancer
recurrence and death (Shu et al., 2009; Guha et al., 2009).
6. Africa’s nutrition situation
Many of the developing world’s poorest producers and most undernourished households
depend on Root and Tubers (R&T) as a contributing, if not principal, source of food and
nutrition (Alexandratos, 1995). In part, these farm households value R&T because R&T
produce large quantities of dietary energy and have stable yields under conditions in which
other crops may fail (Alexandratos, 1995). Among these culprit developing countries;
African countries are of major concern. More than 30 edible and edible species of R&T are
grown today. Foremost among them in terms of aggregate output and estimated value of
production are cassava, potato, sweet-potato and yam. Other prominent R&T include
cocoyam, ginger, taro, yam bean as well as Andean R&T such as arracacha, mashua,oca and
ulluco (Scott et al., 1992).
The diets of people in many developing countries ( of which substantial part are in Africa )
comprise mainly starchy materials. Unfortunately, animal sources of proteins, which are
used to compliment the starchy diets are expensive and out of reach for low-income families
(Obatolu et al., 2007). In Nigeria, statistics on cassava production and consumption
indicated cassava as major national food and cash crop. According to Ouraga-Djoussou &
Bokanga (1998), annual consumption of cassava in Nigeria doubled to 250 kg per capita
between 1983 and 1994. Cassava production increased from 14.4 milliom mt to 31.1 million
mt during 1982-97 (FAO 1999). The increase in consumption and output of cassava can be
attributed to several factors. Given Nigeria’s low per capita income and rapid population
growth, cassava has served as both a basic staple and food security crop; the ban on cereal
imports between 1987 and 1990 provided an added stimulus to its production (Adeniji et al.,
1997). The crop’s multiple uses have also facilitated greater consumption. Roots are

Soybean: Africa’s Potential Cinderella Food Crop
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consumed in fresh, boiled form; as toasted granules widely known as gari; as chips/flour (or
lafun); and as unsteamed wet paste (or fufu) (Nweke, 1994).
Because the demand for cassava as a food commodity has remained strong, commercial
sales of both processed products and fresh roots as raw material for food processing have
become a highly profitable undertaking, due in part to technical improvements in
processing and the introduction of high yielding varieties (Nweke et al., 1988). According to
estimated expenditure elasticities for processed cassava (gari), urban households treat it as
normal good (Nweke et al., 1994). In another estimates, based on the six-country
Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA), expenditure elasticities for rural
households hover around 1.0 for fresh and processed cassava (Ezemenari et al., 1998), which
is similar to the elasticities for high-value foods. From these studies it was concluded that
continued urbanization and improvements in income are likely to translate into continued
strong demand for cassava in Nigeria and other Africa countries covered by the study.
However, this trend signals a great danger for a populace which depends majorly on
cassava on the understanding that cassava roots are an excellent source of carbohydrates
but are deficient in protein, vitamins and some minerals. It is therefore not surprising that
both Protein Calorie Malnutrition (PCM) and Macro and Micro Nutrients Malnutrition
(MMNM) are common characteristics of many African populations. Consequently, it is
equally not suprprising that the 2009 Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) prevalence values
in many African countries were either poor, serious or critical; with a very few being
acceptable (Figure 3).
Fig. 3. Global Acute Malnutrition Prevalence (OCHA, 2009)

Soybean - Biochemistry, Chemistry and Physiology
146
While addressing the state of nutrition in Africa, another important factor which deserves
serious attention is the changing diet and the accompanied disease of lifestyle. Previously in
African countries, most populations were very poor and they ate frugally. Their intakes of
energy and fat were relatively low, but those of fiber-containing foods were high, as is usual
with high consumption of plant foods (Lube, 1971). These are still the dietary features of
those living traditional lifestyles and, to a large extent, current rural Africans (Vorster et al.,
1994). In the past, prevalences of chronic diseases due to lifestyle were low (Trowell, 1960).
However, within the past generation, diets have changed with increases in energy and fat
intake but decreases in fiber intake (Bourne et al., 1993). Such diets, with ongoing changes
have been associated with the variably rising prevalences of the nutrition-related diseases
(Walker 1996; Walker & Segal 1997). In South Africa and some other countries in Sub-
Saharan Africa, among Africans, changes in diet and other environmental factors
particularly among urban dwellers have evoked large rises in the occurrences of some
chronic disorders and disease of lifestyle but hardly any rises in others. Thus, major
increases have occurred in obesity in women, hypertension and diabetes in both sexes and
cerebrovascular disease (Walker 1996; Walker & Segal 1997). Judging from the experiences
of the various populations described, it seems likely that, within the next generation, a
marked rise in the occurrence of Coronary Heart Disease in urban African population would
be inevitable (Walker et al., 2002).
7. Soybean and the future Africa
There is no doubt that Malnutrition is one of the major Africa’s health challenges. As stated
earlier, this hydra-headed problem manifests in form of Protein Calorie Malnutrition (PCM)
and Macro and Micro Nutrient Malnutrition (MMNM). The resources to tackle this menace
is not all that large in Africa; and with the worsening economic performance in many
African countries, the end of malnutrition in Africa, is not in sight if some critical and
decisive steps are not urgently taken.
In 2000, the world pledged through the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs 1 and 2) to
halve hunger and ensure Universal Primary Education by the year 2015. It has since been
recognised that school feeding programmes could be a key to achieving these goals, because
they bring many synergies that support each other. In response, some national governments
in Africa launched School Feeding and Health Programmes. In a particular school feeding
attempts by World Food Programme (WFP) in areas of high food insecurity(which included
many African countries), fortified biscuits and take home rations have been used (Gelli et
al., 2009). However, a study by Kolapo & Sanni (2009) suggested that using a West African
foods such as gari and tapioca which are fortified with whole soybean flour rather than
`piecemeal` fortifications will help meet Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of many
macro and micro nutrients
Reports from Nigeria, Zimbabwe and Kenya have shown that families growing and utilising
soybean are more healthier than those families that do not use soybean as part of their diets.
Owing to the greatly invaluable nutritive and health benefits furnished by soybased foods,
there is a need for a renewed, concerted and sustainable incorporation of soybean into
African diet. The IITA soybean success story recorded particularly in Nigeria, Zimbabwe,
Uganda and South Africa must be replicated in other African countries.
As stated earlier, previous reports have shown that the changing diets of African is
excercibating disease of life style such as diabetes, obesity and the likes. Incidentally,

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adoption of soybean has been shown to reduce the incidence of such disease. As the old
adage goes, a wealthy nation is a product of a healthy nation. In this regards, various
African national governments should consider soybean as being pivotal to building a
healthy population. The attributes of soybean as a cinderella food crop can be utilised by
African leaders in solving the challenges of food insecurity in the continent as soybean
production technolgy matches the resource of small-scale farmers with the principal inputs
being good seed of an adapted variety and useful information. The report of Rukuni (2002)
shows how investment, technology and national institutions must interact to bring about
food security in Sub-Saharan Africa, the region of the world where all indicators of hunger
are worsening. There is no other time other than now which African leaders are to rise to
this challenge; and in doing so, soybean should be considered as the cinderella food crop.
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