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Failures and Successes: Notes on the Development of Electronic Cash
Abstract
Between 1997 and 2001, two mid-sized communities in Canada hosted North America's most comprehensive experiment to introduce electronic cash and, in the process, replace physical cash for casual, low-value payments. The technology used was Mondex, and its implementation was supported by all the country's major banks. It was launched with an extensive publicity campaign to promote Mondex not only in the domestic but also in the global market, for which the Canadian implementation was to serve as a "showcase." However, soon after the start of the first field test it became apparent that the new technology did not work smoothly. On the contrary, it created a host of controversies, in areas as varied as computer security, consumer privacy, and monetary policy. In the following years, few of these controversies could be resolved and Mondex could not be established as a widely used payment mechanism. In 2001, the experiment was finally terminated. Using the concepts developed in recent science and technology studies (STS), this article analyzes these controversies as resulting from the difficulties of fitting electronic cash, a new sociotechnical system, into the complex setting of the existing payment system. Implementing a new technology is seen as a long process in which social and technological actors are required to adapt to one another. In the Mondex case, such adaptation did not happen sufficiently to stabilize the sociotechnical network as a whole. However, in some limited areas mutual adaptation did occur, and there the Mondex experiment produced some surprising successes. In this perspective, the story of Mondex not only offers lessons on why technologies fail, but also offers insight how short-term failures can contribute to long-term transformations. This suggests the need to rethink the dichotomy of success and failure.
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
... Yet as a sociological method of inquiry and, moreover, as a sociological sensibility and a guideline for sociological reasoning, it should yield useful insights for sociological inquiry. ANT-oriented or ANT-inspired ideas have spilled into studies of identity and subjectivity (Moser and Law 1999;Mol 2008); economic markets (Callon 1999); urban settings (Stalder 2006;Valderrama and Jorgensen 2008); media, communications, and information systems (Stalder 2002(Stalder , 2005; passion and addiction (Gomart and Hennion 1999); and ethnography (Henare et al. 2007;Beaulieu 2010). ANT approaches have also made steady progress in sociological political theory, specifically political economy and theories of the state. ...
This chapter considers the relationship between the expanding grid and state-run projects and installations. It traces the role of commercial firms, government officials, politicians and engineers in securing, or failing to secure, state expenditures. One focus is on the way contracts with the government enabled the expansion of the grid to select relatively remote locations. However the main focus is on the failed attempt to electricity the state-owned Jaffa-Jerusalem Railway. Analyzing the links between technical and financial considerations, the thrust of the chapter is in theorizing state-market relations not only in terms of techno-political assemblies but also in respect to their spatial and demographic implications. The main finding is that while the electrification of the railways may have contributed to the consolidation of a national infrastructure, the failure to thus electrify further deepened ethnic-based differential access to electricity.
... Systems such as Mondex, they argued, are probably not viable given that they embody all the necessary pre-conditions-such as high fi nancial incentive and unhindered access to multiple instances of the device-'for their encryption key material to be retrieved' (e.g. Atkinson, 1997;Brown, 1997aBrown, , 1997bBrown, , 1997cStalder, 2002). Pace Robert's claims in the interview extract above, the researchers had not actually 'tried to crack into' the device. ...
... Even more controversial proved Mondex's claimed ability to reproduce the anonymity and untraceability of cash transactions (Stalder, 2002). Ever since its introduction, Mondex has been under a cloud of suspicion on account of its privacy implications. ...
... Mondex can thus be viewed as engaged in a struggle not only with the 'actor-network' of physical cash, but also with alternative electronic cash systems such as Digicash or Visacash 30 -to mention but two of the best known-which attempted to Electronic Cash and the Virtual Marketplace David Knights et al. translate the vision of a cashless society in terms of different technological confi gurations and organizational arrangements. As we have seen, in these struggles Mondex itself could deploy some powerful technological and commercial actors (Stalder, 2002). At the same time, and as the earlier comment concerning the modern-day Romans and their bags of salt indicates, it was clear that the Mondex network would stand or fall on whether it could persuade the users of cash to adopt, and eventually defect, to it. ...
By the late 1990s the notion of the `virtual' had become a key term in attempts to render meaningful the changes being brought about by new information and communication technologies on extant forms of enterprise and organizing. Many commentators had already identified the financial services sector as a site where the transformative powers of the new electronic technologies would be most visibly enacted. Drawing upon a two-year ethnographic investigation of a range of financial services organizations, the paper analyses fin de siecle enactments of the `virtual' in terms of three closely interrelated problematics: virtuality as electronic mediation, virtuality as mimesis and virtuality as disposal. The paper uses the case of Mondex—a project to implement a smart card alternative to cash—as a vantage point from which to explore the performance of `virtuality' in social organization.
... D. Related Approaches 1) Electronic Cash Systems: For several reasons [5], systems issuing electronic cash as a representation of real money have never fully taken hold. We believe that a system like RepScrip which is not tightly coupled to a realworld currency would have a much better chance of initially succeeding than those with much more at stake. ...
... Since a user may not loan a circle member more scrip than he currently has in his account and the issuer maintains the database of each user's reputation/available credit, the receiver cannot pretend to have a higher reputation than he actually does. The issuer is ultimately responsible for displaying users' reputations in an application-appropriate manner-users do not have a method to directly publish this information about themselves 5 . While in a real-world implementation of this system, it may be possible for the issuer to be dishonest, we assume that the issuer is honest in its dealings with users by accurately reporting reputation and performing transactions correctly for every user. ...
... User i need not know the values of CREDIT j (i) or SCRIP j for any value of j except for j = i.5 A comparison may be drawn here between this mechanism of RepScrip and the credit ratings assigned to people by various credit bureaus or credit reference agencies.6 ...
Social networking and e-commerce sites have many mechanisms with which they encourage generation of user content, represent user trust and reputation relationships, and control access to desirable digital resources. Using anonymous electronic cash (or scrip), the proposed system RepScrip provides the preceding three features and adds optional (to the user) anonymity and a certain level of commodification and interoperability with similarly-configured sites. With an electronic cash protocol like that described by Chaum, we show how online services can issue scrip to users as a representation of positive value in their dealings with those users. Like cash in a bank account, this currency may be withdrawn and exchanged with a third party. By holding the currency of that issuer, this third party (who may not have had any previous contact with the issuer) may now access resources with whichever privileges are afforded to those holding the issuer's scrip.
... These actors failed to align themselves with each other to develop and produce a new aircraft. Consequently, the shape and fate of this project were determined by the degree of privacy for project builders to make mistakes without interference by other actors (Stalder, 2002). Latour (1996) explains the demise of Aramis, the revolutionary public transportation system of Paris. ...
... ANT aims to describe the process through which a society of actors tie themselves together into networks built and maintained to achieve a particular goal (Stalder, 2002). Callon (1986) calls this process of actor-network formation and maintenance "translation," which is divided into four moments: problematization, interessement, enrollment, and mobilization. ...
This research aims to investigate the underlying process-based causes of e-government failure. Through the lens of actor-network theory, this paper presents a process-oriented study of the failure of Thailand’s Smart ID Card project. Adding to the extant knowledge on e-government failures that attributes this phenomenon to internal and external factors, this paper argues that the reason the project failed was a cumulative process of failure to create and maintain the actor-network. Policy implications for developing countries to efficiently manage their e-government initiatives are given, such as adopting an open principle in setting e-government project objectives and initiating the actor-network; implementing the e-government target in stages based on prepared environment; allowing an e-government system to evolve according to the degree of readiness in the information and communications technology (ICT) system design, implementation and local adoption; and including large, nationwide projects as part of a national informatization strategy.
... Based on the available literature (Clarke, 1996;Schmitt & Tonin, 2007;Stalder, 2002;Tam & Ho, 2011), we provided an overview check on Mondex payments in its off-line mode. A value transfer transaction is the result of communication between two of the Mondex's chips that are located on smart devices. ...
In this fast-paced era of technology, when all the information moves into the technology, it also affects money. Electronic money is already widely used and is gaining popularity in many countries. But where there is technology, security should be taken into account. Cryptography, a branch of mathematics is concerned with information security. Cryptography covers four main tasks: data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication of data source and user authorization. The dissertation is an integrative work of cryptographic protocols that are reasonably secure and effectively implemented on mobile devices. Based on these concepts, scientific novelty was achieved. The electronic money system developed in the dissertation does not increase the amount of data during transfers when the anonymity between the Bank and the Purchaser is removed. Such a system also retains its main properties: offline payments, money transferability, the Purchaser’s anonymity from the Vendor, and prevention of double spending, traceability and security. The thesis demonstrates that the new electronic money system is secure, trustworthy and efficient. In order to prove it, world recognized methods are used.
... Increasingly it has become a useful form of training for staff from large firms in the area and further away. Although this was not an intended outcome for the manager of the network, since it was funded through the Higher Education Fund for Innovation, it has extended resources thus reflecting important chains of translations whereby actors can acquire new identities, different roles and projects so that the network helps them to achieve diverse goals (Stalder, 2002). The practice has also had significant benefits for the business school as a whole in providing potential candidates for executive courses and although, because of independent funding, networks can often survive without the direct support of their host organizations, it facilitates the chain of translations to have the institution fully enrolled. ...
This chapter discusses industry-academic collaborative networks emanating from business schools in the United Kingdom, informed by an analysis of one such network. We set this presentation in the context of debates about business schools that are currently exercising the business and management academic community. These debates focus upon the extent of the contribution of business schools to management theory and practice. © 2008 by Sage Publications, Inc.
... In this system, a malicious spender can withdraw coins without injecting their actual identity, and can forge a valid coin using the homomorphic property of modular operation. Although the Mondex system developed by the National Westminster Bank in the UK successfully ensures the anonymity of the customer, it is vulnerable to illegal fund transfers which cannot be traced [20]. Bitcoin is a globally successful cryptocurrency following a distributed mode of transaction in which a bank has no role. ...
This paper proposes a new offline electronic payment (e-payment) system that satisfies the major security requirements of e-payment, i.e. anonymity, unlinkability, unforgeability, double spending control, conditional traceability, and fraud prevention. The central idea is the use of Hwang et al.’s RSA-based untraceable blind signature (BS), which disables the link between the e-coin and its owner and ensures the anonymity of both the customer and the merchant. It attaches an expiration, a deposit and the transaction dates to each e-coin in order to manage the database of the bank effectively, to correctly calculate the interest on the e-coin and to aid arbitration if a dishonest customer attempts to double-spend the coin. It also ensures the anonymity of the customer as long as the coin is spent legitimately. Only when a fraudulent e-coin transaction is detected can the bank, with the help of the central authority (a trusted entity), determine the identity of the dishonest customer. The system is referred to as offline since the bank does not need to be concurrently involved in transactions between a customer and a merchant. Finally, analyses of the performance of the prototype and the primary security requirements of the proposed system are also presented.
... However, it has the same problem of KARMA concerning the overhead. Mondex as smart card electronic currency [110] is similar to an issuer bank for currency issuance that stores the value as electronic information on a smart card instead of the physical notes and coins [111]. ...
This comprehensive survey deliberated over the security of electronic payment systems. In our research, we focused on either dominant systems or new attempts and innovations to improve the level of security of the electronic payment systems. This survey consists of the Card-present (CP) transactions and a review of its dominant system i.e. EMV including several researches at Cambridge university to designate variant types of attacks against this standard which demonstrates lack of a secure "offline" authentication method that is one of the main purpose of using the smart cards instead of magnetic stripe cards which are not able to participate in authentication process, the evaluation of the EMV migration from RSA cryptosystem to ECC based cryptosystem 3. The evaluation of the Card-not-present transactions approaches including 3D Secure, 3D SET, SET/EMV and EMV/CAP, the impact of concept of Tokenization and the role of Blind Signatures schemes in electronic cash and E-payment systems, use of quantum key distribution (QKD) in electronic payment systems to achieve unconditional security rather than only computational assurance of the security level by using traditional cryptography, the evaluation of Near Field Communication (NFC) and the contactless payment systems such as Google wallet, Android Pay and Apple Pay, the assessment of the electronic currency and peer to peer payment systems such as Bitcoin. The criterion of our survey for the measurement and the judgment about the quality of the security in electronic payment systems was this quote: "The security of a system is only as strong as its weakest link"
... However, it has the same problem as KARMA concerning the overhead. Mondex as smart card electronic currency [21] is similar to an issuer bank for currency issuance that stores the value as electronic information on a smart card instead of physical notes and coins [22]. However, the remained problem is its inability to determine performing "double-spending" via one of the owners in the chain. ...
Bitcoin was recently introduced as a peer-to-peer electronic currency in order to facilitate transactions outside the traditional financial system. The core of Bitcoin, the Blockchain, is the history of the transactions in the system maintained by all nodes as a distributed shared register. New blocks in the Blockchain contain the last transactions in the system and are added by nodes (miners) after a block mining process that consists in solving a resource consuming proof-of-work (cryptographic puzzle). The reward is a motivation for mining process but also could be an incentive for attacks such as selfish mining. In this paper we propose a solution for one of the major problems in Bitcoin : selfish mining or block withholding attack. This attack is conducted by adversarial or selfish nodes in order to either earn undue rewards or waste the computational power of honest nodes. Contrary to recent solutions, our solution, ZeroBlock, prevents block withholding using a technique free of forgeable timestamps. Moreover, we show that our solution is also compliant with nodes churn.
... In spite of the benefits of e-money (e.g., convenience of payment for consumers and cost reduction for retailers), it was difficult for both consumers and retailers to accept emoney. As a result, it was not extensively utilized [8][9][10][11]. Sahut [12] analyzed factors regarding the influence of the electronic purse system "Moneo" in France using a technology acceptance model; findings indicated that key factors for success were security, anonymity of transactions, cost of transactions, and compound functions. ...
Since electronic money (e-money) brings many benefits to consumers, public transportation companies, retailers, and e-money issuers, greater penetration of e-money into everyday life is desirable. The objective of this research is to provide suggestions for promoting the wide use of e-money. As a first step to achieving this objective, a questionnaire on awareness, frequency, and local environments of e-money use was administered to consumers residing in the Tokyo metropolitan area in Japan. By conducting an exploratory factor analysis on the data obtained, seven factors were extracted. Through a confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling with the 7 factors and 14 observed variables, 2 models were constructed: a use model of transport-type e-money and one of retailer-type e-money. The analysis of these two models showed that the factors “transport convenience,” and “non-necessity” significantly affect the use of transport-type e-money, and the factors “shopping convenience” and “non-necessity” significantly affect the use of retailer-type e-money. The findings suggest that improving consumer perception of these factors is the most important for promoting increased use. Schemes for accelerating consumer use of e-money are provided for public transportation companies, retailers, and e-money issuers.
... The literature examining customer payment preference, and more specifically, preferences involving electronic transactions and cash (e-cash), revolves around the following axes: research that studies the topic on a market level (e.g. [39,40,45]), research that examines specific schemes [20,22,33,41,42], country cases and in particular in relation to e-commerce applications [6,12,17,36,53,54] or the technology/methodology itself (e.g. see [47][48][49]) and finally research that is interested in the user and the factors that affect decision making. ...
In this paper we examine consumer attitudes towards a payment method, which is a key factor affecting the probability of completing a transaction offline and online. More specifically, we constructed a model that surveyed the offline and online usage of prepaid e-cash, debit cards, credit cards and cash. User perceptions of the attractiveness of e-cash and various traditional payment means were also empirically assessed. Consumer attitudes towards a payment technology were found to be influential on users’ perceptions in both online and offline environments. User perceptions of offline purchases with a payment technology had significant and positive effects on the corresponding online usage perceptions. The effects of our research model are contingent on the income level of users. Our findings have significant implications, as they could help shed light on why consumers abandon their shopping carts and do not complete their transactions, which could potentially play a significant role when it comes to designing applications targeting specific consumer segments.
... The pressure from technology companies to implement national ID card systems has been strong and persistent over a number of years. In the 1980s and 1990s, for example, the UKbased Mondex corporation made several trials of multi-purpose cards for commercial use, but none was fully successful (Stalder 2002). However, their technology is now part of the consortium providing the Hong Kong system. ...
New ID card systems are appearing in countries around the world, based on biometrics and using searchable databases. High
technology companies promote these, governments seek them for administrative efficiency and post-9/11 demands for ‘security’
provide a rationale for their introduction. The surveillance issue is not so much the cards themselves but the national registries
that provide for processing the personal data. These foster a ‘culture of control’ whose reach expands geographically as identification
measures are harmonized and integrated across national borders. They also encourage less inclusive notions of citizenship,
and facilitate the sorting of ‘desirable’ and ‘undesirable’ mobilities, based on the criteria of ‘identity management’. The
social sorting capacities of new IDs are underplayed, as are the implications for governance of ‘multiple function’ ID systems,
with consequences for social justice.
... Electronic cash is a method of payment in which a unique identification number is associated with a specific amount of money. Electronic cash is often referred to as e-cash or cyber cash (Jewson 2001, Wright 2002, Stalder 2002, Chou et al. 2004. This method was developed as an alternative to the use of credit cards for Internet purchases of goods or services. ...
It is commonly believed that good security improves trust, and that the perceptions of good security and trust will ultimately increase the use of electronic commerce. In fact, customers’ perceptions of the security of e-payment systems have become a major factor in the evolution of electronic commerce in markets. In this paper, we examine issues related to e-payment security from the viewpoint of customers. This study proposes a conceptual model that delineates the determinants of consumers’ perceived security and perceived trust, as well as the effects of perceived security and perceived trust on the use of e-payment systems. To test the model, structural equation modeling is employed to analyze data collected from 219 respondents in Korea. This research provides a theoretical foundation for academics and also practical guidelines for service providers in dealing with the security aspects of e-payment systems.
... Scholars in the social construction of technology (SCOT) and actor-network theory traditions have emphasized the role of controversies in shaping technological change (Abbate, 2000; Callon, 2006; Gillespie, 2006; Misa, 1992). Disputes over technical decisions and the mechanisms employed by actors to resolve them have become a privileged site to explore the contingent process of technological development (Humphreys, 2005; Kling & Dunlop, 1993; Spitz & Hunter, 2005; Stalder, 2002). In their seminal study on the social construction of the bicycle, Pinch and Bijker (1987) argue that artifacts can stabilize when actors involved in a controversy see their problems as being solved --a mechanism they call rhetorical closure --or when the central problem of a dispute is redefined in different terms. ...
Research in science and technology studies has devoted significant attention to technological controversies and the mechanisms that actors employ to resolve them. This article contributes to this literature by developing the notion of co-optation as a dynamic of closure. Co-optation is conceptualized as the incorporation of an actor or group into the organizational structure of another group in order to avert threat or adapt to a context of change. Drawing on the history of the Internet in Costa Rica from 1990 to 2005, this study examines a controversy between two distinct models for the development of computing networks in this country: the academic, sociotechnical network and the state-sponsored, commercial project. The analysis shows that the dispute between these groups ended when the Costa Rican government co-opted leading figures of the academic network into its structure. The notion of co-optation helps us theorize shifts in the configuration of relations between groups that lead to the partial resolution of conflicts and have important consequences for the development of technological infrastructures.
... However, both KARMA and PPay may incur a large overhead when the rate of transactions is high. Mondex is a smart-card electronic currency [27]. It preserves a central bank's role in the generation and issuance of electronic currency. ...
Anonymity in Bitcoin, a peer-to-peer electronic currency system, is a
complicated issue. Within the system, users are identified by public-keys only.
An attacker wishing to de-anonymize its users will attempt to construct the
one-to-many mapping between users and public-keys and associate information
external to the system with the users. Bitcoin tries to prevent this attack by
storing the mapping of a user to his or her public-keys on that user's node
only and by allowing each user to generate as many public-keys as required. In
this chapter we consider the topological structure of two networks derived from
Bitcoin's public transaction history. We show that the two networks have a
non-trivial topological structure, provide complementary views of the Bitcoin
system and have implications for anonymity. We combine these structures with
external information and techniques such as context discovery and flow analysis
to investigate an alleged theft of Bitcoins, which, at the time of the theft,
had a market value of approximately half a million U.S. dollars.
This paper proposes a secure offline electronic (e-) payment scheme by adopting Schnorr's untraceable blind signature (BS). Thereby, to satisfy the essential security requirements of e-payment systems, it requires much more simple computations and becomes more practical than many existing schemes. Other considerations are: to prevent the forgery of e-coin, the Bank is only the lawful entity to produce the valid e-coin; and others can verify its correctness. To confirm no swindling, the e-coin owner also sticks her private signing key with the e-coin before spending it as the payment. Hence, through the commitment with challenge-response of Schnorr's BS, the merchant can verify the spent e-coin, and the trusted authority can identify the dishonest spender if multiple spending occurs. Moreover, it embeds three distinct information of date, namely expiration, deposit, and transaction dates with every e-coin. Thereby, it minimizes the size of the Bank's database, correctly calculates the interest of the e-coin, and helps in arbiter if multiple spending, respectively. Finally, it evaluates the performance and analyzes essential security requirements of the proposed scheme, plus studies a comparison with existing ones.
We design and implement a secure cryptocurrency exchange by combining secure web programming practices with Bitcoin. In this work, the Amazon EC2 cloud is used to store Bitcoin and host the web server. While building the system, we employ a comprehensive coverage of security features including symmetric key encryption, SSL certificates for digital signatures, SHA-512 for hashing, password revalidation against session hijacking attacks, and two factor authentication. The implementation is tested in an experimental setup and is compared with similar applications currently available. The tests demonstrate that our system proves to offer enhanced security outperforming its peers.
رسالتى في الماجستير عن تقييم فاعلية النقود الالكترونية على البنك المركزى دراسة حالة البنك المركزى المصري
Recently, Fan et al. proposed a novel e-cash scheme which allows a user to recover the e-cash he lost. They claimed their e-cash possesses properties of anonymity, unlinkability (i.e. untraceability), bank-off-line payment, double-spending detection, and anonymity revocation. The e-cash untraceability is greatly related to users' privacy and indicates that no one including the issuer bank can link e-cash to any user when the e-cash is legally spent. Although, the authors have formally proved the unlinkability of their scheme, we still found a loophole to compromise user's privacy. That is, an issuer bank or an attacker who intrudes the issuer bank's system can link e-cash to a user by collecting e-cash withdrawal and deposit transaction messages. This may make the user's shopping behaviors or location information exposed.
This study aims at describing and analyzing the network formation of technological innovation. Studying this research phenomenon as processes generally and as sociomaterial processes specifically calls for a holistic and process driven research approach. This approach is captured by adopting material constructionist research philosophy and consequently materially relativist style of thinking as well as the basic ideology of case study research. These research philosophical stances give an opportunity for me to become sensitized to materiality, process, conflicts, and interests when scrutinizing the network formation of technological innovation. The study is situated in the context of construction; I draw analytical insights from many sources and use these in describing and analyzing the network formation of technological innovation. These sources include the network studies in business context – business networks, social networks and entrepreneurial networks – as well as actor-network theory and the empirical case called the intelligent paper in the study period of approximately 13 years, thus from 1997 to 2009. The intelligent paper is a technological innovation and a network as I regard it in this study. It concerns cost-effective, high-volume and roll-to-roll production of printable optics and electronics which enables novel, intelligent functionalities onto printed matter. It is part of the emerging printed intelligence markets, which is located at the crossroads of several industries, namely paper and printing, optics, and electronics.
I identify two ways to describe and analyze the network formation of technological innovation, namely the concepts of network trajectory and translation. The first is the concept of network trajectory. It enables capturing simultaneously a network, that is, actors and their relationships and a path of movement of this network across space and time. From the previous network studies in business context, I identify three network trajectories: the goal-based, opportunity-based and integrated network trajectories. The contemplation of these trajectories leads to three shortcomings of this view: (1) heavy emphasis has been put on humans and their relationships as principal carriers of technological innovation activities, (2) non-humans and their relationships have only been treated as instruments in these activities, and (3) the human parties have rather deterministically and linearly been seen to influence and be influenced by the networks within which they are embedded while engaging in technological innovation activities.
These shortcomings are transcended in this study by introducing actor-network theory and adopting the concept of translation. The concept of translation shifts the focus onto sociomateriality involved in the network formation of technological innovation. It allows detecting the network formation of technological innovation as continually unfolding sociomaterial processes during which some actors – by becoming involved in network formation/technological innovation and chained together in a logical succession – succeed in pursuing a character while others remain objects of other actors’ actions. At the same time, the underlying power relationships between them become revealed.
In the empirical part of the study, I discuss the case of the intelligent paper using heuristically Callon’s (1986a) four-phase translation model. Additionally, I complement the model with introducing certain relational and somewhat metaphorical words (i.e., pack and filtering). As a result, I narrate the network formation of technological innovation. This narration provides a multifaceted and empirically grounded understanding of the network formation of technological innovation, which is full of noise and disturbances. It displays several competing heterogeneous networks and consequently several competing packs including multiple human and nonhuman actors, their actions, and their interconnected relationships to each other while forming the network and consequently the technological innovation. It also reveals multiple phases during which these heterogeneous networks get continually reconfigured, transformed, and finally revitalised into one more coherent heterogeneous network as well as different strategies through which actors continually try to stabilise these configurations.
Interpreting the case of the intelligent paper through the concepts of network trajectory and translation, I build a revised understanding of the network formation of technological innovation. I broaden the networks as processes view generally and the strong process view to networks specifically by arguing that the network of technological innovation concerns continually unfolding sociomaterial processes and consequently continually unfolding heterogeneous networks (packs), which are equipped with entanglements of humans (individuals, firms and organizations), nonhumans (e.g., machines, methods and apparatuses of many sorts) and their interconnected relationships. The formation of these heterogeneous networks plays out as a process of translation and gets depicted as a sociomaterial network trajectory.
More specifically, this study contributes to actor-network theory by providing a more refined understanding of the phases and sub-phases involved in the process of translation. In doing so, it also elaborates the use of certain relational and somewhat metaphorical words not previously used in actor-network theoretical accounts (or network studies in business context), namely packs as heterogeneous networks and filtering. The study also provides a few strategies to lock actors into their places in the network as well as to keep them locked. These strategies have not previously been discussed in actor-network theoretical studies while scrutinizing the translation process, namely the technology developers’ personal career development opportunities and the collaborative work. Additionally, the study enhances the understanding on concrete development paths opened up and guided by the nonhuman actors in technological innovation processes.
Besides pursuing the thought that the network of technological innovation concerns continually unfolding sociomaterial processes and consequently continually unfolding heterogeneous networks (packs), this study also contributes to the network studies in business context by providing the sociomaterial network trajectory. This trajectory complements the other three network trajectories identified from the network studies in business context in terms of heterogeneous networks and the continual power plays of actors occurring while forming the network of technological. It also offers a broader explanatory frame to potential and actual courses of network formation of technological innovation.
The study has implications for practitioners who wish to better master networked innovation activities they are engaged with. These implications help them to better understand long-term, heterogeneous technological innovation processes and especially the important role of nonhumans in, and the effects of the collaborative work and the individuals’ career development opportunities on, these processes.
Secure electronic payment instruments play an important role in retail electronic commerce. As in most countries, people in Taiwan often use credit cards for payments on Internet shopping. However, the information contained in the card includes sensitive data like card number, valid date, and CVC (Card Verification Code) which all easily suffer data leakage, or impersonation attacks. This may cause the banks, merchants, or user to suffer serious losses. In this paper, we propose an ID-based untraceable electronic cash without card number or personal information to mitigate the risk of data leakage. Meanwhile, our method also considers preventing the anonymity abuse and adds the function of anonymity revocation through a trust party. In addition, due to the proposed is an ID-based scheme, it has the advantage of PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) free and thus save the certificate management cost.
This paper analyzes the factors to promote the diffusion of electronic money in Japan by focusing on the interfirm networks. We found that many firms with a variety of business domains including finance, vendor, retailer, transportation, and mobile phone carrier contribute to the development of the market. This development process has three stages. The first stage is trial where contact type IC cards are used. The second is commercialization of electronic money using contactless IC cards. The third is rapid and widespread dissemination of electronic money using contactless IC cards. Different actors play a crucial role at different stages. Moreover, a hub leader firm invited a newcomer to the network in each period. These collective actions enabled the rapid dissemination of electronic money in Japan. We discuss the intention and strategy of such hub leader firms.
The emergence of new retail channels such as the mobile commerce creates requirements for new payment instruments to enable feasible and convenient transactions in these channels. The objective of this study is to explore security services when the subscriber makes a payment by mobile device. This study regards the security services as authentication, access control and communication and analyses the relationship between mobile payment and the securities services. Through this study, this paper would focus on the mobile payment by estimating the security services among other applications.
This is a companion paper to Van Hove (2007). The latter paper builds on 16 firm-level case studies to examine the drivers behind the internationalization efforts of e-purse developers. Specifically, the paper tries to find out whether the approach proposed by Sarkar et al. (1999) for the telecom sector can be transposed to another network industry. Van Hove (2007) obviously only uses fragments of the underlying case studies. This paper offers all 16 case studies in full. Van Hove (2007) also uses a novel multi-dimensional framework to position e-purse operators at two points in time, and in this way detect patterns of strategic change. This paper explains the positions of the players in these figures in more detail, and also applies the framework a third time (for the period after the sale of Proton World International).
This paper discusses the need for a framework to diagnose the ongoing Information Technology (IT) transfer process in a developing country, namely, Malaysia. A framework called Network Information Technology Transfer (NITT), which makes use of Actor-Network Theory (ANT) and IT transfer life cycle, is proposed. The framework views technology transfer as a translation process. The paper also discusses the application of NITT in a case study of smart-card technology transfer in Malaysia. Based on the experiences in the case study, NITT is found useful for diagnosing the root of the problems that causes delays in the transfer of technology and for monitoring the progress of the transfer process. Recommendations based on the analysis using NITT take into account the local situation in terms of actors involved in the process, the organisational structure and the organisational culture that characterised interrelationships between actors.
To date, many important threads of information privacy research have developed, but these threads have not been woven together into a cohesive fabric. This paper provides an interdisciplinary review of privacy-related research in order to enable a more cohesive treatment. With a sample of 320 privacy articles and 128 books and book sections, we classify previous literature in two ways: (1) using an ethics-based nomenclature of normative, purely descriptive, and empirically descriptive, and (2) based on their level of analysis: individual, group, organizational, and societal. Based upon our analyses via these two classification approaches, we identify three major areas in which previous research contributions reside: the conceptualization of information privacy, the relationship between information privacy and other constructs, and the contextual nature of these relationships. As we consider these major areas, we draw three overarching conclusions. First, there are many theoretical developments in the body of normative and purely descriptive studies that have not been addressed in empirical research on privacy. Rigorous studies that either trace processes associated with, or test implied assertions from, these value-laden arguments could add great value. Second, some of the levels of analysis have received less attention in certain contexts than have others in the research to date. Future empirical studies — both positivist and interpretive — could profitably be targeted to these under-researched levels of analysis. Third, positivist empirical studies will add the greatest value if they focus on antecedents to privacy concerns and on actual outcomes. In that light, we recommend that researchers be alert to an overarching macro-model that we term APCO (Antecedents -> Privacy -> Concerns -> Outcomes).
In the Security-Liberty balance, individuals would weigh the benefits of government surveillance against what the cost would be to our civil liberties. Drawing on Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), this study empirically operationalises and tests citizens' attitudes towards internet government surveillance and discusses predictors of these attitudes that help elicit the notion of Security-Liberty balance through a survey study. We propose that individuals' internet self-efficacy and social awareness affect perceived need for government surveillance and government intrusion concerns. The study presents empirically tested relationships which are important for informing the debate and developing well-balanced policies of security protection and civil liberties.
This paper deals with the issue of how the market structure in banking affects the choice of means of payment. In particular, the demand for cash is analysed from this point of view. The analysis is based on a simple spatial transactions model in which the banks’ optimization problem is solved. The solution quite clearly shows that monopoly banks have an incentive to restrict the number of ATMs to a minimum. In general, the number of ATMs depends on competitiveness in the banking sector. The predictions of the theoretical analysis are tested using panel data from 20 OECD countries for the period 1988–2003. Empirical analysis reveals that there is a strong and robust relationship between the number of ATM networks and the number of ATMs (in relation to population). It also reveals that the demand for cash depends both on the number of ATMs and ATM networks and on the popularity of other means of payment. Thus, the use of cash can be fairly well explained in a transaction demand framework, assuming proper controls for market structure and technical environment.
IT infrastructures coupled with BPR initiatives have the potential of supporting and enabling new organiza- tional forms and helping firms face the challenges of globalization. The management literature gives prescrip- tions of how to set up, implement, and use infrastructures to reach a new IT capability; diminish transaction costs; and obtain competitive advantage. However, the scant empirical basis of such literature goes hand in hand with the lack of a theory linking the deployment of infrastructure to the nature of the business and the industry. This study of the deployment and use of infrastructures in six large multinationals sets the ground for a contingency approach to the whole issue. The different implementation processes and applications reported by the case studies suggest that there is much more variety than the "one best way" recommended by the literature. The economic theories of standards and of the firm as a repository of knowledge are good candidates to explain qualitatively the empirical evidence.
IT infrastructures coupled with BPR initiatives have the potential of supporting and enabling new organisational forms and help firms face the challenges of globalisation. The management literature gives prescriptions of how to set up, implement and use infrastructures to reach a new IT capability, diminish transaction costs and obtain competitive advantage. However, the scant empirical basis of such literature goes hand in hand with the lack of a theory linking the deployment of infrastructure to the nature of the business and the industry. This study of the deployment and use of infrastructures in six large multinationals prepares the ground for a contingency approach to the whole issue. The different implementation processes and applications reported by the case studies suggest that there is much more variety than a ‘one best way’ recommended by the literature. The theory of the firm as a repository of knowledge processes is a good candidate to explain qualitatively the empirical evidence, and provides a contingency framework that can be further tested.
This paper uses a unique data set covering 12 national systems to document the current state of electronic purse projects in Europe. Specifically, it presents and compares rates of penetration and use, and analyses their evolution over time. While one or two EPs perform significantly better than the others, retailer acceptance and consumer uptake invariably fall short of expectations. This does not bode well for the use of EPs on the Internet, and particularly since the virtual world presents a number of additional hurdles. On the other hand, it may also present additional opportunities.
As the use of electronic cash soars, governments will face growing difficulty controlling monetary policy, taxation, financial regulation and crime. Will this be a lethal blow to national autonomy? Is anyone thinking about it?
Les sciences sociales ont inventé toute une série de concepts pour surmonter l'opposition entre action individuelle et collective. Un des apports de l'anthropologie des sciences et des techniques (AST) est de montrer que cette opposition ne constitue qu'une des configurations construites par l'action et sa distribution. Pour restituer la diversité de ces configurations l'AST a élaboré quatre principes. Le premier affirme le caractère hétérogène du social. Le deuxième conduit à considérer que toute entité est une réalité assimilable au réseau des éléments hétérogènes. Le troisième affirme que les entités sont à géométrie variable et qu'elles réorientent l'action dans des directions imprévisibles. Le quatrième propose que tout arrangement social stabilisé est à la fois un point (un individu) et un réseau (un collectif). L'analyse sociologique, si elle veut surmonter l'opposition entre individualisme et holisme, doit donc se donner pour objet l'étude de ces différentes configurations hybrides. /// The social sciences have devised a series of strategies in order to overcome the division between individual and collective action. However, science, technology and society (STS) has shown that this distinction is only one possible configuration for action and its distribution. In order to investigate other possible configurations, STS proposes four principles: that the social is heterogeneous in character; that all entities are networks of heterogeneous elements; that these networks are both variable in geometry and in principle unpredictable; and that every stable social arrangement is simultaneously a point (an individual) and a network (a collective). If sociological analysis is to overcome the individualism/holism division it should attend to the range of hybrid configurations.
An increasing interest is being shown, not least by IS researchers, in the socio-technical approach known as actor-network theory. The purpose of this paper is to assess the current and potential future contribution of the theory to IS research. A brief review of key concepts of the theory is given, some IS literature which uses the theory is described, and significant criticisms of the theory are examined in some detail. Finally, implications are drawn on the potential value of the theory for IS research in the future, with the broad conclusion being that it has much to offer in both theoretical and methodological terms.
If laboratories and research sites are to the twentieth century what monasteries were to the twelfth, then the sources of their power and efficacy remain a mystery. How is it that the ideas and writings that issue from these institutions are able to revolutionise, if only gradually, conditions of work in industry, the universe of consumer goods and lifestyles? How are the discoveries made in Stanford, Gif-sur-Yvette, and Cambridge diffused such that they become universally known and recognised? How are certain technical devices, shaped in research departments of French or English companies, able to conquer markets throughout the world? Anthropological studies of the laboratory have shown that nothing exceptional occurs within the walls of research centres themselves which could account for their influence. These studies have also shown that the force and generality of results obtained cannot be attributed to the existence of a specific scientific method (Latour and Woolgar, 1979; Knorr-Cetina, 1981; Lynch, 1985). Though scientists give certain activities a higher priority than others (see Chapter 3), the former do not possess greater rigour or a logic which enable an observer to distinguish them from the latter.
lost the ability to think or speak coherently words which the tongue has to employ in order to express any kind of daily opinion decompose in my mouth like rotten mushrooms.” Hugo von Hofmannstahl
An electronic money revolution and an electronic cash revolution are both transferring banking power from governments and banks into the hands of the average citizen.
This paper uses a unique data set covering 12 national systems to document the current state of electronic purse projects in Europe. Specifically, it presents and compares rates of penetration and use, and analyses their evolution over time. While one or two EPs perform significantly better than the others, retailer acceptance and consumer uptake invariably fall short of expectations. This does not bode well for the use of EPs on the Internet, and particularly since the virtual world presents a number of additional hurdles. On the other hand, it may also present additional opportunities.
These last few months the move toward the standardization of electronic purses has gained considerable momentum. Card issuers and newspapers present this move as crucial for cross-border transactions and especially urgent for the euro-zone. Starting from the network externalities theory, I argue that interoperability is more important for electronic commerce over the Internet than for real-world cross-border transactions.
Futurists have been speculating about the prospects for a cashless society for many years, and such predictions became more frequent following the introduction of "smart" cards - cards containing a computer chip - in the mid-1970s. One smart-card application of particular interest to central banks is the electronic purse or wallet, which carries a preloaded monetary value and can be used as a means of payment for multiple small-value purchases. This report provides an overview of current major electronic purse projects and other prepaid card applications around the world and examines selected policy issues. It is possible that electronic purses will be used to reduce the cost of small-value transactions. Although implementation of the innovation has been slow because of high start-up costs and uncertainty regarding acceptability of the device to the average consumer, a large number of purse trials are under way around the world. The soundness of both electronic purse products and their issuers could be a matter of interest to central banks and other financial regulatory bodies. Furthermore, national governments may stand to lose a substantial amount of revenue associated with the issuance of coinage and paper currency. The magnitude of such revenue losses would be difficult to estimate, however, both because of limited quantitative understanding of the various current uses of bank notes and because of uncertainty as to the relative attractiveness of electronic purses to consumers and merchants. While it is doubtful that physical currency will fall into disuse in the foreseeable future, growing familiarity with smart-card technology and the substantial reductions in the unit production costs of smart cards in recent years have nevertheless improved the prospects for a feasible electronic replacement for cash. The report concludes that over the next few years, the use of smart-card technology for single-purpose prepaid cards and for debit and credit cards is likely to become more widespread in Canada. Electronic purses may take somewhat longer to come into general use, given that substantial changes will be required both in the payments habits of consumers and in the payments infrastructure of financial institutions and retailers.
New technologies have emerged that have the potential to change
many fundamental principles associated with a cash oriented
society-indeed, the whole way we conduct all kinds of financial
transactions and operate all payment systems. As things stand, law
enforcement agencies around the world recognize that “following
the money” leads to the top of criminal organizations. Criminals
have to move funds through the financial system to hide and use the
proceeds of their crimes. Currency is anonymous, but it is difficult to
hide and transport in large amounts. New electronic payment systems may
well alter this. The speed that makes these systems efficient and the
anonymity that makes them secure are desirable characteristics to both
the public and law enforcement agencies. Yet the same characteristics
make these systems equally attractive to those who seek to use them for
illicit purpose. Because of these potential vulnerabilities, the
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), a branch of the US
Department of the Treasury, has been meeting with developers of advanced
electronic payment systems, our law enforcement and regulatory partners
in the United States and abroad, and representatives of the financial
services industry to examine how criminals might use these new systems
to move and launder the proceeds of their illegal activities
Designers of cryptographic systems are at a disadvantage to most other engineers, in that information on how their systems fail is hard to get: their major users have traditionally been government agencies, which are very secretive about their mistakes. In this article, we present the results of a survey of the failure modes of retail banking systems, which constitute the next largest application of cryptology. It turns out that the threat model commonly used by cryptosystem designers was wrong: most frauds were not caused by cryptanalysis or other technical attacks, but by implementation errors and management failures. This suggests that a paradigm shift is overdue in computer security; we look at some of the alternatives, and see some signs that this shift may be getting under way. 1 Introduction Cryptology, the science of code and cipher systems, is used by governments, banks and other organisations to keep information secure. It is a complex subject, and its national security ov...
An increasing number of systems, from pay-TV to electronic purses, rely on the tamper resistance of smartcards and other security processors. We describe a number of attacks on such systems --- some old, some new and some that are simply little known outside the chip testing community. We conclude that trusting tamper resistance is problematic; smartcards are broken routinely, and even a device that was described by a government signals agency as `the most secure processor generally available ' turns out to be vulnerable. Designers of secure systems should consider the consequences with care. 1 Tamperproofing of cryptographic equipment Many early cryptographic systems had some protection against the seizure of key material. Naval code books were weighted; rotor machine setting sheets were printed using water soluble ink; and some one-time pads were printed on cellulose nitrate, so that they would burn rapidly if lit [20].
We describe techniques for extracting protected software and data from smartcard processors. This includes manual microprobing, laser cutting, focused ion-beam manipulation, glitch attacks, and power analysis. Many of these methods have already been used to compromise widely-fielded conditional-access systems, and current smartcards offer little protection against them. We give examples of low-cost protection concepts that make such attacks considerably more difficult.
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