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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach

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Mark H. Davis at Eckerd College
Mark H. Davis
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Describes the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and its relationships with measures of social functioning, self-esteem, emotionality, and sensitivity to others. 677 male and 667 female undergraduates served as Ss. Each of the 4 IRI subscales displayed a distinctive and predictable pattern of relationships with these measures, as well as with previous unidimensional empathy measures. Findings provide evidence for a multidimensional approach to empathy. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
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... Иймд эмпати чадварын олон талыг судлах үүднээс Дэвис (1980) "Interpersonal reactivity index" асуулгыг хөгжүүлсэн ба анхны хувилбар нь 4 дэд үзүүлэлтийг тодорхойлох 45 асуулттайгаас 28 болж шинэчлэгдсэн байдаг (Davis, 1980). Тодруулбал, эмпатик санаа зовнил (empathic concern), бусдын оронд өөрийгөө тавих (perspective-taking), хувийн стрессийг мэдрэх (personal distress), хийсвэрлэн төсөөлөх чадвар (fantasy) гэсэн 4 дэд үзүүлэлтийн хүрээнд эмпати чадварыг тодорхойлж гаргадаг ажээ (Davis, 1983;Raimondi et al., 2023). ...
... Энэхүү асуулга нь нийт 28 асуултаас бүрдэх ба 4 дэд үзүүлэлтийг хэмждэг (Davis, 1980;1983). Үүнд: "perspective taking" буюу бусдын байр сууринаас харах чадвар, "fantasy" буюу хийсвэрлэн төсөөлөх чадвар, "empathic concern" буюу эмпатик санаа зовнил, "personal distress" буюу хувийн зовлонг мэдрэх чадвар багтана. ...
... Эмпати чадварын олон талыг судалдаг "Хүн хоорондын хариу үйлдлийн индекс" асуулгын Дэвисийн (1980,1983) Судалгааны үр дүнгээс үзэхэд эмпати чадварыг тодорхойлох "Хүн хоорондын хариу үйлдлийн индекс" асуулгын ерөнхий боловсролын сургуулийн 10-12 ангийн сурагчдыг түүвэрлэн үзэхэд 4 хүчин зүйл бүхий 18 асуулттай хувилбар нь найдварт болон хүчин төгөлдөр байдал хангагдсан хэмжүүр болох нь тогтоогдсон. Тодруулбал, үндсэн асуулгын 4 хүчин зүйл бүхий 28 асуултаас (Davis, 1983) хүчин зүйл тайлбарлах болон хүчин зүйл батлах шинжилгээний үр дүнгээр 10 нь тухайн насныханд тохирохгүй байсан. Энэхүү судалгааны үр дүнд судлаачийн болон судлуулагчийн хүчин зүйлс нөлөөлсөн байх боломжтой юм. ...
ЭМПАТИ ЧАДВАРЫГ ТОДОРХОЙЛОХ АСУУЛГЫН ПСИХОМЕТРИК ЧАНАРЫГ СУДАЛСАН НЬ PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE MONGOLIAN VERSION OF THE INTERPERSONAL REACTIVITY INDEX
Article
  • Jun 2024
381 өсвөр насны хүүхдээс судалгаа авсан. Хүчин зүйл тайлбарлах (EFA) болон хүчин зүйл батлах (CFA) шинжилгээний үр дүнд анхны 28 асуулттайгаас 18 асуулт бүхий хувилбар нь 4 хүчин зүйлээ илүү тохиромжтой илэрхийлж байгааг тогтоосон. Ийнхүү M-IRI асуулгын найдварт чанарыг шалгаж өсвөр насны хүүхдийг судлахад ашиглах боломжтой, найдвартай арга болохыг баталсан. Түлхүүр үг: эмпати чадвар, хүн хоорондын хариу үйлдлийн индекс (iri), монгол хэл дээрх хувилбар, эмпати чадварын олон тал, өсвөр нас Холбоо барих зохиогч: Б.Болдсүрэн Empathy is an important skill in social communication, and a high score of empathy is associated with relationships with others, psychological well-being, and high life satisfaction. There is no methodology for studying aspects of empathy that have been translated and validated in the Mongolian context yet. In this study, we evaluate the psychometric properties of the Mongolian version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (M-IRI). The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) was translated into Mongolian following the method committee approach, and an expert panel working in their field assessed its content validity. The final version of the questionnaire was prepared and administered to 381 teenagers in four schools located in the capital of Mongolia. The exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that the four-factor structure 18-item (M-IRI) is better than the original version 28-item. Thus, the 18-item M-IRI questionnaire demonstrates acceptable internal consistency and is a reliable measure for Mongolian adolescents.
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... Moral studies using VR have shown that VR technology enhances perspective-taking ability with regard to empathy (Bailenson, 2018;Herrera, Bailenson, Weisz, Ogle, & Zaki, 2018;van Loon, Bailenson, Zaki, Bostick, & Willer, 2018). This has been accomplished using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983). In another study by Francis et al. (2016), VRMDD was shown to increase pulses, which predicted that non-utilitarian judgments were being conducted. ...
... Using VR technology can promote participants to care more for others (Terbeck et al., 2021) and improve children's social skills (Kellems, Yakubova, Morris, Wheatley, & Chen, 2021). VR role-playing has also been shown to enhance the degree of "fantasy" experienced in the IRI (Davis, 1983;Fujimoto, Fujisawa, & Murota, 2023). VR role-playing is the act of wearing an avatar in a virtual space and acting out that role accordingly. ...
... Microsoft Forms was used to administer pre-and post-tests. Before and after the discussions, the SPS scale and the IRI (Davis, 1983) were administered. The laboratory was ventilated, and the experimental apparatus was disinfected with alcohol. ...
COMPARING ONLINE AND VIRTUAL REALITY MORAL DILEMMA DISCUSSIONS: FOCUSING ON MORALITY, PERSPECTIVE-TAKING, AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
This study explored the educational effects of online and virtual reality moral dilemma discussions (OMDD and VRMDD, respectively) among university students. In Study 1, participants were randomly assigned to an OMDD or VRMDD condition, participating in both conditions in acquainted pairs. The acquainted pairs discussed Heinz's dilemmas (1) and (2). The Standards for Public Space (SPS) and Communication Skill (CS) scales were measured separately before and after the experiment. Results revealed significant differences in the main effect of both conditions for the SPS subscales. Participants scored higher on the SPS egocentric and peer standards subscales in the pre-test than in the post-test, which had significant main effects at the time of the survey. OMDD and VRMDD practice showed decreased SPS subscale scores with a narrow social perspective (egocentric and peer standards) and were not related to the subscales with a wider social perspective (regional standards, care for others, and public values) and the CS scale. Similar to Study 1, VRMDD was conducted in the same manner in Study 2. SPS and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index scales were measured before and after the experiment. The results of Study 1 were replicated, and VR perspective-taking was confirmed.
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... The study of empathy in this field seems more appropriate from Davis's (1983) multidimensional model. This model differentiates between cognitive empathy (Fantasy and Perspective Taking), which is the ability to understand how others feel, and affective empathy (Empathic Concern and Personal Distress), which corresponds to the vicarious experience of feelings expressed by others. ...
... The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1983), adapted to Spanish by Mestre et al. (2004), was administered in this study. It consists of 28 items that assess cognitive and emotional dimensions of empathy, including Perspective Taking (7 items), Fantasy (7 items), Empathic Concern (7 items), and Personal Distress (7 items). ...
Teen dating violence: predictive role of sexism and the mediating role of empathy and assertiveness based on gender
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
Background Despite efforts to prevent dating violence among adolescents, it remains a major problem with multiple negative consequences. Sexist beliefs, empathy, and assertiveness influence teen dating violence (TDV) with potential gender differences. Objectives (1) Determine gender disparities in TDV perpetration and victimization, including relational, verbal-emotional, and physical aspects, as well as roles; (2) Analyze gender variations in sexism, empathy, assertiveness, and their relationship with TDV; (3) Establish a predictive model of sexism in TDV with empathy and assertiveness as mediators for both genders. Participants and setting A sample of 862 secondary school students (50.2% females, 49.8% males; mean age: 14.1 years) from diverse regions in Spain participated. Methods TDV was measured using the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI) in a cross-sectional study. Sexism, empathy, and assertiveness were assessed using the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), and Assertiveness Inventory for Students Questionnaire (AISQ), respectively. Results Females exhibited higher TDV perpetration, specifically verbal-emotional TDV. Males showed more relational TDV and hostile sexism, while no benevolent sexism differences were observed. Mediation models demonstrated sexism, assertiveness, and empathy as individual predictors of TDV, with varying mediation effects. Personal distress partially mediates the link between sexism and TDV perpetration or victimization in males, while practical personal ability mediates between sexism and TDV perpetration in females. Conclusion Sexism predicts both perpetration and victimization in TDV, linked to empathy and assertiveness. Notably, specific dimensions of empathy and assertiveness mediate the connection between sexism and TDV, displaying gender-specific patterns. Preventive measures should consider personal distress in male perpetrators/victims and practical personal ability in female perpetrators.
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... The use of virtual worlds offers unique opportunities for developing empathy, which is required to feel what another person is experiencing. Perspective-taking, often through role-playing, is seen as one of the most effective ways to achieve this [24]. Empathy can be categorized into three types or stages: empathic resonance, empathic reasoning, and empathic response [25]. ...
Enhancing Language Learning and Intergroup Empathy through Multi-user Interaction and Simulations in a Virtual World
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
This study explores the impact of multi-user interaction, group work, and simulations within virtual worlds on language learning and the development of intergroup empathy. Two distinct research projects were conducted, involving a total of 241 participants aged 19-45. The language learning study engaged 116 participants in diverse interactive experiences, while the intercultural study had 125 participants collaborating in multicultural groups and participating in perspective-taking simulations. Both studies employed qualitative data collection methods, including surveys, interviews, and observations. The findings suggest that the combination of networking strategies, collaborative learning, and simulations within virtual worlds contributes to improvements in learners' language proficiency, confidence, and empathy towards diverse social groups. Participants reported increased motivation and engagement, attributed to the immersive and interactive nature of the virtual environments. The studies highlight the importance of collaboration and reflection in facilitating language acquisition and intercultural understanding. Technical challenges were identified as potential barriers to implementation. The results demonstrate the potential of virtual worlds to enhance language education and foster empathy in diverse societies, offering valuable insights for educators and researchers. However, the findings may be limited by the specific contexts and sample sizes of the studies, warranting further research to explore the generalizability and long-term impact of virtual world interventions. not exaggerate the main conclusions.
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... Interpersonal Reactivity Index. This index (Davis, 1983) measures empathy using four subscales: perspective-taking (PT), fantasy (FA), empathic concerns (EC), and personal distress (PD). Each subscale has three items. ...
EXAMINING THE EDUCATIONAL EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING USING A GIANT MAZE IN VIRTUAL REALITY
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • May 2024
In this study, I compared VR/HMD and VR/desktop conditions in a cooperative learning situation using a giant maze and examined the differences in educational effects. The participants were 24 female university students. Participants formed pairs and attempted to reach the goal by attempting to complete a giant maze in the VR collaborative learning material "ayalab Shall we walk?" Group cohesion, interpersonal reactivity (perspective-taking, fantasy, empathic concerns, and personal pain), and critical thinking attitude (awareness of logical thinking, inquisitiveness, objectivity, and emphasis on evidence) before and after cooperative learning in this maze were measured using Microsoft Forms. For these scales, I conducted an analysis of variance on three factors: survey timing (pre-test, post-test), conditions (VR/HMD, VR/desktop), and task achievement level (completed, incomplete). Results showed that group cohesion was high in the post-test. Perspective-taking increased in the VR/desktop/task-completed group, VR/desktop/task-not-completed group, and VR/HMD/task-not-completed group but did not change in the VR/HMD/task-completed group. The empathic concerns score was higher for the task-completed groups in the VR/desktop and VR/HMD conditions; the awareness of logical thinking score was higher in the group that completed the task than in the group that did not complete the task; and the objectivity score decreased in the VR/desktop group and increased in the VR/HMD group.
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... Index Empathetic concerns and perspective-taking were assessed with two subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1983;Himichi et al., 2018). Each subscale comprises 7 items such as "I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me," and "I believe that there are two sides to every question and try to look at them both." ...
Psychometric Validation of the Compassion Scale in Japan (CS-J)
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
  • Mindfulness
Objectives The Compassion Scale (CS) is a model-based scale to measure compassion for others, comprising four subcomponents: kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and sensitivity to the suffering of others. This research examined the psychometric properties of the Compassion Scale in Japan (CS-J). Method This research (n = 1742) examined the factor structure of the CS-J, the relations of the CS-J to compassion-related constructs (Study 1), intra- and interpersonal well-being (Study 2), and dispositions primarily concerned with the welfare of others (Study 3), and the test-retest reliability over a month (Study 4). Results Exploratory structural equation modeling identified that a bifactor structure best represented the CS-J. Internal reliability indicators warranted the use of total scores (internal consistency, ω = 0.94) and subscales (ω = 0.82 to 0.92). The test-retest reliability was adequate for the total scores (r = 0.73) and acceptable for the subscales (r = 0.45 to 0.68). The CS-J showed positive correlations with self-compassion, compassionate engagement and action, mindfulness, empathetic concerns, perspective-taking, altruism, compassionate goals, self-image goals, interdependent happiness, positive affect, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and social desirability with small to large effect sizes. The CS-J was negatively associated with negative affect and psychological stress responses with small effect sizes. Conclusions These results provided evidence for the validity of the CS-J. Our results in Japan indicated that compassion for others represents a balanced system of increased compassionate responding and decreased uncompassionate responding toward others’ suffering. Preregistration Our studies were preregistered at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/jha6q and https://osf.io/b8f5v).
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... Chronic pain engages brain regions that are critical for cognitive and emotional assessments, including the anterior cingulate cortex, which plays an important role in the executive control of attention (Fan et al. 2005). Cognitive empathy is the capacity to understand other people's feelings, intentions, and beliefs on an intellectual level, and affective empathy is the emotional response to other people's affective states or feelings (Davis 1983;Singer 2006). The neural basis of empathy is reported to involve the anterior cingulate cortex and insula (Bernhardt and Singer 2012). ...
Alterations in metabolites in the anterior cingulate cortex and thalamus and their associations with pain and empathy in patients with chronic mild pain: a preliminary study
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
  • J NEURAL TRANSM
Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) has shown inconsistent alterations in the brain metabolites of individuals with chronic pain. We used 3T ¹H-MRS to investigate the brain metabolites in the anterior cingulate cortex and thalamus of 22 patients with chronic mild pain and no gait disturbance and 22 healthy controls. The chronic-pain group included patients with chronic low back pain and/or osteoarthritis but none suffering from hypersensitivity. There were no significant between group-differences in glutamate, glutamate plus glutamine (Glx), N-acetylaspartate, glycerophosphorylcholine (GPC), glutamine, creatine plus phosphocreatine, or myo-inositol in the anterior cingulate cortex, but the patients showed a significant decrease in GPC, but not other metabolites, in the thalamus compared to the controls. The GPC values in the patients’ thalamus were significantly correlated with pain components on the Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ-2) and affective empathy components on the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE). The GPC in the patients’ anterior cingulate cortex showed significant correlations with cognitive empathy components on the QCAE. Myo-inositol in the controls’ anterior cingulate cortex and Glx in the patients’ thalamus each showed significant relationships with peripheral responsivity on the QCAE. These significances were not significant after Bonferroni corrections. These preliminary findings indicate important roles of GPC, myo-inositol, and Glx in the brain of patients with chronic mild pain.
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A multimodal fMRI dataset unifying naturalistic processes with a rich array of experimental tasks
Preprint
  • Jun 2024
Cognitive neuroscience has advanced significantly due to the availability of openly shared datasets. Large sample sizes, large amounts of data per person, and diversity in tasks and data types are all desirable, but are difficult to achieve in a single dataset. Here, we present an open dataset with N = 101 participants and 6 hours of scanning per participant, with 6 multifaceted cognitive tasks including 2 hours of naturalistic movie viewing. This datasets' combination of ample sample size, extensive data per participant, more than 600 hours worth of data, and a wide range of experimental conditions - including cognitive, affective, social, and somatic/interoceptive tasks - positions it uniquely for probing important questions in cognitive neuroscience.
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Depression Literacy and Self-Reported Help-Giving Behaviour in Adolescents in Ireland
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
  • CHILD PSYCHIAT HUM D
This questionnaire-based study aimed to explore depression literacy (DL) and help-giving experiences in 12–18-year-old adolescents (N = 535, Mage = 14.9 years, 51.8% male) in Ireland. In response to a vignette depicting a character displaying symptoms of depression, 46.7% labelled these symptoms ‘depression’, with increasing age and empathy associated with increased likelihood of labelling as such. Almost all (92.1%) believed the character needed help, but the perceived helpfulness of potential responses varied. Over one-third (38.2%) indicated they knew someone who had displayed similar symptoms in the past year, with 85.2% of these reporting having helped this person. Reported help-giving responses included comforting the person, encouraging professional help-seeking, and informing an adult. The findings suggest adolescent DL can be best supported by developmentally-sensitive interventions that encourage empathy and the importance of engaging adults’ assistance.
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Quality of Life in Patients and Their Spouses and Cohabitating Partners in the Year Following a Cancer Biopsy (the Couples Cope Study): Protocol for a Prospective Observational Study
Article
  • Jun 2024
Background Receiving a diagnosis of cancer is a profound and often very stressful experience. Few studies have prospectively recruited patients prior to receiving a new diagnosis of cancer and included spouses or partners. Objective The aim of the Couples Cope Study is to understand the impact of undergoing a diagnostic biopsy and receiving a new cancer diagnosis on quality of life (QoL) in both patients and their spouses or partners, as well as on the quality of their relationship. This protocol paper describes the study design and assesses the feasibility of recruitment and retention. Methods Study staff reviewed the schedules of collaborating physicians using specific encounter codes to identify patients scheduled for breast or prostate biopsies. Potential participants were prescreened via the electronic health record and sent a recruitment letter at least 2 to 3 weeks prior to their biopsy procedure. Patients subsequently underwent a phone screening to determine eligibility. Patients who enrolled provided study staff with contact information for their spouses or partners. All consent forms were completed online. Surveys were completed online prior to receiving the biopsy results (baseline), and at 1, 3, 6, and 9 months after the biopsy. Study staff engaged in ongoing, personalized contact with participants and sent assessment completion reminders via phone and email. Results A total of 2294 patients undergoing a breast or prostate biopsy were identified and 69% (n=1582) were eligible for phone screening following electronic health record prescreening. Of the 431 patients who underwent phone screening, 75% (n=321) were eligible to participate. Of the eligible patients, 72% (n=231) enrolled and 82% (n=190) of enrolled patients had an accompanying partner or spouse who also enrolled. A total of 77% (34/44) of patients who received a cancer diagnosis and 72% (26/36) of their spouses or partners were retained through 9 months, while 80% (53/66) of patients who received a benign diagnosis and 68% (42/62) of their partners were retained. Conclusions Prospective recruitment of patients undergoing diagnostic biopsy and their partners is feasible and requires both strategic collaboration with providers and concerted prescreening and recruitment efforts by study staff. Importantly, this study was able to conduct all study activities online without disrupting clinical workflow and without requiring patients and their spouses or partners to come into the laboratory. Consideration should be given to the ratio of biopsies to cancer diagnoses, which can vary significantly by cancer type. Prospective studies are needed and can inform our ability to provide effective support earlier to couples facing a possible cancer diagnosis. Future studies should examine other tumor types that have received less attention in QoL studies, include behavioral and neurobiological assessments beyond self-report measures, and follow couples beyond 9 months in order to examine long-term effects on QoL. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/52361
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The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminate validity evidence
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 1980
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
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Perspective-Taking, Self-Consciousness, and Accuracy in Person Perception
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1982
Past difficulties in demonstrating a link between accuracy in person perception and "empathy" are reviewed. The advantages of a forced choice accuracy assessment technique, in which observers view target subjects on video tape and then attempt to match targets with three-word self-descriptions, are discussed. Two studies designed to validate the method were performed. In both studies observers' accuracy in matching targets with self-descriptions exceeded chance. The effects on accuracy of observers' perspective-taking ability and targets' self-consciousness were also explored. Study I revealed that subjects scoring high on a measure of perspective-taking (Davis, 1980) were more accurate than low perspective-takers as predicted. Study II showed that target subjects high in private self-consciousness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) were more easily matched with their self-descriptions than were targets low in private self-consciousness. Study II also showed that the effects on accuracy of both observers' perspective-taking abilities and targets' selfconsciousness were related to the length of time targets were observed. The theoretical connections between perspective-taking and both stereotype and differential accuracy are discussed.
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Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 1978
Proposes a 2-stage model of empathic mediation of helping behavior, which holds that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion; this in turn increases helping. Ss in 2 experiments learned of another person's need from taped radio broadcasts and were subsequently given an opportunity to offer help to that person. The experiments used different strategies for manipulating empathic emotional response to the other's plight. In Exp I, using 44 male and female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally reduced by a misattribution of arousal technique; in Exp II, using 33 female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally increased by a false feedback of arousal technique. Results of each experiment support the proposed model. Ss who experienced the most empathic emotion also offered the most help. Results of Exp I indicate that perspective taking did not directly affect helping; it affected helping only through its effect on empathic emotion. Motivational implications are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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An analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1980
A factor analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale yielded 3 replicated factors: Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness. Acting includes being good at and liking to speak and entertain. Other-Directedness is a willingness to change one's behavior to suit other people, and Extraversion is self-explanatory. Other-Directedness correlates positively with Shyness and Neuroticism and negatively with Self-Esteem. Extraversion correlates negatively with Shyness and positively with Self-Esteem and Sociability. Two of the scale's 3 factors, therefore, have opposite patterns of correlations with other personality dimensions. The 3 factors help to explain certain discrepancies found in previous research with the Self-Monitoring Scale. For future research, it is suggested that scores for each of the factors are more appropriate than full scale scores. It is concluded that there may be a gap between the construct of Self-Monitoring and the way it is operationalized in the scale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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