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Quantitation of human melanoma, carcinoma and sarcoma tumor cell adhesion to lymphatic endothelium
Abstract
We have used an in vitro adhesion assay to study the interaction of tumor cells with lymphatic endothelium, a dynamic event that leads to tumor metastasis in vivo. 3H-thymidine-labeled human tumor cells from: one primary Ewing sarcoma, two established melanoma cell lines, two colon and two breast carcinomas (one established line and one primary culture of each) were added to 24-well culture dishes containing confluent monolayers of bovine lymphatic endothelium. Radioactivity associated with either the cells in suspension or the attached cells was assessed and compared at frequent intervals up to 360 minutes. Generally, tumor cell attachment increased as a function of time reaching a plateau between 180 and 360 minutes. the modular media system described here facilitates the primary and secondary culture (or co-culture) of a variety of normal and transformed cells. Primary cultures with a rounded morphology (one breast and one colon carcinoma) showed the lowest preferential attachment for lymphatic endothelium. All established cell lines and the primary Ewing sarcoma cell line displayed a more fibroblastic morphology and achieved the highest adhesion profiles. There was a correlation between the malignancy and attachment potential for the melanoma and breast carcinoma cell lines. Collectively, these data show that established tumor cell lines with fibroblastic-like morphology exhibit more rapid adhesion than primary tumor cell cultures with more rounded morphologies. While this property may reflect in vitro selection and/or adaptation, it does correlate with the metastatic propensity for some human tumor cells.
... However, there were contradictory results regarding the channels through which tumor cells enter into the lymphatic system, the preexisting lymphatics or the newly formed tumor-associated lymphatics in various malignant neoplasia [26][27][28][29]. More and more studies have indicated that cancer metastasis and tumor lymphangiogenesis have complex mechanisms that can differ significantly in tumors of different types or anatomic locations [30][31][32][33][34]. Regarding to ESCC, it seems that I-LVD, not P-LVD, is associated with LNM and worse prognosis according to the existing literatures including this study [16][17][18]21]. ...
Backgroud and aim:
Podoplanin (D2-40) is a specific marker for lymphatic endothelium. The vast majority of previous studies on podoplanin immunostaining in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) focused on identifying lymphatic vessel invasion (LVI) and counting lymphatic vessel density (LVD) and had contradictory results. Recent studies show podoplanin expression on cancer cells or tumor stroma in several cancers, which have specific significance; but the status in ESCC remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to further study and summarize the clinicopathological significance of podoplanin immunoreactivity in ESCC.
Materials and methods:
We examined podoplanin expression in tissue specimens from 107 patients with ESCC by immunohistochemistry. Podoplanin positive lymphatic vessels in intratumoral and peritumoral tissues and podoplanin positive expression in cancer cells and tumor stroma were analyzed, and correlated with clinicopathologic parameters and three-year overall and free-disease survival.
Results:
34 (31.8%) and 28 (26.2%) of 107 specimens had podoplanin positive expression in cancer cells and tumor stroma, respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed high intratumoral lymphatic vessel density (I-LVD) and podoplanin positivity in cancer cells were increased risks of lymph node metastasis (LNM) (OR=2.45, P=0.03; OR=0.35, P=0.01, respectively). Survival analysis showed that I-LVD was a significant factor related to poor three-year overall and free-disease survival (P=0.04, P=0.03, respectively).
Conclusions:
Previous data and our results show that podoplanin seems to be a useful marker to predict LNM, recurrence, and worse prognosis in ESCC; in particular, LVI, high I-LVD, and podoplanin positivity in cancer cells are associated with LNM, recurrence and overall survival.
... Further, the deepest tumor fronts in colorectal cancer express higher VEGF-C or VEGF-D levels than more superficial tumor tissue, and expression of these growth factors is independently related to poor prognosis [22]. In contrast, large, high-grade sarcomas rarely spread via lymphatics, despite sarcoma cells being able to interact with lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) in vitro [23], but metastasise lymphogenously when grown near the skin [24]. This suggests that, in addition to requisite lymphangiogenic growth factors, other features such as the anatomical tumor location remain important determinants of LN spread [21]. ...
Tumor metastasis to lymph nodes is a key indicator of patient survival, and is enhanced by the neo-lymphatics induced by tumor-secreted VEGF-C or VEGF-D, acting via VEGFR-3 signalling. These targets constitute important avenues for anti-metastatic treatment. Despite this new understanding, clinical observations linking metastasis with tumor depth or location suggest that lymphangiogenic growth factors are not the sole determinants of metastasis. Here we explored the influence of tumor proximity to lymphatics capable of responding to growth factors on nodal metastasis in a murine VEGF-D over-expression tumor model. We found that primary tumor location profoundly influenced VEGF-D-mediated lymph node metastasis: 89 % of tumors associated with the flank skin metastasised, in contrast with only 19 % of tumors located more deeply on the body wall (p < 0.01). Lymphatics in metastatic tumors arose from small lymphatics, and displayed distinct molecular and morphological profiles compared with those found in normal lymphatics. Smaller lymphatic subtypes were more abundant in skin (2.5-fold, p < 0.01) than in body wall, providing a richer source of lymphatics for VEGF-D(+) skin tumors, a phenomenon also confirmed in human samples. This study shows that the proximity of a VEGF-D(+) primary tumor to small lymphatics is an important determinant of metastasis. These observations may explain why tumor location relative to the lymphatic network is prognostically important for some human cancers.
OBJECTIVE: To summarize the research development at home and abroad about the structure, function, expression and significance of vascular endothelial growth factor C(VEGF-C) in laryngeal carcinoma. METHODS, With the keywords such as "VEGF-C, laryngeal cancer", the relevant literature was searched in Chinese Digital library, VIP and nedline databases, including 76 Chinese and 121 English papers from January 2000 to September 2009. Inclusion criteria, 1) the research of structure and function of VEGF-C;2) the research of expression and significance of VEGF-C in laryngeal carcinoma. Base on the inclusion criteria, 24 documents were selected and analyzed. RESULTS, VEGF-C, that is one of the family of vascular endothelial growth factor, is high homologous with VEGF-A. VEGF-A's main role is cooperate with VEGF-R, leading to proliferation of lymphatic vessels, including the increasing of diameter and number. The selective expression of VEGF-C is closely associated with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma, the degree of metastasis and differentiation of lymph node,rather than patient's age, gender, lesion location and T staging. CONCLUSIONS: Nowadays the study regard to VEGF-C is at the initial stage, and further study still holds on in promoting the occurrence of laryngeal cancer, lymph node metastasis, as well as VEGF-C inhibitors. With continuous and deeper study, it will pave way to laryngeal cancer diagnosis and treatment.
The lymph vascular system parallels the blood vasculature and as one of its key functions returns liquid and solutes to the bloodstream, including macromolecules that have escaped from blood capillaries and entered the interstitium. In conjunction with interspersed lymph nodes and lymphoid organs, the lymphatic vasculature also acts as a conduit for trafficking immune cell populations. Echoing the explosion of knowledge about blood vessel angiogenesis (properly termed "hemangiogenesis"), the past two decades have also witnessed a series of significant, yet less-noticed discoveries bearing on "lymphangiogenesis," along with delineation of the spectrum of lymphedema-angiodysplasia syndromes. Failure of lymph transport promotes a brawny proteinaceous edema of the affected limb, organ, or serous space that is disfiguring, disabling, and on occasion even life-threatening. Key members of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietin families of vascular growth factors (and their corresponding tyrosine kinase endothelial receptors) have been identified which preferentially influence lymphatic growth and, when manipulated in genetically engineered murine models, produce aberrant "lymphatic phenotypes." Moreover, mutations in VEGF receptor and forkhead family developmental genes have now been linked and implicated in the pathogenesis of two familial lymphedema-angiodysplasia syndromes. Thus, recent advances in "molecular lymphology" are elucidating the poorly understood development, physiology, and pathophysiology of the neglected lymphatic vasculature. In combination with fresh insights and refined tools in "clinical lymphology," these advances should lead not only to earlier detection and more rational classification of lymphatic disease but also to better therapeutic approaches, including designer drugs for lymphangiostimulation and lymphangioinhibition and gene therapy to modulate lymphatic growth.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Invasion von Lungenkarzinomzellen unterschiedlicher Histologie bzw. Differenzierung. Dazu wurden die Modelle der Kokultur und der Matrigel-Kammern verwendet und miteinander verglichen. Die Invasion von Tumorzellen durch die Basalmembran der Organkultur wurde in histologischen Präparaten analysiert. Die Durchwanderung der Zellen in Matrigel®-beschichteten Kammern und das Invasionsverhalten in konditioniertem Medium wurde quantitativ ausgewertet. Das Invasionsmuster der Tumorzellen während der Durchwanderung an Matrigel®-beschichteten Kammern wurde elektronenmikroskopisch dokumentiert. Um den Tumorzellen einen direkten Zugang zur Basalmembran der Organkultur zu verschaffen, wurden die Kulturen mit EDTA behandelt. Es war dadurch möglich, eine Kokultur herzustellen und einzelne Schritte der Invasion an der Basalmembran zu beobachten. Eine Adhäsion der Tumorzellen dreier verschiedener Bronchialkarzinomlinien an die Basalmembran der Organkultur fand bereits nach 24 Stunden der Kokultivierung statt. Mittels Kollagen IV-Färbung zeigte sich, dass die Zellen der Linie LCLC 103H, Zellen eines großzelligen Bronchialkarzinoms, am stärksten die Basalmembran degradierten. Da der Unterschied gegenüber den Linien EPLC 32M1 und NCI H125 keine Signifikanz aufwies, wurde ein zweidimensionales Modell verwendet, um die Frühphasen der Invasion von Tumorzellen besser vergleichen zu können. Dabei wurde die Invasionskapazität der Tumorzellen in Matrigel®-beschichteten Kammern untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die LCLC 103H Linie das stärkste Potential zur Invasion in die Matrigel®-Beschichtung aufwies. Die Adhärenz, der erste Schritt der Invasion, scheint bei dieser Linie eine wichtige Rolle zu spielen. Bei der Linie NCI H125 ist dagegen die Migration am stärksten ausgeprägt. Das konditionierte Medium der Linie LCLC 103H hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Invasionskapazität anderer Zelllinien. Elektronenmikroskopisch bestätigte sich, dass die Zellen der Linien LCLC 103, EPLC 32M1 und NCI H841 während der Invasion an Matrigel®-beschichteten Membranen Pseudopodien ausbilden, was als Zeichen für erhöhtes Invasionsvermögen angesehen werden kann. Die Zellen der NCI H125 Linie dagegen bilden auf ihrer Oberfläche vesikuläre Strukturen. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Untersuchungen sind unsere Schlußfolgerungen: · Unterschiedliche Zelllinien besitzen verschiedene Mechanismus der Invasion. · Die aus mehreren Schritten bestehende Invasion (Adhäsion, Degradation und Migration der Tumorzellen) schließt auch die Reaktion von gesundem Gewebe nach der Stimulation von Tumorzellen (Stromareaktion) mit ein. Die Stromareaktion, die eine wichtige Rolle spielt, ist im dreidimensionalen Kokulturmodell erhalten. Daher ist dieses Modell für die Untersuchungen der Invasionsfähigkeit der Tumorzellen im menschlichen Organismus gut geeignet und kann die Bedingungen während der Invasion am ehesten nachahmen. Die Fähigkeit der Zellen, die Matrigel®-beschichtete Membran zu invadieren, lässt nicht unbedingt Rückschlüsse auf die in-vivo Bedingungen zu, weil Matrigel® kein menschliches Gewebe darstellt. Mittels der Matrigel®-beschichteten Kammern ist es dennoch möglich, einzelne Schritte der Invasion, wie Adhäsion der Tumorzellen, die Degradation von Matrigel® und die Migration der Tumorzellen sowie deren Regulierung mittels löslicher Faktoren und Medikamente qualitativ und quantitativ sowie auch morphologisch zu untersuchen. Regulation der Invasion von Bronchialkarzinomzellen unterschiedlicher Differenzierung in die Basalmembran in Kokulturen und in Matrigel-Kammern
The purpose of the study was to develop a flow cytometric assay for quantitative determination of adhesive interactions of human endothelial cells (ECs) with tumor cells. EC lines established from human lymph node, appendix, lung, skin and intestine microvessels, labeled with PKH26-GL fluorescent dye, were grown to confluency in 24-well TC plates. Human colon adenocarcinoma cell suspension was overlaid onto labeled ECs, and allowed to adhere for 20 min at 4 degrees C under static conditions. Non-adhering cells were collected first, and adhering tumor cells together with ECs were detached from the culture plate. Collected cell fractions were evaluated by flow cytometry. Results were re-calculated as a ratio (R) of adhering colon carcinoma cells per one EC. We demonstrated that immortalized human microvascular ECs preserved their organ specificity. Colon carcinoma cells adhere preferentially to ECs of intestine origin. The immunofluorescent staining of adhering and non-adhering cancer cell subpopulations has revealed an augmented level of Lewis(x) antigen on adhering cancer cells. The organ specificity of endothelial cell interactions with colon carcinoma cells demonstrated in static conditions was verified and confirmed with flow adhesion assay. The method elaborated is suitable for quantifying of tumor cells adhering to ECs, with simultaneous evaluation of cell surface phenotypic markers of both partner cells participating in adhesive interactions. Validated by comparison to dynamic shear stress adhesion assay in blood flow reconstituted conditions this assay greatly facilitates evaluation of tumor cell-endothelial cell mutual interactions taking place during metastatic process.
The role of cellular adhesion in regional lymph node metastasis of solid tumors has been investigated. The data reviewed is based on studies in four different tumor models of human, rat and murine origin. An in vitro assay measuring tumor cell attachment to cryostat sections of normal peripheral lymph nodes, obtained from the species of tumor origin was used to compare the adhesion of tumor sublines with different metastatic potentials. A good correlation was found between tumor cell potential to metastasize to regional nodes and the adhesion to the sections in all models studied. The adhesion of all tumor lines could be blocked by Arg-Gly-Asp containing peptides while pretreatment of the cells with antibodies to integrins implicated beta 1 and beta 3 receptor complexes in the adhesion. Ligand binding assays provided indirect evidence that the preferential attachment of the metastatic tumor lines to the frozen sections was mediated via extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin, vitronectin and type IV collagen. As these basement membrane proteins have been localized to the outer surfaces of reticular fibers which are known to permeate the lymph node and trasverse the subcapsular sinus it is postulated that tumor cell attachment to these fibers may facilitate and possibly be required for tumor cell retention and growth in the invaded regional nodes.
Several cinnamoyl compounds have been shown to have antitumor activities, but not specifically anti-invasive or antimetastatic effects. U-77,863 (o-methyl cinnanamide) was originally isolated from a fermentation beer of Streptomyces griseoluteus and recently synthesized (Harper, DE and Welch DR. Journal of Antibiotics, in press). Based upon some differential activities of cinnanamides, in general, and U-77,863, specifically, we tested the hypothesis that U-77,863 could inhibit invasion and metastasis of human malignant melanoma cell lines C8161 and A375M. Pretreatment of melanoma cells in vitro with nontoxic doses of U-77,863 caused a dose-, and time-dependent, reversible reduction (IC50 = 12.5 micrograms/ml) of invasion through Matrigel-coated polycarbonate filters in the Membrane Invasion Culture System (MICS). Likewise, lung colonization was significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited when tumor cells were pretreated in vitro with U-77,863 prior to intravenous injection. Structure-activity analysis revealed that the acrylamide side-chain alone and cinnanamide were only slightly less potent than U-77,863, whereas cinnamic acid analogs did not inhibit tumor cell invasion at doses < or = 100 micrograms/ml. U-77,863 inhibits invasion and metastasis without decreasing growth rates or clonogenic potential. Adhesion to endothelial monolayers or extracellular matrices (Matrigel) is not affected by exposure to U-77,863. U-77,863 presumably inhibits metastasis by inhibiting tumor cell extravasation (invasion). U-77,863 is a lead compound for developing a novel class of anti-invasive/anti-metastatic drugs.
The ability of urothelial tumors of the urinary bladder to metastasize via the lymphatic circulation and the extent of metastatic involvement of regional lymph nodes is an important parameter in the staging and prognosis of these neoplasms. Accordingly, we examined the site and morphology of initial lymphatic vessels in the mucosa of the human urinary bladder in patients with invasive transitional cell carcinoma. Lymphatics in the papillary tumoral mass was also examined. Endoscopic transurethral biopsies from the urinary bladder of 120 patients with invasive transitional cell papillary carcinoma were utilized for this study. Biopsy from the uninvolved lateral wall of the same patient was utilized as a control. On histopathology of biopsies of neoplastic tissues, initial lymph vessels were seen in the deeper region of the mucosa but not in the subepithelial layer nor in the stroma of the tumoral papillae. The latter were often associated with arteriolar and venular vessels. When edema and inflammation occurred in peritumoral regions, lymphatics showed a dilated lumen, non-indented wall with dissociated perivascular collagen and elastic fibers. Tumoral permeation or embolization of lymphatics was seen in 12% of patients with invasive tumors, and these lymphatic vessels did not display significant morphologic changes. The absence of initial lymphatics in the stroma of tumoral papillae and in infiltrated subepithelial regions of the urinary bladder may explain the absence of lymph node metastasis in early-stage invasive urothelial tumors.
Great attention has been directed toward understanding angiogenesis over the past several decades since this phenomenon was reproduced in vitro in endothelial cell and mixed vascular tissue cultures (Folkman and Hauden-schild, 1980; Folkman, 1995). The focus, however, has been almost entirely on blood vessel growth, or what we have termed “hemangiogenesis” (M. Witte and Witte, 1987 c). Yet a vast interstitial fluid circulation suffuses the tissues, bathes the parenchymal cells and interconnects with the blood vasculature via the lymphatic vasculature (Fig. 1). This arc of the circulatory system on the dark side of the blood-tissue interface and its growth (“lymphangiogenesis”) has received scant attention even though lymphatic (re)generation is both vigorous and essential, and disorders of lymphatic dynamics are common, often disfiguring, and occasionally life- and limb-threatening.
Interest in the lymphatic system and its relationship to metastases has developed owing to renewed interest in sentinel node biopsy. This article summarizes the anatomy, physiology, and biology of the lymphatic system and lymph node metastases, and reviews studies of lymph node metastases and surgical resection of cancers in different anatomic sites. On the basis of these studies, the authors conclude that lymph node metastasis functions as an indicator of prognosis, not the controlling or determining factor of prognosis. Thus, varying degrees of treatment of regional lymph nodes and metastases do not seem to be controlling factors in the outcome of cancer.
Cancer cell adhesion to lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) was examined under shear stress mimicking lymph flow. An established rat gastric adenocarcinoma cell line, BV9, was perfused over a primary cultured monolayer of LEC, which were explanted from the rat thoracic duct, and the adhesion pattern was observed. BV9 preferably adhered to LEC, at a level 8-fold greater than that to vascular endothelium in the unstimulated condition. When shear stress was increased after adhesion, a considerable number of BV9 on LEC withstood shear up to 50 dyn/cm2, while BV9 attached on vascular endothelium did not remain adherent under 5 dyn/cm2. Adhesion was significantly augmented by prestimulation of LEC with 10 ng/ml IL1-beta or 500 ng/ml TNF-alpha. Our study indicates high affinity between cancer cells and LEC, and suggests the possibility that lymph node metastasis arises from cancer cells adherent to LEC, which can be augmented by an inflammatory stimulus.
Distant organ metastasis is the most important factor in determining patient survival in cancer. This is thought to occur via the body's own systems for transporting fluid and cells, the blood vascular and lymphatic systems. Cancer cells may exploit these vascular systems by expressing growth factors, which alter the normal pattern of angiogenesis and lymphatic vessel growth (lymphangiogenesis), thus creating conduits for tumour metastasis. With respect to lymphatic metastasis, techniques which allow the mapping of a tumour's lymphatic drainage and sampling of the 'sentinel node' from the regional lymph node group provide crucial prognostic information, determine further treatment and offer a window into tumour-host immune interactions. Aberrant drainage patterns so identified are both clinically significant, and highlight important anatomical and molecular complexities not explained by existing models of lymphatic development or anatomy. The molecular controls of tumour lymphangiogenesis and factors determining which lymphatic vessel subtypes are induced may be targets for novel therapeutics designed to restrict cancer metastasis. Furthermore, analyses of these control mechanisms will enhance our understanding of the interactions between the tumour cells and the lymphatic vasculature. For many years, disparate groups of clinical researchers and basic scientists have been working to unravel the mysteries of the lymphatic system. This review aims to summarize these contributions, in terms of the history, identification, structure and function of lymphatic vessels in cancer and the role they play in tumour metastasis. Current ideas about the roles of lymphangiogenic growth factors, their signalling pathways in lymphatic metastasis and therapeutic opportunities to restrict this spread will also be explored.
The distribution and fine structure of the tumor-associated absorbing lymphatic vessel in the tumor mass of prostate adenocarcinoma and of seminal vesicle metastasis in transgenic mice was studied for the purpose of understanding the modality of tumor cell transendothelial passage from the extravasal matrix into the lymphatic vessel. In the tumor mass, two main cell populations were identified: stromal tumor cells and the invasive phenotype tumor (IPT) cells, having characteristics such as a highly electron-dense matrix rich in small granules lacking a dense core and massed nuclear chromatin, which is positive to immunostaining with anti-SV40 large T antigen antibody. Based on the ultrastructural pictures of different moments of the IPT cell transendothelial passage by ultrathin serial sections of the tumor-associated absorbing lymphatic vessel, the manner of its transendothelial passage through the intraendothelial channel, without involving intercellular contacts, was demonstrated. The presence of IPT cells in the parenchyma of satellite lymph node highlights its significant role in metastatic diffusion. The intraendothelial channel is the reply to the lack of knowledge regarding the intravasation of the tumor cell into the lymphatic circulation. The lymphatic endothelium would organize this channel on the basis of tumor cell-endothelial cell-extravasal matrix molecular interactions, which are as yet unidentified.
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