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Psychiatric Reactions to Disaster: The Mount St Helens Experience
Abstract
Following the 1980 Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption, psychiatric reactions were studied in the disaster area and in a control community. Using the new criterion-based diagnostic method for psychiatric epidemiologic research, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, the authors found a significant prevalence of disaster-related psychiatric disorders. These Mount St. Helens disorders included depression, generalized anxiety, and posttraumatic stress reaction. There was a progressive "dose-response" relationship in the comparison of control, low-exposure, and high-exposure groups. The dose-response pattern occurred among both the bereaved and the property-loss victims.
... Another group often considered to be at high risk after disaster is women (Tierney & Baisden, 1979). Most previous studies have found women to exhibit higher levels of distress than men after disasters (Abrahams, Price, Whitlock, & Williams, 1976;Krause, 1987;Logue, Melick, &Struening, 1981;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986a, 1986b, particularly those with lower educational and income levels or preexisting health problems (Logue, Melick, & Struening, 1981;Shore et al, 1986aShore et al, , 1986b. For instance, Shore et al. (1986aShore et al. ( , 1986b found rates of onset of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder to be about twice as high for women as for men after the Mount St. Helens eruption. ...
... Another group often considered to be at high risk after disaster is women (Tierney & Baisden, 1979). Most previous studies have found women to exhibit higher levels of distress than men after disasters (Abrahams, Price, Whitlock, & Williams, 1976;Krause, 1987;Logue, Melick, &Struening, 1981;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986a, 1986b, particularly those with lower educational and income levels or preexisting health problems (Logue, Melick, & Struening, 1981;Shore et al, 1986aShore et al, , 1986b. For instance, Shore et al. (1986aShore et al. ( , 1986b found rates of onset of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder to be about twice as high for women as for men after the Mount St. Helens eruption. ...
... Most previous studies have found women to exhibit higher levels of distress than men after disasters (Abrahams, Price, Whitlock, & Williams, 1976;Krause, 1987;Logue, Melick, &Struening, 1981;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986a, 1986b, particularly those with lower educational and income levels or preexisting health problems (Logue, Melick, & Struening, 1981;Shore et al, 1986aShore et al, , 1986b. For instance, Shore et al. (1986aShore et al. ( , 1986b found rates of onset of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder to be about twice as high for women as for men after the Mount St. Helens eruption. However, a few studies have suggested that men may experience greater distress. ...
In a panel study, more than 200 older adults were interviewed before and after a severe flood in southeastern Kentucky in 1984. The issue in this study was whether older adult flood victims were differentially vulnerable to increases in psychological and physical symptoms on the basis of their age, sex, marital status, occupational status, education level, and preflood symptom levels. Flood exposure was related to increases in depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms at 18 months postflood. Within this older adult sample, men, those with lower occupational status, and persons aged 55–64 were at significantly greater risk for increases in psychological symptoms. Sociodemographic status did not moderate the impact of flood exposure on physical health. Implications for crisis-intervention services to older adult disaster victims are discussed.
... The severity of trauma is perhaps the single best predictor of both the probability and the frequency of postdisaster psychopathology. [19][20][21][22] A number of characteristics of disasters affect the likelihood of psychiatric casualties. 23 Being injured or perceiving oneself at high risk of death or injury increases the possibility of suffering an adverse psychological response. ...
... Numerous studies also document that acute symptoms of intrusion, avoidance, and dissociation,73 part of the symptom complex of ASD, predict the development of later psychopathology, particularly PTSD. 32,74-78 POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER:Following both natural and man-made disasters, PTSD has been widely studied.19,20,61,69,76 The diagnostic criteria for PTSD closely resemble those for ASD, the primary difference being time course: as mentioned earlier, for a diagnosis of ASD, the symptoms must occur within 4 weeks of the traumatic event and must resolve within that same time frame; the diagnosis of PTSD applies to a similar constellation of symptoms, but they persist longer than 1 month or the onset of symptoms begins no sooner than 1 month after the traumatic event.Other DSM-IV diagnostic changes pertinent to clinicians interested in disaster psychiatry include modifications in the criteria related to the traumatic stressors. ...
... The diagnoses of psychological factors affecting physical disease and PTSD are frequently seen in injured victims who may be dealing with the stress of their injury, the loss of family members, and the absence of resources and social supports with which to plan recovery. Because most studies indicate a high rate of mental disorders in persons with physical injury, a proactive consultation or liaison plan is a necessary part of a hospital emergency response plan.MAJOR DEPRESSION, GENERALIZED ANXIETYDISORDER, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, AND ADJUSTMENT DISORDERS:Major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and substance abuse have been studied less often in disaster victims, but the data available suggest high rates of these disorders in disaster populations.[19][20][21]85 Major depression and substance abuse are also frequent comorbid disorders with PTSD. ...
... 4 Trauma, Depression, and PTSD A number of studies have examined the psychological effects of natural disasters in adult victims. [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] Of these psychological effects, depression and PTSD are among the most commonly reported mental health issues following a disaster. Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by depressed mood or loss of pleasure that lasts for at least two weeks; PTSD is characterized by the development of symptoms of intrusions, avoidance, negative alteration in cognition and mood, and alterations in arousal and reactivity following exposure to a traumatic event. ...
... 8 In addition, Shore and colleagues observed higher onset of depression and PTSD in subjects with high exposure to a volcanic eruption compared to those with low or no exposure. 13 A number of studies have focused specifically on the depressogenic effects of disaster exposure. Ginexi and colleagues found that the 1993 Midwest Floods led to increases in depressive symptoms and diagnoses in exposed individuals, 9 whereas Toukmanian et al found that survivors of the 1988 Armenia earthquake reported higher levels of depression than non-exposed individuals. ...
Introduction
Firefighters represent an important population for understanding the consequences of exposure to potentially traumatic stressors.
Hypothesis/Problem
The researchers were interested in the effects of pre-employment disaster exposure on firefighter recruits’ depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms during the first three years of fire service and hypothesized that: (1) disaster-exposed firefighters would have greater depression and PTSD symptoms than non-exposed overall; and (2) depression and PTSD symptoms would worsen over years in fire service in exposed firefighters, but not in their unexposed counterparts.
Methods
In a baseline interview, 35 male firefighter recruits from seven US cities reported lifetime exposure to natural disaster. These disaster-exposed male firefighter recruits were matched on age, city, and education with non-exposed recruits.
Results
A generalized linear mixed model revealed a significant exposure×time interaction ( ecoef =1.04; P <.001), such that depression symptoms increased with time for those with pre-employment disaster exposure only. This pattern persisted after controlling for social support from colleagues ( ecoefficient =1.05; P <.001), social support from families ( ecoefficient =1.04; P =.001), and on-the-job trauma exposure (coefficient=0.06; ecoefficient =1.11; P <.001). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms did not vary significantly between exposure groups at baseline ( P =.61).
Conclusion
Depression symptoms increased with time for those with pre-employment disaster exposure only, even after controlling for social support. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms did not vary between exposure groups.
PenningtonML , CarpenterTP , SynettSJ , TorresVA , TeagueJ , MorissetteSB , KnightJ , KamholzBW , KeaneTM , ZimeringRT , GulliverSB . The influence of exposure to natural disasters on depression and PTSD symptoms among firefighters .
... Resnick, Kilpatrick, Bucuvalas, Gold, & Vlahov, 2002), the Oklahoma City bombing (North, Nixon, Shariat, Mallonee, McMillen, Spitznagel and Smith, 1999) and the eruption of Mt. St. Helen (Shore, Tatum and Vollmer, 1986), to mention just a few. ...
... With regards to research into specific populations, middle-aged adults appear to be more adversely affected than younger or older populations (Gleser, Green and Winget, 1981;Phifer, 1990;Price, 1978). Several studies have demonstrated that female victims of disaster are at greater risk for post-disaster depression and post-traumatic stress disorder as well (De la Fuente, 1990; Green, et al., 1990;Shore et al, 1986;Steinglass and Gerrity, 1990). When racial and ethnic factors are considered, much less is known about victims of disaster and how different races or ethnic groups vary across stress measures (Norris, Perilla, Riad, Kaniasty, and Lavizzo, 1999). ...
The present study examines stress among college students (N=107) that were exposed to natural disasters at the start of the 2004 Fall Semester after Hurricane Charley and Frances battered Central Florida within three weeks of each other. The study also examines adjustments made by two faculty members during the semester in attempts to reduce student stress while maintaining high academic standards in the wake of disaster. Findings indicate that students experienced a substantial amount of stress as a result of the storms. Of the students surveyed 50 percent indicated they suffered lost wages or income, 65 percent sustained some damage to their residences, and 63 percent experienced moderate to extremely high levels of stress. Concerning the adjustments implemented by the instructors, 84 percent of the students agreed or strongly agreed that the academic quality of their education was not compromised. While educators must have well-designed and planned courses, when disaster strikes, it is imperative that they incorporate creative and flexible teaching methods and policies in their classrooms.
... and (e) What can we Do about these issues? (Shore et al. 1986, Annang et al. 2016). In the discussion the photographer (=research participant) makes his/her implicit knowledge of (certain aspects of) the determinants of physical activity in the environment explicit to the group which adds their views and knowledge.While in some local groups, data collection and application of SHOWED method were carried out on the same day (e.g. ...
Physical activity in open spaces is a crucial topic of urban health around the globe. As cities and everyday life differ a lot in specific urban contexts, places for physical activity may vary in shape, perception and use by local people. A group of researchers from eight countries in Europe, South America and Asia used the same online-photovoice application to explore places in their cities regarding physical activity in public spaces. Using the same application in eight countries with diverse local participants, we collected a rich basis for a reflection on methodological issues, the usability of the online-photovoice application and determinants of physical activity in public spaces in contrasting cities. The paper aims to provide traceable documentation of a collaborative learning activity with an online-photovoice application. In doing so, results are presented from researchers' self-reflection as a global community of practice on how the online-photovoice approach can be applied to place analysis for healthy urban development at different places with practitioners, communities, and scientists from diverse backgrounds. The paper contributes to a broader problem understanding of physical activity in public open spaces. As one result, we find that including aspects of safety and conflict in public space is highly relevant. ARTICLE HISTORY
... [18] In various studies risk factors for the development of PTSD are identified as female sex, young age, urban lifestyle, low socioeconomic status and displacement. [7][8][9][10][11][12] There is a lack of literature that assess the severity of impact of event related to evacuees as compared to nonevacuees using standard scales. [7] Also little is known about the severity of impact in medically ill population. ...
... Intrusive thoughts and rumination may occur in response to many different types of trauma, such as war (Niederland, 1981;Solomon, 1993), childhood abuse (Briere, 1992;Silver et al., 1983), and natural disasters (McFarlane, 1988;Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986), as well as other more common negative events such as the loss of a loved one and serious illness (Tait & Silver, 1989). As these intrusive recollections tend to keep memories and thoughts of the trauma active and alive in people's consciousnesses (see Baum, 1990), they may ultimately alter temporal orientation. ...
The relations between temporal orientation and long-term psychological distress were studied cross-sectionally and longitudinally in 3 samples of traumatized individuals: adult victims of childhood incest, Vietnam War veterans, and residents of 2 southern California communities devastated by fire. Results indicated that a past temporal orientation—focusing attention on prior life experiences—was associated with elevated levels of distress long after the trauma had passed, even when controlling for the degree of rumination reported. Temporal disintegration at the time of the trauma—whereby the present moment becomes isolated from the continuity of past and future time—was associated with a high degree of past temporal orientation over time and subsequent distress. Temporal disintegration was highest among individuals who had experienced the most severe loss, had previously experienced chronic trauma, and had had their identities threatened by their traumatic experience.
... Proximity to the disaster, severity of exposure, duration of exposure, injury during exposure, and exposure to gruesome sights all increase the probability of psychological consequences (Galea et al., 2003;Lowe et al., 2009;Norris et al., 2001Norris et al., , 2009Rubonis & Bickman, 1991;Schlenger et al., 2002;Shore et al., 1986;Udwin et al., 2000;Young et al., 2005). A loss of resources following a disaster, such as property damage, community destruction, employment discontinuation, and financial loss has been repeatedly associated with greater pathology (Phifer & Norris, 1989;Lowe et al., 2009;Norris et al., 2001;Young et al., 2005). ...
... 51 Less visibly, psychological trauma also affects those who have witnessed death, injury, and destruction, as well as those who are themselves injured or displaced from their homes. 52,53,54 This was evident after the Nyiragongo eruption. ...
... In the TD population, stressful life events and trauma are understood to play an important role in the onset of mental health symptoms, including anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Kendler, Karkowski, & Prescott, 1999;Pico-Alfonso et al., 2006;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986). In the ASD population, elevated rates of stressful life events have been found in the 12 months preceding depression onset (Ghaziuddin, Alessi, & Greden, 1995), and peer victimisation has been associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression in ASD youth with co-occurring anxiety disorders (Storch et al., 2012). ...
Background
Mental health problems are common amongst adults with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Stressful and traumatic life events can trigger or exacerbate symptoms of anxiety, depression and PTSD. In the general population, transdiagnostic processes such as suppression and perseverative thinking are associated with responses to trauma and mental health symptoms.
Aims
This study explored the relationships between thought suppression, perseverative thinking and symptoms of depression, anxiety and PTSD in ASD adults who reported exposure to a range of DSM-5 and non-DSM-5 traumatic events.
Methods
59 ASD adults completed a series of online self-report questionnaires measuring trauma, transdiagnostic cognitive processes, and mental health symptoms.
Results
Probable PTSD rarely occurred in isolation and was associated with depression and anxiety symptoms in trauma-exposed ASD adults. All cognitive processes and mental health symptoms were positively associated with one another, regardless of whether the trauma met DSM-5 PTSD Criterion A. When accounting for both cognitive processes, only thought suppression significantly predicted PTSD and anxiety symptoms, while only perseverative thinking significantly predicted depression symptoms.
Conclusions and implications
These preliminary results suggest that different cognitive processes more strongly affect anxiety/PTSD versus depression symptom severity in trauma-exposed ASD adults, although co-occurring symptoms are common. Implications for assessment, treatment and future research are discussed.
... Only one part will develop traumatic responses (Bonanno, 2004;Bonanno et al., 2010;Westphal & Bonanno, 2007). Specifically, it is expected that between 44% and 23% of people will show a negative response after several years post-event (Duggan & Gunn, 1995;Green et al., 1990;MacFarlane, 1988;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986). All the previously stated is true regardless of the GDP level of the person's country. ...
The psychosocial impact concept improves the understanding of the effects of disasters on people and communities. However, its definition is not clear. This work explores consistencies between studies (k = 21) that refer to the psychosocial impact of disasters by way of a meta-analytic synthesis. This synthesis indicates that people are more prone to illness when they are exposed to a disaster, and less when they are protected (OR = 2.737). Please check the change conveys the intended meaning or amend Nevertheless, there are no differences in healthy responses, regardless of how protected or exposed they are (OR = 1.053). Finally, a model is proposed to explain four types of psychosocial impact: resilient, traumatic, sensitive, witness.
... GAD is associated with the experience of negative life events (Nordahl, Wells, Olsson, & Bjerkeset, 2010), maltreatment (Moffitt et al., 2007), loss (Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & Prescott, 2003), childhood sexual or physical abuse (Safren, Gershuny, Marzol, Otto, & Pol-lack, 2002), rape (Steketee & Foa, 1987), combat (Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study, 1988), and disaster (Shore et al., 1986). In one study, 52% of treatment-seeking individuals with GAD reported experiencing a potentially traumatizing event, a number that greatly exceeded the number of nonanxious individuals who reported a potentially traumatizing event (21%; Roemer, Molina, & Borkovec, 1997). ...
... Actually, exposure to severe stressors such as urban violence, sexual abuse, combat in war, disasters and many others, is believed to be associated to development of PTSD, leading individuals to present physiological and behavioral alterations including nightmares, hypervigilance, flashbacks of the trauma and sleep disturbances (DSM-V, Zoladz and Diamond, 2013;Yehuda et al., 2015). Although a positive correlation has been reported between the severity of the trauma and PTSD symptomatology in veteran soldiers (Snow et al., 1988;Sutker et al., 1993), as well as in civilians (Shore et al., 1986;Pynoos et al., 1993;Mollica et al., 1998), this is not always the case (Bas , oglu et al., 1994;Schnyder et al., 2001;Stevenson et al., 2001). It has also been reported that the type of stressor seems to play a bigger role than its severity (Kessler et al., 1995;Amir et al., 1996). ...
Stress is recognized as an important issue in basic and clinical neuroscience research, based upon the founding historical studies by Walter Canon and Hans Selye in the past century, when the concept of stress emerged in a biological and adaptive perspective. A lot of research after that period has expanded the knowledge in the stress field. Since then, it was discovered that the response to stressful stimuli is elaborated and triggered by the, now known, stress system, which integrates a wide diversity of brain structures that, collectively, are able to detect events and interpret them as real or potential threats. However, different types of stressors engage different brain networks, requiring a fine-tuned functional neuroanatomical processing. This integration of information from the stressor itself may result in a rapid activation of the Sympathetic-Adreno-Medullar (SAM) axis and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, the two major components involved in the stress response. The complexity of the stress response is not restricted to neuroanatomy or to SAM and HPA axes mediators, but also diverge according to timing and duration of stressor exposure, as well as its short- and/or long-term consequences. The identification of neuronal circuits of stress, as well as their interaction with mediator molecules over time is critical, not only for understanding the physiological stress responses, but also to understand their implications on mental health.
... Only one part will develop traumatic responses (Bonanno, 2004;Bonanno et al., 2010;Westphal & Bonanno, 2007). Specifically, it is expected that between 44% and 23% of people will show a negative response after several years post-event (Duggan & Gunn, 1995;Green et al., 1990;MacFarlane, 1988;Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986). All the previously stated is true regardless of the GDP level of the person's country. ...
The psychosocial impact concept improves the understanding of the effects of disasters on people and communities. However, its definition is not clear. This work explores consistencies between studies (k = 21) that refer to the psychosocial impact of disasters by way of a meta-analytic synthesis. This synthesis indicates that people are more prone to illness when they are exposed to a disaster, and less when they are protected (OR = 2.737). Please check the change conveys the intended meaning or amend Nevertheless, there are no differences in healthy responses, regardless of how protected or exposed they are (OR = 1.053). Finally, a model is proposed to explain four types of psychosocial impact: resilient, traumatic, sensitive, witness.
... The 15 June 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo on the island of Luzon in the Republic of Philippines forced the evacuation of more than 200,000 people and caused the immediate deaths of more than 300, many from the collapse of homes due to the combination of heavy ashfall and rain from the nearly simultaneous passage of Typhoon Yunya (Hansen et al. 1992;McCormick et al. 1995). Actually there are three major areas of potential chronic human health impacts from volcanic activity which include respiratory problems, particularly silicosis psychological stress (e.g., Shore et al. 1986), and chemical impacts of gas or ash(e.g., Giammanco et al. 1998). So, the overall environment nearby and people's health can be highly affected by volcanic eruptions. ...
A sudden blast was chosen as the studied topic. Also, one computer based virtual experimentation was used to estimate the dimensional impact of initial pollutant plume from blasts. Self-made method using Mathcad code was used to generate the output for the period of the first tenth of a second (1deci-second) to 1minute (60s) of the blast at the point source. It also depicted long-range air pollution travel within the first 1 to 10 minutes. In the case study, it assumed an average directional diffusivity of 1720 m²s⁻¹ which is about 25 per cent of the average generated speed of common explosives. The newly developed model revealed a plume cloud impact of 6.8×10⁷µgm⁻³ in the first 1millisecond (0.01s) which decayed suddenly to a value of 1.7×10⁷µgm⁻³ in the first 1decisecond (0.1s). The impact concentration at the point source by the end of the first second (1.0s) was 3.2×10⁵µgm⁻³ which implied a 99.5% sudden decay when compared to 0.01s concentration value at the emission point source. Computerized experiments observed that air pollutants release from explosives/blasts were dispersed into the atmosphere in the first few seconds by forceful injection instead of by gradual dispersion as is the case with normal air pollutants plume releases.
... There have been many studies on the psychological effects of disasters on the victims. A study of the 1980 Mount St. Helens volcanic eruption victims found that the incidences of PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, and major depression increased in both male and females in accordance with the extent of risk exposure [7]. A study on the psychological effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1982 on the local residents investigated the relationship between the incidence rates of PTSD and generalized anxiety disorder and the extent of oil exposure. ...
Background:
On September 27, 2012, at 3:43 pm, a hydrogen fluoride spill occurred in a manufacturing plant located at the 4th complex of the Gumi National Industrial Complex in Gumi City, South Korea. The present study aimed to evaluate the psychological effects of the hydrogen fluoride spill on the members of the community and to investigate their relationships with physical symptoms and changes in psychological effects occurring as time passed after the accident.
Methods:
The 1st phase involved a survey of 1359 individuals that was conducted 1 month after the spill, and the 2nd phase involved a survey of 711 individuals that was conducted 7 months after the accident. The questionnaires included items for assessing demographic characteristics, hydrogen fluoride exposure level, physical symptoms, and psychological status. Physical symptoms were assessed to determine the persistence of irritations. Psychological status was assessed to investigate the impact of event level using the Impact of Event Scale - Revised Korean version (IES-R-K), and the anxiety level was assessed using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI).
Results:
As the hydrogen fluoride exposure level increased, the impact of event and anxiety levels increased significantly both 1 and 7 months after the accident (p < 0.05). The mean score of the impact of event levels decreased significantly from 33.33 ± 14.64 at 1 month after the accident to 28.68 ± 11.80 at 7 months after the accident (p < 0.05). The mean score of the anxiety levels increased significantly from 5.16 ± 6.59 at 1 month after the accident to 6.79 ± 8.41 at 7 months after the accident (p < 0.05). The risk of persistent physical symptoms at 7 months after the accident was significantly higher in females. The risk of persistent physical symptoms also increased significantly, with increasing age, hydrogen fluoride exposure, and impact of event levels (p < 0.05).
Conclusions:
The present study found that the impact of event level and anxiety level increased with increasing hydrogen fluoride exposure. Anxiety levels persisted even after time passed. The risk of persistent physical symptoms at 7 months after the accident was higher in females, and it increased with increasing age, hydrogen fluoride exposure level, and impact of event levels.
... There is an extensive body of literature showing that natural disaster victims suffer pervasive detrimental psychological consequences, including depression (Shore, Tatum, & Vollmer, 1986) and, in some cases, post-traumatic stress disorder (Frankenberg, Nobles, & Sumantri, 2012). However, apart from negative consequences for the individual, the literature shows that natural disasters may also have unexpected positive effects at the level of the group or the community, such as increased cooperation and mutual support (Kaniasty, 2012). ...
After a natural disaster, solidarity and helping behaviours among survivors are crucial for alleviating the adverse consequences of this event (Kaniasty and Norris. Bioterrorism: Psychological and public health interventions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 200–229, 2004). However, fostering mutual helping may turn out to be problematic in most of the today’s affected communities, given their increasingly multi-ethnic nature. Indeed, prejudice and intergroup biases may constitute serious obstacles to the willingness to help outgroup members. Yet, while a substantial body of literature has examined the intergroup processes affecting helping in bystander groups (see e.g., Zagefka, Noor, Brown, Hopthrow, & de Moura, Asian Journal of Social Psychology 15:221–230, 2012), only recently has social psychological research explored these processes within ethnic groups actually involved in the disaster. In the present chapter, we review research that focused on the conditions and the processes shaping intergroup helping in victimised ethnic groups. In presenting this research, we focus on the interplay between individual reactions to the disaster and group variables in determining the willingness to help outgroup members. Further, we stress the importance of adopting a multi-ethnic perspective because the processes of the majorities and minorities that drive intergroup helping are often radically different. Particular attention is devoted to the mechanisms triggering children’s intergroup helping, as they appear to be different from those driving helping responses among adults. We conclude by identifying effective strategies that would potentially make the salience of a natural disaster an unexpected opportunity to promote helping outgroup members and, ultimately, to improve intergroup relations and facilitate the recovery among individuals of affected communities.
... In our sample, females reported greater distress and scored higher than males in the areas of avoidance, re-experiencing, and the total scores on Impact of Event Scale (Table 2). These results are consistent with the earlier studies (Helzer, Robins & McEvoy, 1987;Shore, Tatum & Vollner, 1986). However age-related differences in the rate of PTSD did not compare well with an earlier study (Shannon, Lonigan, Finch & Taylor, 1994) where younger children had more symptoms than the adolescents 2 (Table 3). ...
resentations from a Symposium held at the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, July 7 and 8, 2000
... For example, in the wake of the Mt. St. Helen's volcanic eruption, Shore, Tatum, and Vollmer (1986) found a significant doseresponse relationship between exposure to the disaster and increased mental disorders. The greater an individual's exposure to the Mt. ...
The purpose of this work is to examine the relationship between alcohol use and level of involvement during Hurricane Katrina among law enforcement officers, and to investigate whether marital status or previous military training offer resilience against negative outcomes. Officers in the immediate New Orleans geographic area completed surveys that assessed their involvement in Hurricane Katrina and alcohol use (Alcohol Use and Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) score). Negative binomial regression models were used to analyze level of hazardous alcohol use; interactions were tested to examine protective influences of marriage and prior military training (controlling for age and gender). There was a significant association between heavy involvement in Hurricane Katrina and having a greater AUDIT score (exp(β)[EB]=1.81; 95% CI: 1.03, 3.17; p 0.05). These results illustrate an association between law enforcement officers’ heavy involvement during Hurricane Katrina and greater levels of hazardous alcohol use when compared to officers with low or moderate involvement. This has important treatment implications for those with high involvement in disasters as they may require targeted interventions to overcome the stress of such experiences.
... However only about 14% -18% of all women and 10% of all men in the United States -develop PTSD in response to 3 PTSD among prisoners of war and concentration camp survivors is about 50% (7,8). In contrast, the prevalence rate of chronic PTSD in survivors of natural disasters is about 4% (9). The dose-response relationship between severity of the trauma and the subsequent development of PTSD suggests that vulnerability factors may be particularly important as one moves down along the spectrum of horror and catastrophe. ...
The first chapter being the initial focus of this book inherently incorporates the concepts, ideas, and approaches to the river bank erosion. The perspective of bank erosion hazard studies is explored through different popular approaches like the natural approach, anthropogenic approach, hazard approach, and rational approach. The works at the global scale indicate that the majority of the works are carried out in the recent decade (2010–2020) following the natural process approach. Interestingly, the European and North American traditions depict that riverbank erosion studies have been carried out since the 1970s with a great emphasis on the scenario of Asia, Africa, and Australia. Moreover, to make it an integrated and systematic study, the natural and social dimensions of riverbank erosion are analyzed side by side. The various spatial attributes (site, reach, and catchment) and temporal scales (ahistorical, short, medium, and long) at which the previous works have been carried out are taken into consideration.
Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants.
Change in marriage, birth, and divorce rates following Hurricane Hugo in 1989 were examined prospectively from 1975 to 1997 for all counties in South Carolina. Stress research and research on economic circumstances suggested that marriages and births would decline and divorces would increase in affected counties after the hurricane. Attachment theory suggested that marriages and births would increase and divorces would decline after the hurricane. Time-series analysis indicated that the year following the hurricane, marriage, birth, and divorce rates increased in the 24 counties declared disaster areas compared with the 22 other counties in the state. Taken together, the results suggested that a life-threatening event motivated people to take significant action in their close relationships that altered their life course.
Four issues of key interest with regard to posttraumatic stress disorder in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–IV) are discussed. These include: (a) how to define the stressor criterion, especially, whether or not the victim’s response ought to be included and whether low-magnitude traumas qualify etiologically; (b) the cohesiveness of the syndrome and the validity of items across stressor groups; (c) the position of posttraumatic stress disorder within DSM–IV; and (d) comorbidity with other illnesses.
Climate change affects all living things, and especially women in rural areas. Focusing on human-environment interaction, ubuntu offers a holistic perspective to interventions to reduce the destructive effects of not only the social environment but also the physical environment. The main purpose of the present study is to evaluate the impact of climate change on the lives of rural women with a bio-psycho-social perspective, in the focus of ubuntu philosophy, and offer social work intervention suggestions.
Although there seems to be no consensus among scholars with regard to a single definition of rural development, certain processes must be deeply involved in considering the phenomenon of rural development. These processes include increased agricultural productivity, the provision of health facilities and health care, the provision of water supply, markets, access roads, education, environmental sanitation, and equal access to facilities and programmes of government designed to benefit the population, particularly in the rural sector. This study examines the phenomenon of rural development with a special focus on northeastern Nigeria, considering the fact that the area has been under Boko Haram insurgency for a considerable period. What kind of rural development can be possible in this situation? A substantial number of rural areas in the region, which are deeply saturated by the crisis, have almost diminished while part of the remaining population has migrated to other places, mostly in metropolitan and urban centers. As they move to urban areas, they mostly stay among the urban poor, where they overstretch the resources, which are generally grossly inadequate in such areas. In this connection, therefore, rural development should follow a population that has the characteristics of rural dwellers rather than focusing only on the area. Government institutions and projects in rural areas have become the subject of attacks in such volatile areas. The government thus needed to redirect its rural development policies to follow their characteristics since their conditions appear more deplorable than in their original homes. Respondents were selected through purposive cluster sampling, with a focus on both Damaturu and Maiduguri. Where we choose clusters from the mainly affected areas by the armed conflicts within the geographical area of the northeast. The clusters included in Damaturu were from (Pampamari, Afganistan, and Maduri), while in Maiduguri they were from (Dalori, Kawar Mela, and El-Miskin). The selection of samples from the chosen clusters was done using a simple random sampling technique. The collected data were analysed using frequencies, percentages, and tabulations with the aid of SPSS, which also revealed the conclusions drawn from the research hypotheses formulated.
Objectives: There is evidence of the exacerbation of certain pathologies due to exposure to ashes and volcanic gases. We evaluated the relationship between volcanic eruptions and short- and long-term effects on human health. Methodology: A systematic peer review was carried out. The included diseases were respiratory, ophthalmological, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, as well as other effects on human health. All volcanoes on the planet were included. We included standard terms for volcanic eruptions and diseases related to them. Results: Of 57 included studies, 26 evaluated the relationship between volcanic eruptions and short-term effects on human health and 31 considered long-term effects on human health. The most frequently analyzed short-term diseases were respiratory pathologies (92%, n=24), ophthalmological (23%, n=6) and cardiovascular (23%, n=6), and respiratory pathologies (32%, n=10) and cancer (26%, n=8) in the long term. Most volcanoes were in the USA, Iceland, Japan, and Italy. 81% (n = 21) of the short-term and 74% (n=23) of the long-term studies consider that there is an affectation due to volcanic eruptions, compared to 11% (n=3) and 13% (n=4), respectively, that did not find this relationship. Conclusion: Heterogeneous results among studies reinforce the need to continue developing new studies for the evaluation of short- and long-term effects of volcanic eruptions on human health. Despite this, currently, most of the scientific community and international organizations agree that volcanic eruptions impact human health. Therefore, it is important to develop contingency plans to protect vulnerable populations from suffering the effects of these natural phenomena.
Using a random-digit-dial, computer-assisted telephone survey, the Civilian Mississippi Scale for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was administered in two communities, six to ten months after separate, moderately strong earthquakes. Controlling for demographic attributes, only one earthquake characteristic, in one community, emerged as an independent predictor of PTSD scores. Assuming that the scale is a valid indicator of PTSD, the disorder appears to be relatively rare and is not associated as expected with characteristics of the quake. For the appropriate community services to be mobilized, it is incumbent upon researchers to identify the tools that will provide useful information after a disaster.
Delivery of mental health treatment in the home can close gaps in care. Telehealth also provides access to healthcare that has been disrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2016, a home direct-to-consumer telehealth program was initiated. Mental health encounters made up a significant portion of all telehealth encounters and COVID-19 had a significant impact on accelerating the utilization of telehealth. Telemental health has been more successful at meeting targeted volumes than the overall health system. Of all the mental health diagnoses before and during COVID-19, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Anxiety Disorder were most common. The direct-to-consumer telehealth program saved patients a significant amount of travel miles and associated time, based on data from the period before COVID-19. Payment reimbursement for direct-to-consumer telehealth professional services was similar to reimbursement for in-person visits. This program demonstrates direct-to-consumer telehealth is a feasible and acceptable care modality for a variety of youth mental health disorders.
Synopsis
CNS changes seem to play a critical role for fibromyalgia abnormalities, including pain, hyperalgesia, fatigue, and dyscognition. Like many other chronic pain syndromes, fibromyalgia, is a treatable illness. Effective disease management programs include SNRIs, aerobic exercise and CBT. Future treatment strategies will benefit from focusing on abnormal fibromyalgia pain mechanisms.
Social psychology of people affected by hazards is different from normal psychology For example, severe bank erosion in the lower reach of the Bhagirathi River in West Bengal has resulted in significant land loss (~60% of all households lost land over last 20 years) and affected the livelihoods of the people in the study villages along the river. Per capita income has almost halved from 1970–2012 due to land loss. This stark nature of land erosion and vulnerability of livelihood has had far-reaching repercussions on the fabric of society and the psychology of the people in this region. Results showed that erosion-affected villages have registered comparatively larger average family sizes (~4.1 as compared to ~3.9 in non-affected villages), lower literacy levels (< 50% compared to > 65% for the non-affected villages), and poor health. Reports of poor health as a result of land erosion include ~60% of the respondents having reported physical ailments such as headache and abdominal discomfort, as well as 3%-5% reporting loss of emotional and psychological balance. Villages suffering from erosion showed higher positive loadings in average-coefficient of variation (CV) differential
(25%–40%) depicting objectivity in their opinions for select variables of social processes. Principal component analysis (PCA) portrayed maximum eigenvalues in the first principal component for interpersonal processes (~98%) and a minimum for intergroup processes (~80%). Categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) depicted a cluster between interpersonal and intergroup processes and another between intra-individual and group categories. The positive loadings in female-male differences in CV of perceptions portrayed relative consistency of males over the females concerning fear/phobia and physical stress while negative loadings exhibited higher consistency for females regarding psychological stress and shock. Lastly, the Tajfel matrix portrayed a distinction between hazardpsychology characterized by maximum joint profit as found in Rukunpur, and normal psychology characterized by in-group favoritism as found in Matiari.
Extreme events, such as natural and human-made disasters, often have short- and long-term psychological impacts that far exceed the degree of medical morbidity and mortality that ensues. Indeed, Lechat (1979) defined a disaster as a “disruption exceeding the adjustment capacity of the affected community” (p. 11). Since World War II, a number of studies have assessed the emotional consequences of a variety of natural disasters, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes, as well as technological and human-made catastrophes, such as the nuclear power plant accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI) in the United States and Chernobyl in Ukraine (Bromet and Dew 1995; Havenaar et al. 1996; Raphael 1986; Weisaeth 1993), the Nazi Holocaust (Robinson et al. 1994), and the Cambodian massacre (Kinzie et al. 1989). Studies aimed at describing the prevalence of psychological impairment or disorders in populations exposed to disasters are best conceptualized as epidemiologic in nature.
Recently, an increasing interest has been directed towards the investigation of brain effects of ionizing radiation (IR), as it is now evident that, depending on the doses, the damages character and severity, as well as clinical manifestations are different. They are generally considered to be the result of a blending of atherosclerotic, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative processes. Further, an ongoing debate has been opened on the possible brain abnormalities following medical radiation from X-ray in interventional radiology and nuclear medicine procedures that would involve both patients and medical workers. The aim of the present paper is to summarize literature data on brain effects of IR exposure, with a special focus on those gathered by some of the authors after the Chornobyl nuclear plant disaster, and how they can be related to the pathophysiology of different neuropsychiatric disorders.
Key words: ionizing radiation, brain, Chornobyl disaster, neuropsychiatric disorders, neurogenesis, hippocampus, neuroinflammation, atherosclerosis
The inclusion of a chapter on psychosocial response to environment change among the elderly in this volume is a tribute to three decades of theoretical and applied research contributions in the areas of environmental psychology and social gerontology. Although initially challenged to provide explanations for eye opening, but somewhat misleading, early findings such as those suggesting that placement of elderly in institutions could dramatically shorten their lifespan (Carmargo & Preston, 1945; Josephy, 1949; Lieberman, 1961), the field has subsequently been marked by the development of theoretical models and methodological strategies to account for the impact of a variety of environmental changes on the physical and emotional well-being of the elderly.
Exposure to traumatic events is a common experience. Although post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is often thought of as the psychological disorder that is most commonly triggered by a trauma, other diagnoses such as generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) may also develop in response to a traumatic event. There is a high degree of comorbidity between the two diagnoses and a significant degree of overlap in the symptoms of these disorders. Worry is a common experience in both disorders, and numerous mechanisms of action have been proposed for worry in individuals who experience a traumatic event and develop either GAD or PTSD. However, future research is necessary to identify what factors predict which individuals develop PTSD or GAD in response to a traumatic event.
Freud assumed in the early stages of his career that neuroses could be explained by childhood trauma. Later he considered it a phantasy. Recent statistics on child-abuse suggest that Freud’s early theories had a realistic basis.
Extreme Ereignisse wie Naturkatastrophen oder von Menschen ausgelöste Katastrophen haben oft kurz oder langfristige psychische Auswirkungen, die das Ausmaß der traumatischen medizinisch bedingten Morbidität und Mortalität bei weitem übersteigen. Lechat (1979) definierte Katastrophen auch tatsächlich als einen „Bruch, der die Anpassungsfähigkeit der betroffenen Gemeinschaft übersteigt“ (ebd., S. 11).
This chapter reviews Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), and Adjustment Disorder (AD), all of which are newly classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM- 5) as Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders given their shared etiology of a stressful event that precipitates a clinically significant change in cognitions, emotions, and/or behavior. The chapter provides definitions and summarizes epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and comorbidity. The course and natural history of these disorders are also reviewed. The chapter further reviews the overall goals of treatment and discusses specific treatment approaches and factors influencing response. General principles of treating PTSD involve explanation and destigmatization, which can be provided to both the patient and the family members. Research investigating psychological treatments for ASD is beginning to emerge, with initial results suggesting that both exposure and cognitive behavioral therapies show promise.
There have been rapid advances made in the pharmacological treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the last decade. Based on numerous controlled clinical trials, antidepressants are the first-line pharmacological treatment for this disorder. Multiple studies suggest the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (fluoxetine, sertraline, and paroxetine) are efficacious in reducing PTSD-specific symptoms and improving global outcome; tricyclic anti-depressants (imipramine) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (phenelzine) have also been found to be efficacious. For those who are resistant or refractory to antidepressant treatment, prazosin is emerging as a beneficial adjunctive agent in treating PTSD-related sleep disturbances and nightmares, and atypical antipsychotics (risperidone, olanzapine) appear to be efficacious against a broad range of symptoms, though their potential for causing metabolic side effects may limit their use. Controlled clinical trials are needed to assess whether anticonvulsants, cortisol, and sympatholytics are efficacious, and how and when pharmacotherapy can supplement or enhance psychotherapy outcomes. The pace of advances in recent years suggests that the promise of even more effective pharmacological treatments for PTSD is likely to be realized in the coming years.
Von je her waren Menschen mit Ereignissen konfrontiert, die ihr eigenes Leben, das Leben von Gemeinschaften und von ganzen Völkern bedrohen. Gebrechen, Krankheit und Tod begleiten sie durch ihre Geschichte, sind Motor individueller wie auch kollektiver Veränderungen. In den psychologischen Betrachtungen dazu stehen einerseits das individuelle Erleben im Mittelpunkt der Aufmerksamkeit — dabei geht es um den Umgang mit Trauma und Trauer — andererseits auch der Umgang ganzer Menschengruppen und Gesellschaften mit derartigen existenzbedrohenden Phänomenen. Eine Katastrophe ist „die Unterbrechung der Funktionsfähigkeit einer Gesellschaft, die Verluste an Menschenleben, Sachwerten und Umweltgütern verursacht und die Fähigkeit der betroffenen Gesellschaft, aus eigener Kraft damit fertig zu werden, übersteigt“ (vgl. United Nations, 1992, S. 3, Anhang M).
Because only a proportion of persons exposed to traumatic events develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), it has become important to elucidate the factors that increase the risk for the development of PTSD following trauma exposure as well as the factors that might serve to protect individuals from developing this condition. Putative risk factors for PTSD may describe the index traumatic event or characteristics of persons who experience those events. Recent data have implicated biological and familial risk factors for PTSD. For example, our recent studies have demonstrated an increased prevalence of PTSD in the adult children of Holocaust survivors, even though these children, as a group, do not report a greater exposure to life-threatening (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [DSM-IV] Criterion A) events. These studies are reviewed. It is difficult to know to what extent the increased vulnerability to PTSD in family members of trauma survivors is related to biological or genetic phenomena as opposed to experiential ones. because of the large degree of shared environment in families. In particular, at-risk family members, such as children, may be more vulnerable to PTSD as a result of witnessing the extreme suffering of a parent with chronic PTSD rather than because of inherited genes. But even if the diathesis for PTSD were somehow "biologically transmitted" to children of trauma survivors, the diathesis is still a consequence of the traumatic stress in the parent. Thus, even the most biological of explanations for vulnerability must at some point deal with the fact that a traumatic event has occurred.
Follow-up long-term stress effects to bombardment by scud missiles were restudied 1 year following the Persian Gulf war in a group of 326 6th, 8th, and 11th grade children from areas hit and not hit by the missiles. Postwar stress reactions were assessed by a continuous global symptom score (Frederick and Pynoos, 1988) and by a dichotomous PTSD index. Overall, a large drop in stress reactions was obtained with lapse of time. Residual long-term stress reactions were found to be associated with higher immediate (4-week) stress reactions, a greater degree of exposure, and younger age. Results were discussed in relation to residual and evaporation of stress reaction effects as well as in terms of childhood resilience.
A simple and powerful idea underlies this chapter as well as the volume as a whole. In essence it stipulates that good clinical practice must be guided by state-of-the-art knowledge concerning the topic of interest. Relevant sources of information may include: (1) psychosocial theory and associated empirical research; (2) prior clinical experience; (3) and personal life experiences. The remainder of the chapter provides an overview of available knowledge concerning the nature of traumatic stress. The material represents a synthesis of the aforementioned sources of information.
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