No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
A New Hominid Fossil Skull (L.H. 18) from the Ngaloba Beds, Laetoli, Northern Tanzania
Abstract
In 1976, a fossil hominid skull was recovered from the Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli, Northern Tanzania; its morphology is discussed here. The discovery of this skull is of great interest and importance because of its very substantial presumed antiquity and its largely anatomically modern morphology. The discovery has considerable implications for the antiquity and origin of modern Homo sapiens, a subject of longstanding interest and one which has gained renewed attention recently.
... The sample is divided into an archaic group, including fossils that have been attributed to Homo heidelbergensis, H. rhodesiensis and H. helmei and deriving from deposits roughly 700 to 190 ka, and a modern group, composed of specimens attributed to H. sapiens and dating roughly between 195 to 115 ka (with some specimens perhaps being as young as 90 ka). Following Day et al. (1980) and Hublin (1991Hublin ( , 1992, we include , Singa (Sudan) and Thomas Quarries (Morocco) -are too incomplete to allow reliable estimation of orbital dimensions. We have purposefully limited the modern human sample to specimens of terminal Middle Pleistocene (and early last interglacial) age, as our intent was to examine possible body size changes at the time of the emergence of anatomically modern humans. ...
... A partial cranium (LH 18) from Laetoli (Day et al., 1980) preserves portions of the facial skeleton, which, following reconstruction (Cohen, 1996), allow estimation of orbital dimensions. The facial skeleton is relatively small, and Cohen provides an orbital height of 22.5 mm and a breadth of 31.5 mm based on the reconstruction. ...
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
... This site belongs to the UNESCO Humankind patrimoine because it has provided the early Australopithecine footprints and an exceptional Plio-Pleistocene faunal assemblage (Leakey & Hay 1979, see references in Harrison 2011). It is also known for the discovery in 1976 of a well-preserved skull of one of the earliest Homo sapiens of Africa in association with lithic tools and faunal remains of Middle Pleistocene affinity (129 kyr) (Day et al. 1980;Magori & Day 1983;Masao & Kimambo 2021) that fit with the nearby Lake Eyasi hominin assemblages dated around 100-130 kyr (Dominguez-Rodriguo et al. 2007;Dominguez-Rodriguo et al. 2008). In Ethiopia, other early hominines have been recovered like in the Upper Herto Member of the Bouri Formation, Middle Awash, Afar Rift whose fossils and artefacts are dated between 160 and 154 kyr by the 40Ar/39Ar method (Clark et al. 2003;White et al. 2003). ...
... On the top of the series, the Ngaloba Beds are fluviatile deposits (sands and clays) which contain a trachytic tuff younger than Olduvai Bed IV. Its estimated age is 120 ± 30 kyr (Day et al. 1980). The skull of the L.H. 18 site was collected in locality 2 South above the vogesite lava and was described in detail by Magori & Day (1983). ...
... The discovery of hominid fossils such as Australopithecus afarensis and archaic Homo sapiens or the Ngaloba skull (White, 1977;Day et al., 1980) encouraged Ndessokia (1990), who successfully found fauna at Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds in the Laetoli area dated to Ca 3.0-2.5 ma (see Appendix photo-4). This study helped in archaeological correlation, taphonomy and palaeo-environmental reconstruction. ...
... The open grassland environment might have favoured modern human adaptation. From the streambeds of sandstone and claystone of Ngaloba Beds of Laetoli zone two (Day et al., 1980), similar MSA artefacts made on lumps of lava and a skull were uncovered. These deposits are chronologically contemporaneous to Ndutu Beds. ...
Spatial assimilation and the dynamicity of urban land use are significant issues in the study of modern towns and cities. Many studies have been conducted to monitor urban land use and sprawl of metropolitan cities or other big cities in India and other countries. But the same kinds of studies conducted for small and medium towns/cities are lesser in number. In this chapter, supervised image classification technique with maximum likelihood classifier algorithm has been applied to estimate the land use/land cover (LULC) change over two time periods using ERDAS imagine (v.14). For assessing the supervised classification technique’s accuracy, confusion or error matrix and kappa coefficient (K) have been applied. A conversion map has been generated from the classified image pairs to measure the quantitative characteristic of changes. Shannon entropy method has been used to find out the urban sprawls. The result of this analysis indicates that the built-up increased significantly from 32.86 km2 in 1990 to 61.16 km2 in 2019 in Siliguri (UA), and for Raiganj (UA), it increased from 4.76 km2 in 1991 to 22.41 km2 in 2019, resulting in a loss in prime agricultural land, fallow land, and vegetation. Shannon entropy has provided excellent assistance for quantifying the sprawling mechanism in both areas to obtain the result. The findings of this chapter may help planners and policymakers guiding urban land management in the context of rapid conversion, as seen in the recent past.KeywordsLand use/coverChange detectionUrban sprawlRemote sensing and GIS
... The discovery of hominid fossils such as Australopithecus afarensis and archaic Homo sapiens or the Ngaloba skull (White, 1977;Day et al., 1980) encouraged Ndessokia (1990), who successfully found fauna at Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds in the Laetoli area dated to Ca 3.0-2.5 ma (see Appendix photo-4). This study helped in archaeological correlation, taphonomy and palaeo-environmental reconstruction. ...
... The open grassland environment might have favoured modern human adaptation. From the streambeds of sandstone and claystone of Ngaloba Beds of Laetoli zone two (Day et al., 1980), similar MSA artefacts made on lumps of lava and a skull were uncovered. These deposits are chronologically contemporaneous to Ndutu Beds. ...
Land deterioration affects cropland and land suitability throughout the globe and is one of the forces that lead to the harming of land richness, thus resulting in meager productivity, caused by both natural as well as anthropogenic factors. Deterioration of crop areas by land abrasion is a global encounter prompting deprivation of supplement-intense surface soil, enhanced effluents from more impervious lands, thus less availability of water flora, and also leads to other calamities such as landslides. That one may examine the aftermath of this very issue, the demand of the hour is to comprehend the reasons, effects, and seriousness of this issue. Researchers, and environmentalists all over the world, are creating strategies for evaluation. Ground appraisals, professional assessments, object notations, end user’s judgments, aptness acclimation, remote sensing, and modeling methods are some of the ways to approach this issue. In this study, RUSLE was used to generate a soil erosion map of the study area. Five years of mean yearlong information is used for the computation of the annual rainfall factor. The soil survey was done by the NBSS & LUP, and parameters such as sand, silt, clay, and organic matter content were taken into consideration to generate the K factor. Likewise, to generate the value of LS factor, a DEM was used. To generate the cover factor values, NDVI was used in a geographic information system (GIS) environment. All these factors were generated in the GIS environment to obtain the results. The erosion maps achieved were categorized into slight (0–5 t/h/year), moderate (5–10 t/h/year), high (10–20 t/h/year), very high (20–40 t/h/year), severe (40–80 t/h/year), and very severe (>80 t/h/year). The map thus generated will serve as a tool for planners for proper conservation practices in the area.
... The discovery of hominid fossils such as Australopithecus afarensis and archaic Homo sapiens or the Ngaloba skull (White, 1977;Day et al., 1980) encouraged Ndessokia (1990), who successfully found fauna at Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds in the Laetoli area dated to Ca 3.0-2.5 ma (see Appendix photo-4). This study helped in archaeological correlation, taphonomy and palaeo-environmental reconstruction. ...
... The open grassland environment might have favoured modern human adaptation. From the streambeds of sandstone and claystone of Ngaloba Beds of Laetoli zone two (Day et al., 1980), similar MSA artefacts made on lumps of lava and a skull were uncovered. These deposits are chronologically contemporaneous to Ndutu Beds. ...
In analyzing the Earth’s surface pattern, geochronology, natural resources, natural hazards and landscape growth Anthropogeomorphological mapping has played an important role. It includes dividing the field into metaphysical space entities that use criteria such as morphology (form), genetics (process), shape and function, chronology, correlations between the biophysical environment (land cover, soils, ecology), and spatial and topological connections between surface characteristics (landforms). This chapter explores the importance of geospatial technologies in Anthropogeomorphology and its use of different ways for the study of geomorphology and human involvement. Instead of seeking to cover wider areas of GIS-based scientific research, this chapter focuses on geomorphological problems and knowledge criteria dictating application creation and refinement. It also illustrates the relevance of the shortcomings of perception with regard to depiction, size, measurement and remote sensing.Keywords
Anthropogeomorphology
LandformRemote sensingGIS
... The discovery of hominid fossils such as Australopithecus afarensis and archaic Homo sapiens or the Ngaloba skull (White, 1977;Day et al., 1980) encouraged Ndessokia (1990), who successfully found fauna at Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds in the Laetoli area dated to Ca 3.0-2.5 ma (see Appendix photo-4). This study helped in archaeological correlation, taphonomy and palaeo-environmental reconstruction. ...
... The open grassland environment might have favoured modern human adaptation. From the streambeds of sandstone and claystone of Ngaloba Beds of Laetoli zone two (Day et al., 1980), similar MSA artefacts made on lumps of lava and a skull were uncovered. These deposits are chronologically contemporaneous to Ndutu Beds. ...
... In Kenya, the Guomde calvarium (KNM-ER 3884), which lacks most of the facial and frontal bones 25 , has been dated to 270-300 ka with ɤray spectrometry 26 , while an age of 200-300 ka has been suggested for the nearly complete Eliye Springs skull (KNM-ES 11693 27 ) on the basis of its morphology 28 . Further South, a 200-300 ka cranium (LH18 29,30 ) was discovered in the Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli (Tanzania), and in South Africa, the site of Florisbad yielded a partially preserved cranium dated to 259 ka 31 . Lastly, the recently discovered remains of H. naledi, dated to 236-335 ka 32 , add major complexity to the LMP hominin record of southern Africa. ...
... For instance, the Jebel Irhoud remains were originally described as showing strong similarities with Neandertals 33 , while the study of the new Irhoud remains emphasises their affinities with H. sapiens, despite the absence of key modern humans apomorphies (i.e., tall and globular vault, and inverted T chin) 18 . The Guomde 25 , Ngaloba 30 , Eliye Springs 27 and Florisbad 34 specimens along with Omo II 22 and possibly the pathological Singa calvarium 35 , have been mostly referred to as 'archaic H. sapiens', a category grouping isolated fossils with disparate morphologies. This situation challenges any attempt at identifying the evolutionary mechanisms that may explain the morphological pattern in the African LMP fossil record, as well as identifying the ancestral population, or populations, of modern humans. ...
The origin of Homo sapiens remains a matter of debate. The extent and geographic patterning of morphological diversity among Late Middle Pleistocene (LMP) African hominins is largely unknown, thus precluding the definition of boundaries of variability in early H. sapiens and the interpretation of individual fossils. Here we use a phylogenetic modelling method to predict possible morphologies of a last common ancestor of all modern humans, which we compare to LMP African fossils (KNM-ES 11693, Florisbad, Irhoud 1, Omo II, and LH18). Our results support a complex process for the evolution of H. sapiens, with the recognition of different, geographically localised, populations and lineages in Africa - not all of which contributed to our species' origin. Based on the available fossils, H. sapiens appears to have originated from the coalescence of South and, possibly, East-African source populations, while North-African fossils may represent a population which introgressed into Neandertals during the LMP.
... It has to be noted here that the Ngaloba LH18 reference cranium consists of two separately scanned fragments, the calvaria and the splanchnocranium, which had to be manually reconstructed. As described in the original publication of this specimen (Day et al. 1980), there is no direct anatomical articulation between these fragments and the reconstruction must therefore remain speculative. We nevertheless approximated the original reconstruction by Day et al. (1980) and note that the degree of facial prognathism can otherwise vary depending on the positioning of the splanchnocranium relative to the calvaria. ...
... As described in the original publication of this specimen (Day et al. 1980), there is no direct anatomical articulation between these fragments and the reconstruction must therefore remain speculative. We nevertheless approximated the original reconstruction by Day et al. (1980) and note that the degree of facial prognathism can otherwise vary depending on the positioning of the splanchnocranium relative to the calvaria. In addition, the LH18 cranium is somewhat distorted in the frontal/facial area. ...
Our current knowledge of the emergence of anatomically modern humans, and
the human lineage in general, is limited, in large part because of the lack of a well
preserved and well dated fossil record from Pleistocene Africa. Thus, the primary
aim of our research is to partly relieve this problem by virtually reconstructing and
analyzing the hominin cranial remains of Kabua 1, found in Kenya in the 1950s.
Most scholars have argued that Kabua 1 represents an anatomically modern
Homo sapiens, although the fragmentary nature of the remains and lack of a
chronometric date hinder robust phylogenetic and taxonomic assessments. This
manuscript presents the first steps taken to resolve this issue, namely a set of
reconstructions of the specimen that would allow comparison with the fossil
record. First, we virtually removed sediment and laboratory adhesives from μct
scans of the fragments. Subsequently, all fragments were separated by segmentation
of the μct data and described. Finally, virtual surface projections were
used in the creation of several anatomical reconstructions, based on separate
reference crania. These first steps provide a framework that will be used for
quantitative shape analyses that aim to more firmly place these remains in the
context of human evolution.
... On its part, the Ngaloban industry, found from the upper Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli, is documented by two assemblages found during survey works (Mabulla, 2015;Masao & Kimambo, 2022). The upper Ngaloba Beds dated between 240 and 100 ka BP (Manega, 1993) is associated with LH18, considered to be an early Modern Human (Day et al., 1980;Magori & Day, 1983). The industry employes discoid methods and typologically, is characterized by the presence of scrapers, heavy-duty pieces, unifacial and bifacial points, and a small number of core axes. ...
The Mumba rockshelter, located in the northwest of Lake Eyasi is key to understanding the Stone Age in East Africa. The stratigraphy of the site spans the last 130 ka BP and comprises levels from the Middle Stone Age, the Later Stone Age, the Pastoral Neolithic, and the Iron Age. In terms of the Middle Stone Age (MSA), Mumba has helped to define two lithic industries: Sanzako (130 ka BP) and Kisele (90–50 Ka BP) that characterize this techno-complex in northern Tanzania. The Sanzako industry was defined based on level VI-B at Mumba, which was excavated in 1938 by Köhl-Larssen. Here we present the study of the lithic assemblage excavated by Mehlman between 1977 and 1981. Mehlman subdivided this unit into three sublevels (Lower, Middle, and Upper), all of which remained unanalyzed and therefore, unpublished. The main features of the lithic assemblages found in the three sublevels are the presence of discoid, Levallois, and bipolar knapping methods. Additionally, the retouched tools are mainly sidescrapers, denticulates, and notches. This recent research enables us to understand the Sanzako industry in more detail, as well as its nature within the chronocultural framework of the MSA in northern Tanzania.
... 4 Because it presents a number of more derived characters of Homo sapiens (including a larger cranial capacity) and has a more recent geological age (∼120k) than other members of this taxon, Ngaloba cannot be included in this group. 2,11 In support of their arguments, Roksandic et al. employ numerous misconceptions, and often present hypotheses as facts. ...
In an Evolutionary Anthropology article Roksandic et al. (2022) propose a new middle Pleistocene hominin species H. bodoensis to replace a “poorly defined” Homo heidelbergenis. Homo bodoensis extends from the African Middle Pleistocene through the Levant to South‐eastern Europe with all currently classified H. heidelbergensis fossils from western Europe subsumed into Homo neandertalensis. The authors claim their new species will be more clearly defined than H. heidelbergensis and will better describe hominin variation and evolution in the middle Pleistocene. Roksandic et al. are unable to account for some European fossils (i.e., Petralona and Arago) and provide no evidence as to how their new species meets their objectives. Fatally, they overlook the priority rule and fail to realize that H. bodoensis is both a junior synonym of Homo rhodesiensis and Homo saldanensis. Roksandic et al. conflate taxonomy with phylogeny, present hypotheses as facts, and harbor many systematic and evolutionary misconceptions.
... Various additional, more recent, fossil sites have yielded Arvicanthis, including the Omo C, F, G, and Asbole sites in Ethiopia (Wesselman, 1984;Geraads et al., 2004); Olduvai Beds I and II and the Natron Peninj site in Tanzania (Jaeger, 1976(Jaeger, , 1979Denys, 1987Denys, , 1989Denys, , 1990; East Turkana (Black & Krishtalka, 1986); and Isenya (Brugal & Denys, 1989) in Kenya. Even more recent sites, such as Bir Tarfawi in Saharan Egypt (0.2 Mya; Kowalski, 1993) and Laetoli Ngaloba Beds in Tanzania (Day & Magori, 1980), have also yielded fossils attributed to Arvicanthis. Fossil Arvicanthis have also been described from sites well outside the current range of the genus, including Plio-Pleistocene sites of Maghreb (Jaeger, 1976) and from Palestine (Tchernov, 1968). ...
The present study clarified the taxonomy, phylogeny and historical demography of semicommensal Nile rats (Arvicanthis) from the Nile Valley in Sudan. Nile rats are important crop pests and zoonotic disease reservoirs and are closely associated with agricultural settlements in the Nile Valley. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete cytochrome b gene (1140 bp) of 23 individuals from six localities in Sudan (from two previously recognized species, Arvicanthis niloticus and Arvicanthis testicularis), supported the existence of only a single species, A. niloticus, from the Nile Valley. Historical demography of the Sudanese Nile Valley population inferred from mismatch coefficients indicated that an exponential population expansion event occurred approximately 144 000-288 000 years ago, corresponding in time with early human expansion and colonization from Africa to the Middle East, Europe, and the world. The inferred high level of gene flow and large size of Sudanese Nile populations of A. niloticus is consistent with historically recent (300 years ago) exponential human population growth and intense agricultural activity inferred from archaeological and historical evidence. Two African Arvicanthis clades were well supported by the broader phylogenetic analysis: (1) A. niloticus, Arvicanthis abyssinicus and Arvicanthis neumanni and (2) Arvicanthis rufinus and Arvicanthis ansorgei from western Africa. Within the first clade, divergence between lineages of A. niloticus s.s. from west and northeast Africa (8.9%) suggests specific recognition, but sampling of geographically intermediate localities is required. Based on hypothesized palaeodrainage and palaeo-climatic patterns, we propose a simple model for speciation of Arvicanthis in Africa.
... As already suggested by Trinkaus (2004), specific traits, such the weak occipital torus and the depression above inion, distinguish Eyasi I from most other African Middle Pleistocene fossils such as Broken Hill (Woodward, 1921), Bodo (Conroy et al., 1978), and Ndutu (Mturi, 1976). The presence of a suprainiac depression is also different from the morphology of other African early H. sapiens, including Ngaloba LH-18 (Day et al., 1980), Omo 2 (Day, 1969), and KNM-ER 3884 (Br€ auer et al., 1992). A depression is however present in Eliye Springs KNM-ES 11693 (Br€ auer and Leakey, 1986) and K ebibat (Rabat) 1 (Saban, 1975) specimens. ...
Despite a steady increase in our understanding of the phenotypic variation of Pleistocene Homo, debate continues over phylogenetically informative features. One such trait is the suprainiac fossa, a depression on the occipital bone above inion that is commonly considered an autapomorphy of the Neanderthal lineage. Challenging this convention, depressions in the suprainiac region have also been described for two Pleistocene hominin crania from sub-Saharan Africa: Eyasi I (Tanzania) and ADU-VP-1/3 (Ethiopia). Here, we use a combined quantitative and qualitative approach, using μCT imaging, to investigate the occipital depressions on these specimens. The results show that neither the external nor the internal morphologies of these depressions bear any resemblance to the Neanderthal condition. A principal component analysis based on multiple thickness measurements along the occipital squama demonstrates that the relative thickness values for the internal structures in Eyasi I and ADU-VP-1/3 are within the range of Homo sapiens. Thus, our results support the autapomorphic status of the Neanderthal suprainiac fossa and highlight the need to use nuanced approaches and multiple lines of evidence.
... 14 Isimila may provide a unique temporal and geographic window into the Acheulean at the Acheulean-MSA transition in East Africa, although new dates are necessary to better contextualise the site. Within Tanzania, the lower beds of Isimila (Sands 3-5) are broadly contemporaneous with the Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli 15 , which yielded Laetoli Hominid 18 (LH 18), a partial Homo cranium 16,17 . While no hominin remains have been found at Isimila, the region preserves an extensive archaeological sequence ranging from the Middle Pleistocene to the Iron Age. ...
Isimila is a Middle Pleistocene archaeological site located in southern Tanzania. The site is known for large surface assemblages of later Acheulean lithics such as hand axes, cleavers, scrapers and cores. While hominin remains have yet to be discovered at the site, Isimila offers a unique window into Middle Pleistocene Homo behaviour. Although Isimila has been studied extensively, the last published map of the site and surrounding area was made available in the 1970s. Here, we present an updated high-resolution map of Isimila. Data for the map were collected during aerial survey with an uncrewed(unmanned) aerial vehicle. With this map, we identified new archaeological localities, erosional patterns, newly exposed geological features and changes in site topography. The map demonstrates patterns of stone tool and raw material distribution that may support previous hypotheses of short-distance raw material transport into the area by hominins. This open-access map establishes a baseline for tracking changes to site topography in the future and serves as a unique tool to enable collaboration between researchers, museum personnel and local populations to better conserve Isimila.
Significance:
• New potential archaeological localities and significant changes to erosional patterns at Isimila were identified.
• The open access map and associated raw data provided enable researchers to track seasonal and erosional changes and anthropogenic effects, and to develop protocols for conservation of this unique site.
Open data set:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1470770
... Furthermore, there are limited studies on the archaeological and paleontological importance of the site (Masao et al. 2016 and references therein). For instance, studies that followed earlier discovery by Mary Leakey and colleagues focused on Laetoli's geology (Hay 1987;Ndessokia 1990), hominid remains (Day, Leakey, and Magori 1980;Leakey 1987), further interpretation of the hominid footprints (Clarke 1979;Meldrum et al. 2011) as well as challenges regarding the footprints' protection (Musiba et al. 2012). These studies inform that the distribution of archaeological remains of Laetoli are not as rich or diversified as that of the Laetoli's nearby site of Olduvai Gorge. ...
In 1976 and 2014, scientists reported hominin footprints in Pliocene volcanic deposits at Laetoli, northeastern Tanzania. They hypothesized that the footprints belong to the extinct hominin species Australopithecus afarensis. Not only have the footprints shaped scientists' understanding of human biological evolution, but they have also placed Laetoli and Tanzania on the world's paleoanthropological studies map. However, there have been different interpretations of who made these footprints. Opinions of the scientists on the footprints are widely documented, yet narratives of Maasai (local people living around Laetoli) have never been investigated. This paper documents the perceptions of Maasai on what these footprints are, and to whom they belong. We report that concepts related to the nature and genesis of the footprints and who made them form part of the Maasai's history. Finally, we suggest that for sustainable footprints preservation, local narratives about footprints be integrated into scientific interpretations of the site.
... Isimila may provide a window into the terminal Acheulean at the Acheulean-MSA transition. 11 Within Tanzania, the lower beds of Isimila (Sands 3-5) are roughly contemporaneous with the Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli 14 , which yielded Laetoli Hominid 18 (LH 18), a partial Homo cranium 15,16 . While no hominin remains have been found at Isimila, the region preserves an extensive archaeological sequence ranging from the Middle Pleistocene to the Iron Age. 17 As such, Isimila and the broader region provide a unique window into hominin behavior, ecology, and paleoenvironments at a critical time period in human evolution and more recent human history. ...
Isimila is a Middle Pleistocene archaeological site located in southern Tanzania. The site is known for large surface assemblages of later Acheulean lithics such as hand axes, cleavers, scrapers, and cores. While hominin remains have yet to be discovered at the site, Isimila offers a unique window into Middle Pleistocene Homo behavior. Although Isimila has been studied extensively, the last published map of the site and surrounding area was made available in the 1970s. Here, we present an updated high-resolution map of Isimila. Data for the map were collected during aerial survey with an uncrewed/unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). With this map, we identify new archaeological localities, erosional patterns, newly exposed geological features, and changes in site topography. The map reveals patterns of stone tool and raw material distribution that may support previous hypotheses of raw material transport into the area by hominins. This open-access map establishes a baseline for tracking changes to site topography in the future and serves as a unique tool to enable collaboration between researchers, museum personnel, and local populations to better conserve Isimila.
There is a seeming consensus among geneticists and paleontologists that Homo sapiens emerged in Africa during the Middle Pleistocene, with most genetic studies indicating that the deepest human lineages can be identified among the indigenous populations of southern Africa. The African fossil record is very spotty from MIS 7 through MIS 4, with a slight improvement in MIS 3. MIS 3 is of significance for our understanding of human evolution in Africa. This was a period of extreme climatic variability over most of South Africa, and this was accompanied by greater lithic variability in the archaeological record with the transition from the Middle to the Later Stone Age. Among the human fossils from MIS 3 is the partial skull from Hofmeyr, South Africa. The contributions that comprise the present volume reveal the tremendous amount of information that has been painstakingly extracted from this specimen. These chapters serve to place the Hofmeyr skull in the context of Late Pleistocene human evolution.
Hominin evolution during the Middle Pleistocene is highly debated, with little consensus as to the number of penecontemporaneous lineages, their correct taxonomy, and their phylogeny. Studies addressing this debate present conflicting results depending on the methods used and the morphological area under consideration. This study aimed to explore the connection between facial morphology and geography in Middle Pleistocene hominins and to test the morphological basis for the hypothesis of a single-lineage phylogeny in Europe encompassing the Middle Pleistocene hominins and Homo neanderthalensis. The craniofacial morphology of European Middle Pleistocene hominins was examined using a multi-method approach which combined geometric morphometrics with categorical observation to allow for a comparison of the results generated by different methods. The results highlight that Middle Pleistocene hominins are characterized by morphological mosaicism in the craniofacial region; symplesiomorphic and apomorphic traits are combined, suggesting that discrepancies between previous studies likely stem from this mosaic morphological profile in combination with a lack of uniquely distinguishing traits that could help to separate Middle Pleistocene hominins from other hominin groups and from each other. Furthermore, intracontinental craniofacial variation in European Middle Pleistocene hominins was found to be roughly equal to intercontinental variation in Middle Pleistocene hominins more broadly, highlighting the complexity and multiplicity of hominin morphology during this period and lending support to the suggestion of multiple hominin lineages. This paper then argues for the development of a more fluid approach, aimed at understanding the broader evolutionary processes guiding hominin evolution during the Middle Pleistocene. An important step in this process will be to free Middle Pleistocene hominins from the restrictive context of the evolution of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, allowing members of this group to be studied outside of their role as transitional forms and instead to be understood as hominins with their own evolutionary fate.
Humans evolved in the dynamic landscapes of Africa under conditions of pronounced climatic, geological and environmental change during the past 7 million years. This book brings together detailed records of the paleontological and archaeological sites in Africa that provide the basic evidence for understanding the environments in which we evolved. Chapters cover specific sites, with comprehensive accounts of their geology, paleontology, paleobotany, and their ecological significance for our evolution. Other chapters provide important regional syntheses of past ecological conditions. This book is unique in merging a broad geographic scope (all of Africa) and deep time framework (the past 7 million years) in discussing the geological context and paleontological records of our evolution and that of organisms that evolved alongside our ancestors. It will offer important insights to anyone interested in human evolution, including researchers and graduate students in paleontology, archaeology, anthropology and geology.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
The discovery of the first species of African hominin, Australopithecus africanus, from Taung, South Africa in 1924, launched the study of fossil man in Africa. New discoveries continue to confirm the importance of this region to our understanding of human evolution. Outlining major developments since Raymond Dart's description of the Taung skull and, in particular, the impact of the pioneering work of Phillip V. Tobias, this book will be a valuable companion for students and researchers of human origins. It presents a summary of the current state of palaeoanthropology, reviewing the ideas that are central to the field, and provides a perspective on how future developments will shape our knowledge about hominin emergence in Africa. A wide range of key themes are covered, from the earliest fossils from Chad and Kenya, to the origins of bipedalism and the debate about how and where modern humans evolved and dispersed across Africa.
Previous scientific consensus saw human evolution as defined by adaptive differences (behavioural and/or biological) and the emergence of Homo sapiens as the ultimate replacement of non-modern groups by a modern, adaptively more competitive group. However, recent research has shown that the process underlying our origins was considerably more complex. While archaeological and fossil evidence suggests that behavioural complexity may not be confined to the modern human lineage, recent palaeogenomic work shows that gene flow between distinct lineages (for example, Neanderthals, Denisovans, early H. sapiens) occurred repeatedly in the late Pleistocene, probably contributing elements to our genetic make-up that might have been crucial to our success as a diverse, adaptable species. Following these advances, the prevailing human origins model has shifted from one of near-complete replacement to a more nuanced view of partial replacement with considerable reticulation. Here we provide a brief introduction to the current genetic evidence for hybridization among hominins, its prevalence in, and effects on, comparative mammal groups, and especially how it manifests in the skull. We then explore the degree to which cranial variation seen in the fossil record of late Pleistocene hominins from Western Eurasia corresponds with our current genetic and comparative data. We are especially interested in understanding the degree to which skeletal data can reflect admixture. Our findings indicate some correspondence between these different lines of evidence, flag individual fossils as possibly admixed, and suggest that different cranial regions may preserve hybridization signals differentially. We urge further studies of the phenotype to expand our ability to detect the ways in which migration, interaction and genetic exchange have shaped the human past, beyond what is currently visible with the lens of ancient DNA.
It is often assumed that both our species and the last common ancestor (LCA) of Neanderthals and modern humans originated in Africa, with all Eurasian Pleistocene populations expected to ultimately come from Africa. This paper aims to review the Middle Pleistocene fossil record of Africa and Southwest Asia to reinforce the need to at least consider the possibility of a non-African origin for the “sapiens lineage” as a plausible hypothesis. While the fossil record from the late Middle Pleistocene of Africa does suggest that the earliest representatives of Homo sapiens are indeed found in this continent, we found no consistent evidence showing that the LCA necessarily also originated in Africa. At present, based on paleogenetic analyses, the most widely accepted hypothesis suggests that the LCA may have lived during the early Middle Pleistocene. To this information, we must add the constellation of traits observed in H. antecessor, a species that from both morphology and molecular data has been interpreted as being close to the LCA. The morphology of the LCA may be defined by a mosaic of features in the cranium and dentition which, so far, has not been found in the African record. We emphasize that the case for an African origin for the LCA is not a closed one. We suggest caution and the need for further findings and studies, especially in Southwest Asia, which may be a critical region for studying the divergence of H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis.
Humans evolved in the dynamic landscapes of Africa under conditions of pronounced climatic, geological and environmental change during the past 7 million years. This book brings together detailed records of the paleontological and archaeological sites in Africa that provide the basic evidence for understanding the environments in which we evolved. Chapters cover specific sites, with comprehensive accounts of their geology, paleontology, paleobotany, and their ecological significance for our evolution. Other chapters provide important regional syntheses of past ecological conditions. This book is unique in merging a broad geographic scope (all of Africa) and deep time framework (the past 7 million years) in discussing the geological context and paleontological records of our evolution and that of organisms that evolved alongside our ancestors. It will offer important insights to anyone interested in human evolution, including researchers and graduate students in paleontology, archaeology, anthropology and geology.
This is an exciting time for our understanding of the origin of our species. Previous scientific consensus saw human evolution as defined by adaptive differences (behavioural and/or biological) and the emergence of Homo sapiens as the ultimate replacement of non-modern groups by a modern, adaptively more competitive one. However, recent research has shown that the process underlying our origins was considerably more complex. While archaeological and fossil evidence suggests that behavioural complexity may not be confined to the modern human lineage, recent paleogenomic work shows that gene flow between distinct lineages (e.g. Neanderthals, Denisovans, early H. sapiens ) occurred repeatedly in the Late Pleistocene, likely contributing elements to our genetic make-up that might have been crucial to our success as a diverse, adaptable species. Following these advances, the prevailing human origins model has shifted from one of near-complete replacement to a more nuanced view of partial replacement with considerable reticulation. Here we provide a brief introduction to the current genetic evidence for hybridization among hominins, its prevalence in, and effects on, comparative mammal groups, and especially how it manifests in the skull. We then explore the degree to which cranial variation seen in the fossil record of Late Pleistocene hominins from Western Eurasia corresponds with our current genetic and comparative data. We are especially interested in understanding the degree to which skeletal data can reflect admixture. Our findings indicate some correspondence between these different lines of evidence, flag individual fossils as possibly admixed, and suggest that different cranial regions may preserve hybridisation signals differentially. We urge further studies of the phenotype in order to expand our ability to detect the ways in which migration, interaction and genetic exchange have shaped the human past, beyond what is currently visible with the lens of ancient DNA.
In the East African region, Tanzania represents a nucleus of early human origin. Central Tanzania in particular abounds in prehistoric and historical human and cultural evidences. Archaeologically, Dodoma Region (35°–37° E and 4°–7° S) in Central Tanzania is a centre of attraction for rock art and early human settlements. Apart from earlier discoveries of some of the potential archaeological sites, new scholarly investigations including our surveys in and around the Dodoma Region have yielded substantial evidence to strengthen the dense nature of habitat, congenial environment, subsistence and survival of early humans. Some of the archaeological sites such as Isimila, the late Acheulian/Early Stone Age site, Kondoa, Singida and Bahi rock art sites (Culwick AT, J R Anthropol Inst Great Brit Irel. 61:443–453, 1931) of early Holocene times; and Stone Age and historical sites around the University of Dodoma are a few instances of evidence in the Dodoma Region revealing temporary, semi-sedentary and sedentary settlements located in different habitats and environments. Our research activities, which include reconnaissance survey, intrusive excavation and geospatial investigations, have uncovered several topographical and geomorphic features of archaeological sites in the region. Geomorphological features as shown by the stratigraphic profiles of test excavations in various archaeological and cultural heritage sites, location aspects, physiographic and environmental conditions and variations derived from non-intrusive geospatial technological applications such as aerial photos, satellite imagery and GPS coordinates substantively corroborate the idea of subsistence and adaptation to survival of early human populations within the existing ecological conditions. The data pertaining to satellite images for the past 60 years were used to analyse climate and other geographical conditions in the study region. This chapter examines the geographical and geomorphic features of habitat, environmental adaptation and settlement pattern of human populations in space and time through geospatial analysis. Some archaeological sites as case studies were investigated for surfacial and sub-surfacial data collection. The results of terrain analysis revealed that elevation, slope and aspect had played a vital role in human settlement locations. The evidence of climate change and variability in the case study sites showed early human adaptation strategies including settlement abandonment and migration. The use of geospatial analysis has provided better insight to relate early human settlement and environment. Further our investigations revealed threats caused by natural calamities and human vandalism to the most precious archaeological and cultural heritage sites, the promoters of tourism and plausible solutions.
The archaeological record of Late Pleistocene Africa is characterized by behavioral diversity and change, notably the technological shift from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) to Later Stone Age (LSA). Recent research shows the MSA-LSA transition was a spatially and temporally complex process. Understanding this transition requires a composite record of archaeological sites from precise chronological and stratigraphic contexts within multiple regions. Here we present excavation and analysis of two open-air Late Pleistocene sites in chronological and geographic association: Anderea’s Farm 1 (GrJe-8) and Kapsarok 1 (GrJe-9), from the Nyanza Rift, Kenya. Volcanic ash correlations of artifact-bearing sediments provide ages of ∼ 45–36 ka for Anderea’s Farm 1 (GrJe-8) and ∼ 50 ka for Kapsarok 1 (GrJe-9). Locally procured lavas were used to produce different stone tools by disparate technological methods. Lithic production at Anderea’s Farm 1 focused on the manufacture of short irregular flakes using expedient and discoidal methods, and tools are dominated by heavy-duty types. In contrast, Kapsarok 1 is characterized by elongated and convergent blanks produced using hierarchical core technologies. Viewed together, Kapsarok 1 and Anderea’s Farm 1 emphasizes high diversity in Late Pleistocene technology of the Victoria Basin. We argue these different technologies are most parsimoniously interpreted as expressions of a broad and flexible behavioral repertoire. Further, our results emphasize how excavation and analysis of open-air archaeological sites in secure chronological and stratigraphic contexts provides the means to sample the necessary range of human behaviours across a landscape commensurate with past forager geographic ranges.
Recent developments in the field of palaeoanthropology necessitate the suppression of two hominin taxa and the introduction of a new species of hominins to help resolve the current nebulous state of Middle Pleistocene (Chibanian) hominin taxonomy. In particular, the poorly defined and variably understood hominin taxa Homo heidelbergensis (both sensu stricto and sensu lato) and Homo rhodesiensis need to be abandoned as they fail to reflect the full range of hominin variability in the Middle Pleistocene. Instead, we propose: (1) introduction of a new taxon, Homo bodoensis sp. nov., as an early Middle Pleistocene ancestor of the Homo sapiens lineage, with a pan-African distribution that extends into the eastern Mediterranean (Southeast Europe and the Levant); (2) that many of the fossils from Western Europe (e.g. Sima de los Huesos) currently assigned to H. heidelbergensis s.s. be reassigned to Homo neanderthalensis to reflect the early appearance of Neanderthal derived traits in the Middle Pleistocene in the region; and (3) that the Middle Pleistocene Asian fossils, particularly from China, likely represent a different lineage altogether.
In this paper, we critically review the current paradigm, which places the origin of Homo sapiens in Africa as the result of the evolution of a Middle Pleistocene species. In the African fossil record of this period, it is not possible to find a transition from fossils not included in H. sapiens to those that are clearly related to our species and that lack exclusive Neanderthal traits. Genetic studies have confirmed the existence of a common ancestor for both H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis, who lived at the end of the Early Pleistocene or during the Middle Pleistocene. The origin of this ancestor should be located either in Africa or in Europe, the hypothetical home of anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals, respectively. However, the fossil record of both continents lacks evidence for this population split. In contrast, southwest Asia, and in particular the Levantine Corridor, shows a variability in the fossil record compatible with the possibility that the origin of the divergence between both species could have occurred in this region. To understand this evolutionary scenario, we explore the possibility of transit through the Levantine Corridor during the Pleistocene using palaeoclimatic data published in recent years.
The Stone Age record is longer and better documented in eastern Africa. Archaeological and fossil evidence derives particularly from sites within the Rift Valley of the region, often with secure radiometric age estimates. Despite a relatively late start and disproportionate focus on earlier periods and open-air sites within the rift, scientific research into the region’s Stone Age record continues to play a central role in our understanding of human evolution.
Putative stone tools and cutmarked bones from two Late Pliocene (3.6–2.58 million years ago or Ma) contexts are exclusive to eastern Africa, as is conclusive evidence for these by 2.5 Ma. The earliest indisputable technological traces appear in the form of simple flakes and core tools as well as surface-modified bones. It is not clear what triggered this invention, or whether there was a more rudimentary precursor to it. Neither is it certain which hominin lineage started this technology, or if it hunted or only scavenged carcasses. Well-provenienced archaeological occurrences predating 2.0 Ma are limited to sites in Ethiopia and Kenya, becoming more common across eastern Africa and beyond only later.
By 1.75 Ma, lithic technologies that included heavy-duty and large cutting tools appeared in Ethiopian and Kenyan localities. Several details about this technological tradition are still inadequately understood, although its appearance in eastern Africa roughly coincides with that of Homo erectus/ergaster. By far the longest-lived Stone Age tradition, hominins with such technologies successfully inhabited high-altitude environments as early as 1.5 Ma, and expanded within and beyond Africaeven earlier. Hunting and use of fire probably started in the earlier part of this technological tradition.
Small-sized and highly diverse tool forms gradually and variably started to replace heavy-duty and large cutting tools beginning c. 300 thousand years ago (ka). Conventional wisdom associates this technological and behavioral shift with the rise of Homo sapiens, although the oldest undisputed representatives of our species continued to use large cutting tools in eastern Africa after 200 ka. In addition to small retouched tools, often on products from prepared cores, significant innovations such as hafting and ranged weaponry emerged during the length of this technological tradition. Increasingly complex sociocultural behaviors, including mortuary practices, mark the later part of this period in eastern Africa. The consolidation of such skills and behaviors, besides ecological/demographic dynamics, may have enabled the ultimately decisive Out-of-Africa dispersal of our species, from eastern Africa, 50–80 ka.
Even smaller and more diverse stone tool forms and other sociocultural innovations evolved in many areas of eastern Africa by 50 ka. Miniaturization and diversification allowed for the adoption of more complex technologies, including intentional blunting and microlithization. Some of these were used as parts of sophisticated composite implements, such as the bow and arrow. Complex behaviors involving personal ornamentation, symbolism, and rituals that resembled the lifeways of ethnographically known hunter-gatherer populations were similarly adopted. These dynamics eventually led to the development of new technological and socioeconomic systems marked by the inception of agriculture and attendant lifeways.
The Eyasi Plateau Paleontological Expedition (EPPE) Laetoli specimen database contains 13716 records of plant and animal fossils (ca. 28248 specimens) collected by EPPE field teams working at Laetoli, Tanzania between 1998 and 2005. This dataset is a digital version of the original hard-copy specimen catalog, and it documents the discovery, stratigraphic provenience and taxonomic diversity of Plio-Pleistocene fauna and flora in northern Tanzania between 4.4 Ma and >200 ka. Laetoli is renowned for the discovery of important hominin fossils, including the lectotype for Australopithecus afarensis, one of our early hominin ancestors, the first record of Paranthropus aethiopicus outside Kenya-Ethiopia, and an early record of our own species Homo sapiens. This database is one of the few publicly available palaeoanthropological fossil datasets and serves as an example for expanding open access to primary fossil occurrence data in palaeoanthropology. The taxonomic identifications appearing in this dataset are the original field identifications and are provisional. Any taxonomic analysis employing this dataset should refer to updated taxonomic identifications published by specialists.
ELife digest
Species of ancient humans and the extinct relatives of our ancestors are typically described from a limited number of fossils. However, this was not the case with Homo naledi. More than 1,500 fossils representing at least 15 individuals of this species were unearthed from the Rising Star cave system in South Africa between 2013 and 2014. Found deep underground in the Dinaledi Chamber, the H. naledi fossils are the largest collection of a single species of an ancient human-relative discovered in Africa.
After the discovery was reported, a number of questions still remained. H. naledi had an unusual mix of ancient and modern traits. For example, it had a small brain like the most ancient of human-relatives, yet its wrists looked much like those of a modern human. This raised the question: where does H. naledi fit within the scheme of human evolution?
Now, Berger et al.—who include many of the researchers who were involved in the discovery of H. naledi—reconsider this question in the light of new findings reported in two related studies. First, Dirks et al. provide a long-anticipated estimate for the age of the fossils at between 236,000 and 335,000 years old. Second, Hawks et al. report the discovery of more H. naledi fossils from a separate chamber in the same cave system.
These estimated dates fall in a period called the late Middle Pleistocene, and mean that H. naledi possibly lived at the same time, and in the same place, as modern humans. Berger et al. explain that the existence of a relatively primitive species like H. naledi living this recently in southern Africa is at odds with previous thinking about human evolution. Indeed, all other members of our family tree known from the same time had large brains and were generally much more evolved than our most ancient relatives. However, Berger et al. argue that we have only an incomplete picture of our evolutionary past, and suggest that old fossils might have been assigned to the wrong species or time period.
Reassessing the old fossils might lead the scientific community to rethink what kinds of human-relative were around in southern Africa at different times, and what those ancient species were capable of. For example, archeologists had previously thought that modern humans made all the stone tools dating from around the late Middle Pleistocene found in southern Africa, but now we must consider whether some of them could have been made by H. naledi.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.24234.002
MANY samples hf `Sigma grade' ATP from Sigma Chemical Co. reportedly contained an impurity which induces anomalous kinetics of (Na, K)-ATPase activity1-3. This impurity has recently been identified as vanadate4, and shown to inhibit (Na, K)-ATPase from kidney4 and red blood cells5. These findings have received considerable interest because of a possible physiological role of vanadate as an endogenous regulator of (Na, K)-ATPase activity3-5. We now report that vanadate is capable of producing positive inotropic effects in electrically driven papillary muscles isolated from cats.
DURING a palaeontological, archaeological and geological survey in the Awash River Valley, Ethiopia, members of the Rift Valley Research Mission in Ethiopia (RVRME) recovered much of the facial skeleton and neurocranium of an early hominid. The specimen, which we describe here, is one of the best preserved and most complete of its kind yet discovered in Africa and is unique in its close association with stone tools.
Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/62755/1/262460a0.pdf
THIS report describes the stratigraphical and archaeological position of an hominid skull discovered in Pleistocene deposits around Lake Ndutu, on the Serengeti Plains (3°00′S; 35°00′E). The skull itself is described elsewhere1. Lake Ndutu, together with the adjacent Lake Masek, is geomorphologically a continuation of the Olduvai Pleistocene deposits. The names of both lakes have been used to designate the upper parts of the Olduvai Sequence—the Ndutu and Masek Beds (formerly bed V and bed IVB, respectively); both are soda lakes.
I DESCRIBE here the humanoid cranium recovered by Mturi1
during excavations at Lake Ndutu in northern Tanzania. A fuller
description will be published elsewhere.