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SEPTEMBER 1, 2003 / VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5www.aafp.org/afp AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN 879
NCHS growth chart or if it crosses two major
percentile lines.
3
Recent research has validated
that the weight-for-age approach is the sim-
plest and most reasonable marker for FTT.
4
Other growth parameters that can assist in
making the diagnosis of FTT are weight for
height and height for age. FTT is diagnosed if
a child falls below the 10th percentile for
either of these measurements.
Etiology and Differential Diagnosis
Historically, FTT has been classified as
organic or nonorganic. Usually, this distinction
is not useful because most children have mixed
etiologies.
5
For example, a child may have a
medical disorder that causes feeding problems
and family stress. The stress can compound the
feeding problem and aggravate FTT. A more
useful classification system is based on patho-
physiology—inadequate caloric intake, inade-
quate absorption, excess metabolic demand,or
defective utilization. This classification leads to
a logical organization of the many conditions
that cause or contribute to FTT (Table 1).
Stress and other psychosocial factors fre-
quently contribute to FTT. For example, a
depressed mother may not feed her infant
adequately. The infant may become with-
The recognition of growth and
developmental problems in
infants and children is one of the
major challenges facing primary
care physicians. Failure to thrive
(FTT) is a common condition of varying eti-
ologies that has been associated with adverse
effects on later growth and cognitive develop-
ment.
1,2
Primary care physicians need to be
able to diagnose and manage FTT promptly to
reduce the risk of long-term sequelae.
Definition
FTT is best defined as inadequate physical
growth diagnosed by observation of growth
over time using a standard growth chart. The
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)
recently released improved growth charts that
can be found at www.cdc.gov. While defini-
tions of FTT have varied, most practitioners
diagnose FTT when a child’s weight for age
falls below the fifth percentile of the standard
Failure to thrive is a condition commonly seen by primary care physicians. Prompt diag-
nosis and intervention are important for preventing malnutrition and developmental
sequelae. Medical and social factors often contribute to failure to thrive. Either extreme
of parental attention (neglect or hypervigilance) can lead to failure to thrive. About
25 percent of normal infants will shift to a lower growth percentile in the first two years
of life and then follow that percentile; this should not be diagnosed as failure to thrive.
Infants with Down syndrome, intrauterine growth retardation, or premature birth follow
different growth patterns than normal infants. Many infants with failure to thrive are not
identified unless careful attention is paid to plotting growth parameters at routine check-
ups. A thorough history is the best guide to establishing the etiology of the failure to
thrive and directing further evaluation and management. All children with failure to
thrive need additional calories for catch-up growth (typically 150 percent of the caloric
requirement for their expected, not actual, weight). Few need laboratory evaluation.
Hospitalization is rarely required and is indicated only for severe failure to thrive and for
those whose safety is a concern. A multidisciplinary approach is recommended when fail-
ure to thrive persists despite intervention or when it is severe. (Am Fam Physician 2003;
68:879-84,886. Copyright© 2003 American Academy of Family Physicians.)
Failure to thrive is diagnosed when a child’s weight for age is
below the fifth percentile or crosses two major percentile lines.
Failure to Thrive
SCOTT D. KRUGMAN, M.D., Franklin Square Hospital Center, Baltimore, Maryland
HOWARD DUBOWITZ, M.D., M.S., University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
OA patient informa-
tion handout about
failure to thrive, writ-
ten by the authors of
this article, is provided
on page 886.
See page 785 for defi-
nitions of strength-of-
evidence levels.
drawn, responding to the mother’s depres-
sion, and feed less well. Another example is
when parents are overly anxious about a
child’s feeding. Coercive practices can lead to
feeding behavior problems and FTT.
Growth variation in normal infants can
confound the diagnosis of FTT. Approximately
25 percent of children will shift down their
weight or height by more than 25 percentile
points in the first two years of life.
6
These chil-
dren are falling to their genetic potential or
demonstrating constitutional growth delay
(slow growth with a bone age less than
chronologic age). After shifting down, these
infants grow at a normal rate along their new
percentile and do not have FTT.
Specific infant populations with growth
variations also need to be considered when
making the diagnosis of FTT. Infants who
have had intrauterine growth retardation or
premature infants may appear to have FTT
when they grow at less than the fifth per-
centile. As long as the child is growing along a
curve with a normal interval growth rate, FTT
should not be diagnosed.
7
In addition, using
modified growth charts for specific popula-
tions, such as premature infants,
8
exclusively
breastfed infants, specific ethnicities (e.g.,
Asian), and infants with genetic syndromes
(e.g., Down syndrome),
9
can help reassure the
physician that these children are growing
appropriately.
Evaluation
RECOGNIZING F T T
The key to diagnosing FTT is finding the
time in busy clinical practice to accurately
measure and plot a child’s weight, height, and
head circumference, and then assess the trend.
One study
10
from England demonstrated that
54 percent of general practitioners had not
diagnosed FTT although a child’s weight for
age fell below two major percentile lines. In
addition, a pilot study
11
performed at a family
practice residency clinic found that of 29 chil-
dren diagnosed with FTT, 100 percent of the
charts contained measurements that were
incorrectly plotted. The diagnosis was delayed
in 41 percent of the patients.
HISTORY
After determining that FTT is a concern, the
evaluation should focus on a careful history,
including an assessment of diet and feeding or
eating behaviors, and past and current med-
ical, social, and family history. Ta b le 2 details
items that should be covered in each category.
It is important to ascertain the child’s devel-
opmental status at the time of diagnosis because
children with FTT have a higher incidence of
developmental delays than the general popula-
tion.
12
Physicians should still be concerned
about a child without developmental delays
who is failing to thrive. FTT is primarily a
growth disorder, not a developmental problem.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A complete physical examination is essen-
tial, with four main goals: (1) identification of
dysmorphic features suggestive of a genetic
disorder impeding growth; (2) detection of
underlying disease that may impair growth;
880 AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN www.aafp.org/afp VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 / SEPTEMBER 1, 2003
TABLE 1
Selective Differential Diagnosis of Failure to Thrive
Inadequate caloric intake
Incorrect preparation of formula (too diluted, too concentrated)
Unsuitable feeding habits (food fads, excessive juice)
Behavior problems affecting eating
Poverty and food shortages
Neglect
Disturbed parent-child relationship
Mechanical feeding difficulties (oromotor dysfunction, congenital anomalies,
central nervous system damage, severe reflux)
Inadequate absorption
Celiac disease
Cystic fibrosis
Cow’s milk protein allergy
Vitamin or mineral deficiencies (acrodermatitis enteropathica, scurvy)
Biliary atresia or liver disease
Necrotizing enterocolitis or short-gut syndrome
Increased metabolism
Hyperthyroidism
Chronic infection (human immunodeficiency virus or other immunodeficiency,
malignancy, renal disease)
Hypoxemia (congenital heart defects, chronic lung disease)
Defective utilization
Genetic abnormalities (trisomies 21, 18, and 13)
Congenital infections
Metabolic disorders (storage diseases, amino acid disorders)
(3) assessment for signs of possible child
abuse; and (4) assessment of the severity and
possible effects of malnutrition.
12,13
The sever-
ity of a child’s undernutrition can be deter-
mined most easily by using the Gomez criteria.
By comparing the child’s current weight for
age with the expected weight (50th percentile)
at that age, the degree of malnutrition can be
assessed. If the weight is less than 60 percent of
expected, the FTT is considered severe, 61 to
75 percent denotes moderate FTT, and 76 to
90 percent is mild.
14
SEPTEMBER 1, 2003 / VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5www.aafp.org/afp AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN 881
TABLE 2
Evaluation of Failure to Thrive: History
History Implication
Dietary history
Important to be as specific as possible (one-day log of all foods Quantify total caloric intake.
given and eaten)
Amount of food and/or formula
Attempt to quantify total caloric intake (for infants)
Is the formula prepared correctly? Too diluted = too few calories; too concentrated
= unpalatable, infant may refuse to drink
Types of food
Beverage consumption–specifically milk, juice, sodas, and water Excess fruit juice as cause for F TT
Feeding history
When does the child eat? Where? With whom? Distracted infants, inappropriate supervision
How is the child fed–self, spoon, other? Positioning? Inappropriate feeding techniques for developmental stage
Feeding battles Food refusal
Snack intake–what, how often is the child grazing? Poor mealtime eating caused by snacking and early satiety
Past and current medical history
Birth history–complications, small for gestational age, prematurity Differentiate FTT from small for gestational age.
Recent acute illnesses–otitis media, gastroenteritis, recurrent Growth may improve shortly on own, but needs close follow-up.
viral infections
Chronic medical conditions–anemia, asthma, congenital heart disease Organic causes of FTT
Past hospitalizations, injuries, accidents Evaluate for neglect or child abuse.
Stool pattern–frequency, consistency, blood, mucus Rule out malabsorption (cystic fibrosis, celiac disease), infection,
and allergy.
Vomiting, reflux, or other gastrointestinal symptoms Evaluate for milk protein allergy, gastroesophageal reflux,
and infection.
Social history
Who lives in the home? Identify those caring for the child.
Who are the caregivers?
Who helps support the family? Assess adequate quantity of food.
What is the child’s temperament? High-strung, colicky children may have feeding difficulty.
Any important stressors–economic, intrafamilial, major life events? May lead to inadequate food supply, depressed parents, neglect
Does anyone at home have a problem with alcohol or drugs? Neglect
Other children with neglect, FTT, Children’s Protective Service reports? History of neglect
Family history
Medical conditions or FTT in siblings Predisposition to organic or genetic causes of FTT
Family members with short stature Check midparental height formula.*
Differentiate between falling to expected height and true FTT.
Mental illness Caretakers with mental illness who may be unable to care
for child
FTT = failure to thrive.
*—[(dad’s height in cm + mom’s height in cm) ± 13 cm] ÷ 2.
NOTE: Add 13 cm for boys, subtract 13 cm for girls. For example, if a girl has a mother who is 5 ft, 5 in (165 cm) tall and a father who is 5 ft,
10 in (178 cm) tall, her expected adult height is [(178 + 165) –13] ÷ 2, or 165 cm. This height falls between the 50th and 75th percentiles
for an 18-year-old girl, and this curve is followed to the actual age to predict the expected height.
PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION
FTT often involves psychosocial problems
compromising the relationship or fit between
parent and child. Observing the interaction
between a parent and child, especially during
a feeding session in the office, may provide
valuable information about the etiology of
FTT.
3,12
Parents can be asked to feed an infant
or bring in a snack for a toddler. The assess-
ment should be done at a time when the child
is hungry. It is important to pay attention to a
caregiver’s ability to recognize the child’s cues,
the child’s responsiveness, and the parental
warmth and appropriate behavior toward the
child.
12
It is similarly important to observe the
nature of the child’s cues (clear or not), the
child’s temperament, and responses toward
the parent. Developing a portrait of the rela-
tionship is key to guiding intervention.
LABORATORY EVALUATION
Laboratory evaluation should be guided by
history and physical examination findings
only.There are no routine laboratory tests that
should be performed on every child, because
the majority of children with FTT have no
laboratory abnormalities. In a classic study of
hospitalized children with FTT, only 1.4 per-
cent (36 of 2,607 tests) were of diagnostic
assistance.
15
[Evidence level B, historical,
uncontrolled study] A practical approach to
laboratory studies is to not order any at the
time of diagnosis, unless suggested by the his-
tory or physical examination. For example, a
history of steatorrhea (greasy, malodorous
stools) should prompt the physician to send a
stool sample for fecal fat and perhaps order a
sweat test if there is suspicion of cystic fibrosis.
If the child’s growth has not improved, screen-
ing tests to consider at the next visit include a
complete blood count and a urinalysis. If FTT
persists despite an adequate diet, malabsorp-
tion can be further investigated by obtaining
stool for fat and reducing substances, and pos-
sibly obtaining a celiac antibody profile.
Management Tools
The first rule for treating FTT is to identify
the underlying cause and correct it. This
requires a stepwise approach that is guided by
history and response to therapy. Most cases
can be managed by nutrition intervention or
feeding behavior modification. Children who
do not respond may require further evalua-
tion. Two principles that hold true irrespective
of the etiology are that all children with FTT
need a high-calorie diet for catch-up growth,
and all children with FTT need close follow-
up. Usually, children should be followed at
least monthly until catch-up growth is demon-
strated and the positive trend is maintained.
THREE-DAY FOOD DIARY
It may seem surprising that undernutrition
is a common factor in FTT, but with an energy
need that is almost triple that of adults (in
calories per kg) it becomes easier to under-
stand how quickly infants can fall behind on
growth.
16
Having parents write down the
types of food and amounts a child eats over a
three-day period is one way of quantifying
caloric intake. In some instances, it can make
882 AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN www.aafp.org/afp VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5 / SEPTEMBER 1, 2003
The Authors
SCOTT D. KRUGMAN, M.D., is chair of the pediatrics department at Franklin Square Hos-
pital Center, Baltimore, and faculty for the family practice residency program. In addition,
he is clinical assistant professor of pediatrics at the University of Maryland School of Med-
icine, Baltimore. After graduating from Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, N.H., Dr.
Krugman completed his pediatric residency at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore.
HOWARD DUBOWITZ, M.D., M.S., is professor of pediatrics and co-director of the
Center for Families at the University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore. He
received his medical degree from the University of Cape Town, South Africa. After
completing a pediatrics residency at Boston Medical Center, he completed a child mal-
treatment fellowship at Children’s Hospital Boston.
Address correspondence to Scott D. Krugman, M.D., Dept. of Pediatrics, Franklin
Square Hospital Center, 9000 Franklin Square Dr., Baltimore, MD 21237 (e-mail: scott.
krugman@medstar.net). Reprints are not available from the authors.
No routine laboratory tests are ordered in the initial work-up
of failure to thrive unless suggested by the history or physical
examination.
parents aware of how much the child is or is
not eating.
Limit fruit juice to 8 to 16 oz per day. Fruit
juice is an important contributor to poor
growth by providing relatively empty carbo-
hydrate calories and diminishing a child’s
appetite for nutritious meals, leading to
decreased caloric intake.
17
HIGH-CALORIE DIET
Children with FTT will need 150 percent of
their recommended daily caloric intake,
based on their expected, not actual, weight
(Table 3
18
).
6,7
In infants, this increased calorie
intake may be accomplished by concentrating
formula or adding rice cereal to pureed foods.
To ddlers can receive more calories by adding
taste-pleasing fats such as cheese, sour cream,
butter, and peanut butter to common toddler
foods. The government’s supplemental food
program for women, infants, and children
(WIC) also provides high-calorie milk drinks
(e.g., PediaSure). One or two cans per day can
be used instead of milk, providing 30 calories
per oz instead of the 19 calories per oz in whole
milk. Adding a multivitamin helps ensure that
a child receives the minimum recommended
vitamins and minerals. Some practitioners add
zinc to reduce the energy cost of weight gain
during catch-up growth, though the data
about its benefit are mixed.
19,20
FEEDING OR EATING BEHAVIORS
Parental anxiety about a child’s FTT can be
helped by reassurance. Parents should encour-
age, but not force, their child to eat. Meals
should be pleasant, regularly scheduled, and
not rushed. It often helps if the parents eat
with the child. The child should be positioned
so that the head is up and the child is com-
fortable (e.g., in high chair). Starting with
small amounts of food and offering more is
preferable to beginning with large quantities.
Parents should consider foods that the child
likes (e.g., it is not important for children to
eat four different green vegetables, but it is
important to encourage some variety and to
cover the basic food groups). Snacks need to
be timed in between meals so that the child’s
appetite will not be spoiled.
HOSPITALIZATION
Hospitalization is rarely required, and most
children with FTT are managed as outpa-
tients. The lack of benefit to hospitalization in
most cases has been apparent for decades.
21
Hospitalization may be necessary when the
safety of the child is a concern, outpatient
management has failed, or the FTT is severe.
REFERRAL
For children who do not respond to initial
management, it may be necessary to seek assis-
tance from a subspecialist. Traditionally, a mul-
tidisciplinary approach to FTT—using physi-
cians, nurses, dietitians, social workers, and
psychologists—has produced better outcomes.
7
This approach may not be practical in all cases,
but for children who are not improving because
of an undiagnosed medical condition or a par-
ticularly challenging social situation, a multidis-
ciplinary approach may be the best answer.
Outcomes
Children with FTT are at risk for adverse out-
comes such as short stature, behavior problems,
and developmental delay.
1,2,5,22-24
FTT is more
Failure to Thrive
SEPTEMBER 1, 2003 / VOLUME 68, NUMBER 5www.aafp.org/afp AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN 883
Children diagnosed with failure to thrive need to receive
150 percent of the recommended daily caloric intake for
their expected, not actual, weight for age.
TABLE 3
Recommendations for Energy Intake
Energy (kcal per kg per
day) guidelines for
Age average replacement
10 days to one month 120
One to two months 115
Two to three months 105
Three to six months 95
Six months to five years 90
Adapted with permission from Hay WW. Current
pediatric diagnosis and treatment. 15th ed. Nor-
walk, Conn.: Appleton & Lange, 2001:250.
Failure to Thrive
likely a contributing or associated factor to these
adverse outcomes, rather than the exclusive
cause. There are a limited number of outcome
studies on children with FTT, each with differ-
ent definitions and designs, so it is difficult to
comment with certainty on the long-term
results of FTT.
25
In addition, it is often difficult
to disentangle the effects of FTT from those of
the high-risk environments in which FTT often
occurs (e.g., poverty, high family stress, and
poor parental coping skills).
5,26
To decrease the risk of adverse effects, it is
important to recognize and treat FTT promptly.
Early childhood is a critical period for growth
and development, and early intervention for
any child with FTT will maximize the poten-
tial for better outcomes.
22
Given the evidence
of long-term problems, all children who have
been diagnosed with FTT need to be followed
carefully for possible later sequelae.
The authors indicate that they do not have any con-
flicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.
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