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Transactional Theories but Individual Assessment: A Frequent Discrepancy in Family Research
Abstract
Spiegel's (20) distinction between studies of relations and studies of transactions are reviewed and applied to the tendency of current research to assess transactional theory using methods that are focused on individual elements. Several of the complexities of transactional research are reviewed with a call for the utilization of methods that are more commensurate with the level of theory under test.
... In this process one loses data on the extent to which the views of each member are discrepant (Copeland & White, 1991), since averaging of scores obscures how far apart the perceptions are. This diversity is, in itself, a variable of interest in looking at the gestalt of a family, labelled a " family discrepancy score " by Fisher (1982). An alternative to creating a total family score is to ask people to report in relation to specific dyads (adolescent-parent, spouse-spouse), a process that provides more definitive data, but still fails to give a systemic view of the family. ...
... Another question is whether the results represent how a family actually behaves or the family's beliefs about how they should interact, based upon family rules. A related issue is raised by Fisher (1982) who underlines the importance of family loyalty and protection as factors that may result in members answering paper and pencil tests in a socially desirable manner. To address this possibility, the authors of the FAM-III incorporated two response bias subscales (social desirability and defensiveness), and FACES III items were chosen to avoid socially desirable responses. ...
With the increasing interest in evaluating family therapy, self-report family functioning measures remain a key method of assessing outcome. This paper addresses two issues. First, common problems associated with self-report family measures are discussed. Second, since sourcebooks of research instruments often do not provide sufficient information on the validity and reliability of measures, six commonly utilized family functioning measures (FACES III, FES, FAD, FAM-III, IFR, SFI) are assessed from the point of view of the adequacy of their psychometric support and practicality of administration. Recommendations are made regarding the utility of each instrument in light of its strengths and weaknesses.
... Despite this impressive spectrum of clinical questions which have been analysed in a systemic framework there remains serious criticism of this type of research. Fisher (1982) states that: ...
... Considerations of this implication is repeatedly stressed in Dell's (1980) review of the epistemological confusion in family research related to schizophrenia. Fisher (1982) attempts to expose the problem of family systems research which tends to approach problems with a transactional theory but ultimately employ individualistic (lineal) methods of analysis. In so doing, he highlights the need for researchers to view the family as a transacting unit and to develop research tools which may reliably measure transactional phenomena. ...
Thesis (M.A.)--University of British Columbia, 1986. Includes bibliographical references.
... In his critical review of family research studies, Fisher (1982) noted "several glaringly repetitive problems" (p. 314) in the conduct and interpretation of family research. ...
... Family researchers have generally failed to develop necessary methods and procedures capable of measuring complex family changes over time. This results in loss of the multidimensional, interactive, and evolving essence of the family (Fisher, 1982;Moriarty, 1990). Gilliss and Davis (1992) also cautioned that researchers frequently fail to address or make facile assumptions about family system effects and functioning without substantiating their presence. ...
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Calgary, 2002. Includes bibliographical references.
... In his critical review of family research studies, Fisher (1982) noted "several glaringly repetitive problems" (p. 314) in the conduct and interpretation of family research. ...
... Family researchers have generally failed to develop necessary methods and procedures capable of measuring complex family changes over time. This results in loss of the multidimensional, interactive, and evolving essence of the family (Fisher, 1982;Moriarty, 1990). Gilliss and Davis (1992) also cautioned that researchers frequently fail to address or make facile assumptions about family system effects and functioning without substantiating their presence. ...
Negotiating is the core variable or central concern of families who have a close relative in a state of post-comatose unawareness or minimal responsiveness following a severe traumatic brain injury. Family members negotiate with each other, with members of the health care team, and with others such as insurance agents, case managers, and representatives of the justice system on behalf of the injured individual. Family members also negotiate the intricacies of the health care system. These are the findings of a 16-month grounded theory study conducted on two acute neurosurgical units in Toronto, with 25 family members from 11 families who had a close family member who suffered a severe traumatic brain injury and who was in a state of post-comatose unawareness or minimal responsiveness. An extensive review of the scholarly literature related to family research methodology and family research related to families following the brain injury of a family member is also provided in this paper.
... Some authors caution that strong beliefs about how the family should interact, as well as family loyalty and protection factors, could influence the subjects' responses to paper-andpencil scales in a socially desirable way, distorting and biasing collected data (Fisher, 1982;Tutty, 1995). Therefore, we suggest the development of a FACES IV version for therapists and professionals, to address both insiders' and outsiders' views, even though we acknowledge that they might only provide another partial perspective, just as limited and distanced from the elusive "true picture" as family members' perceptions (Tutty, 1995). ...
The present study addresses the psychometric properties of the Portuguese translation and adaptation of the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale – version IV (FACES IV). The sample included 1083 individuals from 387 nuclear families, with an average age of 36 years. Besides its sociodemographic heterogeneity, the sample also included participants in various family life cycle stages and belonging to different family subsystems. We found overall good to moderate psychometric properties, namely adequate internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant ability. However, rigid and enmeshed scales presented weaker results. Normative expectations and cultural bias are discussed. FACES IV appears to be a valid and reliable measure of family dynamics, suitable for research and clinical purposes within the Portuguese context. However, further studies need to be carried out regarding the instruments’ properties in tapping extremely high cohesion (enmeshment) and low flexibility (rigidity) levels.
... Porém, se o objetivo é avaliar a interação familiar, autores sugerem que um mínimo de subsistemas seja incluído para que se tenha um maior grau de certeza acerca do conhecimento produzido a respeito do segmento da realidade, isto é, que sejam coletadas informações de díades (relação entre duas pessoas, por exemplo, pai e filho) e tríades (relação entre três pessoas, por exemplo, pai, mãe e filho) 7 . Percepções sobre o relacionamento familiar advindas de dois ou mais indivíduos podem indicar que os membros estão compartilhando os mesmos significados 8 . ...
Objective: To determine which instruments have been used in the assessment of family functioning in the context of mental health. Method: Systematic review according to Cochrane standards in databases: Medline, PubMed and PsycInfo from January 1990 to July 2009. We considered articles in English, Portuguese and Spanish who presented the use of scales, questionnaires and interviews in the assessment of family relationship in the context of mental health. The abstract should specify the name of the instrument, applying at least two family members, to present objective, methodology and results. The keywords used were: family functioning and assessment and psychiatry. Results: This study found 1,162 articles and 20 were selected. The instruments cited were: Family Assessment Device (FAD), Family Environment Scale (FES), Family Assessment Measure (FAM) Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale III (FACES III). The most families dysfunctions were related to: the performance of roles, norms and values, communication, affective involvement and problem resolution. The improvement of family functioning was associated with recovery of patients with mental disorders. Discussion: The use of family assessment instruments can contribute to the planning of therapeutic interventions and rehabilitation in mental health.
... Intense closeness between mothers and adolescents predicts a higher likelihood of marital separation, whereas closeness between fathers and younger children has a more positive impact on the husband-wife relationship, and predicts a lower likelihood of marital separation (Schindler & Coley, 2012). By conceptualizing individuals through their experiences within the greater family system of interactions among various indi- Family systems researchers have grappled with how to best account for the nonindependence between family members in their research designs and statistical analyses (Fisher, 1982). Many researchers have criticized the averaging of family members' scores to represent a summary of the family, rather than taking into account the individual contributions of each person's scores (Handel, 1997). ...
This article reviews empirical studies of the role of college roommate rela- tionships in students’ mental health and college adjustment. We propose a systemic conceptualization of roommate relationships that highlights roommates’ interdependence and origins of roommate relationship dy- namics. We discuss practice implications for student affairs professionals, provide a case example, and offer recommendations for future research.
... ThIS method measures and analyzes systems' level variables (Fisher, 1982; Fisher et al., 1985; Gottman, 1982; Rogers et al., 1985). ...
This paper reports on a study of the therapy process of 63 initial interviews. The purpose of the study was to determine if the therapists' use of executive and joining skills had an effect on whether families continued in therapy until family and therapist agreed on termination. In addition, we tested for the effect of solution-focused interviewing. We found that executive skills accounted for the majority of variance in outcome. Family members' discussion of solution information was significantly correlated with outcome, but did not enter into the regression equation.
... Thus, for constructs that reflect beliefs and attitudes, both the individual level of endorsement by each member and the extent of agreement among family respondents may need to be considered in calculating family scores (e.g., scores correspond to extent of endorsement of a belief or attitude as well as agreement about the family). Multiplying rather than averaging scores maintains consideration of both average extent of endorsement and level of agreement (Fisher, 1982). For other constructs, the aggregate family score may be represented well by the average level of endorsement across family members (e.g., cohesion; Carlton-Ford et al., 1991). ...
Two large samples of urban families were used to develop and cross-validate an assessment model and a measure to tap basic family processes and risk among diverse ethnic groups. Six scales (Cohesion, Beliefs About Family, Deviant Beliefs, Organization, Support, and Communication) produced a 3-dimension higher order factor model (Cohesion, Structure, and Beliefs). Tests support reliance on composite family scoring. Most scales and each higher order factor relate to depression, and aggression. Relations vary little by age, ethnicity, marital status of parent, or family income. Implications for family assessment methodology and risk models are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... For characteristics such as beliefs, we want to consider variation (or extent of agreement) among family members as well as level of endorsement. Although it is not a perfect method, multiplying rather than averaging scores maintains consideration of both average extent of endorsement and level of agreement (Fisher, 1982;Tolan et al., 1996). Scoring requires careful consideration of what an aggregation method implies about the meaning of combined scores. ...
Four issues regarding family influences and youth violence are discussed: (a) the need to consider family processes and influences on development in a more complex fashion than generally has occurred in risk and intervention models, (b) theoretical implications of methods used to assess family processes, (c) construction of risk models and translation of risk models to intervention design, and (d) inclusion of developmental theory and contextual influences in risk and intervention models of youth violence.
... The units of analysis are simple and conditional probabilities. This method measures and analyzes systems level variables (Fisher, 1982;Fisher et al., 1985;Gottman, 1982;Rogers, Millar, & Bavelas, 1985;Shields et al., 1991). TICS is a highly reliable coding system. ...
This paper reports a study of 63 initial interviews of structural-strategic therapy with families with child-focused problems. These interviews were analyzed to determine differences in the process of therapy between male and female therapists. We tested specifically for differences in joining and executive skills between male and female therapists. Transcripts made from audiotapes of the interviews were coded with the Therapeutic Interaction Coding System (TICS). Thirtyseven cases completed therapy, and 26 dropped out of therapy against therapists' advice. There were no significant differences in male and female therapists' case completion rates. The overall level of supportive statements was not significantly different between males and females. Family members made more structuring or directive statements toward male therapists, but stated more disagreement with other family members when their therapist was female. Male therapists made more explanation statements than female therapists in response to family members' structuring or disagreement statements. In addition, we tested for differences in activity level and found that male therapists made more statements overall than did female therapists.
... We designed a partially new type of interactional research which is focused on the operationalization as well as on the verification of the interactional dimensions mentioned above. In order to avoid common methodological deficiences in family research, as discussed by Cromwell et al. (1976), Fisher (1982 and Kog et al. (1983), we use three measures. ...
The psychosomatic family model of Minuchin and his colleagues is one of the best known and influential viewpoints in the field of family therapy. This article critically analyses this model and related concepts, focusing on the lack of clear definitions, especially with regard to the interactional concepts: enmeshment, rigidity, overprotectiveness, and lack of conflict resolution. Each concept is discussed, concluding with the recommendation of a new definition, so that the model can be empirically verified. The authors suggest that Minuchin's model can be reduced to three fundamental interactional dimensions: the intensity of intrafamilial boundaries, the degree of the family's adaptability, and the family's way of handling conflicts. A research method is presented in which the way of assessing these interactional dimensions is demonstrated.
... Porém, se o objetivo é avaliar a interação familiar, autores sugerem que um mínimo de subsistemas seja incluído para que se tenha um maior grau de certeza acerca do conhecimento produzido a respeito do segmento da realidade, isto é, que sejam coletadas informações de díades (relação entre duas pessoas, por exemplo, pai e filho) e tríades (relação entre três pessoas, por exemplo, pai, mãe e filho) 7 . Percepções sobre o relacionamento familiar advindas de dois ou mais indivíduos podem indicar que os membros estão compartilhando os mesmos significados 8 . ...
OBJECTIVE: To determine which instruments have been used in the assessment of family functioning in the context of mental health.
METHOD: Systematic review according to Cochrane standards in databases: Medline, PubMed and PsycInfo from January 1990 to July 2009. We considered articles in English, Portuguese and Spanish who presented the use of scales, questionnaires and interviews in the assessment of family relationship in the context of mental health. The abstract should specify the name of the instrument, applying at least two family members, to present objective, methodology and results. The keywords used were: family functioning and assessment and psychiatry.
RESULTS: This study found 1,162 articles and 20 were selected. The instruments cited were: Family Assessment Device (FAD), Family Environment Scale (FES), Family Assessment Measure (FAM) Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale III (FACES III). The most families dysfunctions were related to: the performance of roles, norms and values, communication, affective involvement and problem resolution. The improvement of family functioning was associated with recovery of patients with mental disorders.
DISCUSSION: The use of family assessment instruments can contribute to the planning of therapeutic interventions and rehabilitation in mental health.
Parents of schizophrenics have increasingly been included in the treatment of their offspring, either in psychoeducational oriented approaches (Anderson et al. 1980) or in regular family therapy (Hoffman 1981). However, the success of such interventions may depend on the nature of the parental relationship. Furthermore, in designing treatment programs for schizophrenics that include their parents, the particularities of the parental relationship need to be taken into account. Hence, descriptions of the relationship between parents of schizophrenics should be valuable for the clinician. Providing such descriptions is the general aim of the present study
Die Entwicklung der Wissenschaften baut auf 2 grundlegenden Fundamenten auf: Theoriegewinnung einerseits und Methodologie andererseits. Methoden sind bei der Erkenntnisgewinnung auf Theorien angewiesen und nur beide zusammen können intuitives Wissen überbieten. Es ist daher nicht verwunderlich, wenn in der Auseinandersetzung um die Frage, was wissenschaftlich sei und was nicht, die Frage der Methodologie eine bedeutende Rolle spielt. Eine bevorzugte Strategie zur Herabsetzung eines wissenschaftlichen Gegners besteht ja gerade darin, dessen Methodologie als unwissenschaftlich zu bezeichnen. Kontroversen um Methoden begleiten die Geschichte der Psychotherapie von Beginn an. So ist es nicht verwunderlich, daß auch im Bereich der systemischen Therapie die Frage der angemessenen Methoden heftig diskutiert wird. Wir wollen uns in diesem Beitrag auf die Frage konzentrieren, wie es im holistischen Paradigma um die Methodenfrage steht und ob sich bereits Lösungen abzeichnen.
As part of our graduate student recruitment process, we routinely send copies of key articles to prospective students. It gives them an opportunity to see current work and anticipate what they might do as graduate advisees. Over the years, some students have taken a rather dim view of our work on transactional world views and philosophical underpinnings of research, describing it variously as “not my thing,” “a real snoozer,” and the like. We also find this lack of interest in philosophical issues to be true of some of our professional colleagues. For understandable reasons, they are usually more interested in formulating specific research questions, designing research paradigms that will be robust, probing their data and results, learning new statistical techniques that will help them find outcomes that are interesting (and publishable), and rounding out the Discussion sections of their papers with ideas for specific future research projects. It is the tangibles of research, not the philosophical underpinnings, that are immediately rewarding and relevant to researchers’ everyday interests and careers.
This chapter is organized around what we regard as the three principal functions of the family within the context of the stress process. First, the family is an arena in which Stressors are generated by the problematic interactions of its members. Second, in their multiple social roles outside the family boundaries, family members may encounter problems that impact adversely on relationships and activities within the family. Third, the family is a social group able to mobilize resources in support of its members as they contend with life problems, regardless of the source of the problems (Pearlin & Turner, 1987).
There are many approaches to the assessment of family functioning. Popular techniques include the unstructured clinical interview (Fitzgerald, 1973); focused or structured interviews (Watzlawick, 1966); projective tests (Elbert, Rosman, Minuchin, & Guerney, 1964); self-report instruments (Moos & Moos, 1981); and performance on experimental tasks such as the revealed-difference technique (Jacob, 1975). The various methods differ with respect to their focus on past events versus the assessment of ongoing behavior. Also, there is considerable debate regarding how much emphasis should be placed on examining the characteristics of individual family members, their various interactions, or the family system as a whole (Bodin, 1968; Gurman & Kniskern, 1981; Lebow, 1981). Because each perspective may provide unique as well as corroborating information on areas of health or pathology in the family, there are obvious advantages in attempts to integrate these viewpoints. However, practical constraints and different theoretical orientations of staff often result in the use of a more circumscribed approach to family assessments in a given setting.
In this chapter we examine the support that married couples provide when one of them is confronted by a stressful job problem. Social support has emerged in recent years as a very useful concept but one whose study is still notably incomplete. It is useful because it helps to explain why some people are damaged by the life problems to which they are exposed and others, faced with similar problems, are able to resist threat to their psychological and physical well-being. Of course, social support is not alone in its capacity to shield people from the deleterious effects of difficult life circumstances. Other conditions have similar mediating functions, such as coping behavior, self-esteem, and mastery. However, whereas other mediators are essentially intrapsychic in character, social support is distinctively and inherently a social construct.
This provocative volume updates L' Abate's signature ideas, focusing in particular on the concepts of concreteness and specificity as basic tenets of evaluation and therapy. Noting society's growing familiarity with technology, current concerns about treatment accessibility, and widespread interest in wellness promotion, he argues for remote-writing exercises targeted to specific client issues and monitored by the clinician instead of relying on traditional talk-based therapy. This attention to concreteness and specificity in baseline evaluation, post-treatment evaluation, and follow-up, the author asserts, is central to making treatment replicable, less subject to impasses or missteps, and more professional, with the potential of changing how therapy is conducted as well as how clinicians are trained and practice. The book's framework includes rationales, models, empirical data, and examples of prescriptive remote-writing exercises. Featured in the coverage: Online interventions: here to stay and to grow. Verifiability in clinical psychology practices. Present status and future perspectives for personality and family assessment. Practice without theory/combining theory with practice. Toward a unifying framework of human relationships PIPES: Programmed Interactive Practice Exercise and Prescriptions. Concreteness and Specificity in Clinical Psychology will bring a new level of discussion and debate among clinical psychology practitioners and practicing psychotherapists in private practice and the public sector.
Four issues regarding family influences and youth violence are discussed: (a) the need to consider family processes and influences on development in a more complex fashion than generally has occurred in risk and intervention models, (b) theoretical implications of methods used to assess family processes, (c) construction of risk models and translation of risk models to intervention design, and (d) inclusion of developmental theory and contextual influences in risk and intervention models of youth violence.
The contribution of qualitative research to the study of families' experiences with childhood illness. In S. L. Feetham, J. M. Bell, & C. L. Gillis (Eds.), The nursing of families (pp. 61-69). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Many of the persistent problems in family measurement are due to inappropriate applications of theory, fuzzy conceptualizations of constructs, poor decisions regarding units of measurement, and disconnections between what researchers want to measure and how they operationalize their variables of interest. This article contains a series of tasks for family researchers to follow in planning their investigations that will help them avoid fundamental family measurement problems.
Family crisis intervention is a rapidly growing area of clinical care in family therapy which lacks clear conceptualization, especially with respect to how “family” fits into crisis intervention theory. This paper integrates recent concepts from the family therapy literature into three views: family as background, family as context, and family as a unit. The family crisis intervention literature (56 publications) is reviewed and categorized according to these three views. Clarity in how “family” is viewed and consistency between theory and practice are examined. Recommendations for improving the conceptualization of “family” in family crisis intervention theory and practice are made.
A transactional approach to research was illustrated through an analysis of social networks on a street. Patterns of interrelationships among multiple dimensions of networks were identified in summer and at Christmas. The assessment revealed relative continuity in social relationships, but change in the way in which social, affective, and environmental aspects of behavior were linked at the two times. The socially and psychologically bonded networks did not exhibit more home upkeep/landscaping in summer, but did decorate their homes more extensively at Christmas, supporting the view that the relationship/attachment/environmental aspects would fit together differently at the two times. The study suggests that neighborhood networks can be fruitfully understood as dynamic, multifaceted unities and that a transactional strategy can be a useful part of a total research program.
This article reviews the major paradigms that are different from the positivistic research tradition of reductive experimentation and presents an approach to teaching these paradigms in graduate counseling psychology programs. Arguments and issues related to broadening reductive-positivist conceptions of research are first summarized. Three alternate paradigms, (a) the naturalistic-ethnographic, (b) the phenomenological, and (c) the cybernetic, as well as other high-context approaches are described. Each paradigm is presented in terms of its conceptual base, methodological characteristics, applications, types of research questions it can address, and its strengths and limitations. A curriculum for teaching these alternate paradigms as an extension of standard research courses is proposed. The teaching philosophy, teaching-learning mechanisms, instructional resources, and observations from past experiences of implementation are given. It is argued that such teaching would promote students 'epistemic development and more informed method choices, as well as facilitate the integration of theory, research, and practice.
This article presents a unifying conceptualization of nursing research with persons and families. A common language for both nursing practice and nursing research with persons and families is proposed that is intended to facilitate critical dialogue toward advancing the discipline of nursing.
The development of the Family Satisfaction Scale is described. Respondents (total N = 843) completed the Family Satisfaction Scale either (1) for the purposes of assessing item-operating characteristics, factor structure and reliability of Family Satisfaction Scale scores; or (2) their predictability of both alternative measures of family attitudes and feelings, and current interpersonal functioning. Results indicated a single factor underlying responses to Family Satisfaction Scale items and a revised 20-item version of the scale yielded acceptable estimates of internal and temporal stability. Subsequent analyses indicated that Family Satisfaction Scale scores were related to various measures of family attitudes (e.g., cohesion, task acceptance, etc.) as well as current interpersonal functioning and attitudes (e.g., loneliness, social support, and marital satisfaction). These results are interpreted as supporting the validity of Family Satisfaction Scale.
Tested family systems propositions as applied to career development theory in a cross-sectional survey examining the relationship between family members' perceptions of family functioning and adolescent career development measures. Measures included the Family Functioning Scales (B. L. Bloom; see record
1986-13397-001), the Career Planning Involvement Scale of the Assessment of Career Development, and the Vocational Identity Scale of My Vocational Situation. Family functioning dimensions as evaluated by 215 11th-grade students and their parents were more frequent and stronger predictors of career development than gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and educational achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article is a review of developments in the assessment of the family in recent years. The review is selective, in order to draw out certain themes and principles from the literature.
Training in family therapy research must move beyond traditional methods courses. This paper describes a five-unit course which (a) reviews the fundamentals of research methodology and grounds the student in the history of psychotherapy research in general; (b) gives an overview of family research through detailed analysis of major review articles; (c) covers instrumentation tools and techniques; (d) critically evaluates key investigations in the field; and (e) examines the challenges of the “new epistemologies” for family therapy research. Learning activities are described for each unit that engage the student in such a way that the learning of research might be enjoyable as well as interesting. The paper may also be employed as a guide for self-study in family therapy research.
In the “epigenesis” of enduring relational systems, a sequence of four major processes or patterns can be identified: attachment/caregiving, communicating, joint problem-solving, and mutuality. Although these processes overlap, they optimally follow one another in becoming focally significant and ascendant. In this schema, intimacy makes a complex, deeply valued, but inconstant contribution. The development of family relatedness can be regarded as the prototype for epigenesis of relatively enduring relational systems. In family assessment, the hypothesized sequence qualitatively differs from, yet complements, traditional descriptions of structural transitions in family composition over the family life cycle. Such structural changes occur more or less inexorably whether or not the quality of family relating has progressed. Attempts to bypass stages in the development of salient relational processes are apt to generate impasses and dysfunctions or constrict subsequent growth. This developmental framework may be useful in relational “diagnosis” and in selecting those issues that deserve priority in therapy and research.
The search for and measurement of important relationship qualities have always been of interest to family therapists. Within a Rogerian perspective, empathy, regard, and congruence are believed to be among the most important indicators of the quality of human relationships. These variables, or conceptually similar ones, are also important in several current models of family functioning. Barrett-Lennard (1, 2) developed an instrument, the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (BLRI), to measure empathy, regard, and congruence. Although the major use of the BLRI has been in psychotherapy outcome research (13), several studies have shown that it is a sensitive indicator of marital satisfaction and of changes occurring in marital-improvement programs. The present study is a factor analysis of the BLRI based on data from 345 women who rated levels of empathy, regard, and congruence in their relationship with their husbands. The results robustly confirm the three-factor structure of the BLRI in what is believed to be the first factor analysis in the context of a family member rating a relationship within the family. The replication of the BLRI's structure in a new relationship context suggests that the dimensions tapped by the BLRI may have some generality and warrant further exploration in a family-systems context. Several advantages of the BLRI over other currently available instruments are discussed, as are potential uses of the BLRI in systems research beyond the marital unit.
Family systems theory presents an answer to the riddles of mental disorder and human functioning that stands in marked contrast to other prevailing views based on linearity and traditional science. At this stage of its development, the family systems view does not provide an internally coherent, predictive, or unifying theory about humans and their problems. Further, it tends to both undercontextualize and overcontextualize behavior, substitutes blaming the family for blaming the victim, reifies and anthropomorhizes the systems metaphor, dismisses such concepts as power and responsibility, and discourages research. As one theoretical and clinical perspective among many, however, it can be helpful and eye-opening.
Childhood cancer patients have a greater likelihood of long-term survival than ever before. This study examined both the perceived family functioning of adolescents who had successfully completed treatment for pediatric cancer and the relationship between family functioning and post-treatment adjustment. Eighty-eight adolescent survivors of hematologic malignancies were assessed regarding their family functioning, mental health, self-esteem, global competence, and problem behaviors. Contrary to expectations about the influence of cancer on these families, adolescent cancer survivors reported lower levels of family cohesion than the normative sample of healthy adolescents and their families. While current age, gender, age at diagnosis, and time since treatment completion were generally not associated with adolescents' adjustment, perceived family cohesion and adaptability were strongly related to post-treatment psychological adjustment.
Is deviant parental communication an interactional phenomenon? If it is, is this interaction stronger or weaker among parents of schizophrenics (S) than among parents of non-schizophrenic psychiatric controls (NS) and normals (N)? These two questions were investigated by using sequential analysis of parental interaction during Spouse Rorschach. Parents' deviant communication was measured by the self-disqualification (SD) category in the Relationship Control Coding System. Results showed that self-disqualification clearly depended on the quality of the previous parental communication: an SD utterance greatly increased the probability of an SD response from the spouse among S (n = 17), NS (n = 15) and N (n = 14). However, this increased probability was significantly higher among S parents. Furthermore, S parents' communication was significantly less dependent on their own previous communication than NS and N parents' communication was. However, the sheer magnitude of parental SD communication was a significant predictor of offspring diagnosis even when the interaction between the spouses was controlled for. Thus, the results indicate that the high rate of deviant communication among S parents is partly due to individual characteristics of the parents and partly due to reciprocation of the other spouse's deviant communication. The results are discussed with reference to possible gene-environment interaction in both schizophrenia and deviant communication.
A new approach to the study of family communication and psychopathology, in particular schizophrenia, using Saugstad's theory about use of language as its point of departure is presented. Conflicts between family members were observed and measured using a new unrevealed difference technique, the Colour Conflict Method (CCM). Communication was analysed in terms of continuous feedback processes, using the new computerized method, Confirmation-Disconfirmation Coding System (CONDIS). Feedback mechanisms in the internal communication of families of schizophrenics, normals, and non-schizophrenic pathological controls (n = 21) are described. The findings show that families of schizophrenics lack the ability to adapt their communication to changing situational requirements. When conflicts were introduced, families of schizophrenics-in contrast to non-schizophrenics within the extended schizophrenia spectrum and normals-increased their frequency of disconfirmatory feedback reactions instead of expressing disagreements openly. This was due to active disqualifications occurring between the parents and from the parents towards their schizophrenic offspring, who reacted with incomprehensible egocentric communication acts.
The convergent and discriminant validity of three operationalizations of the psychosomatic family features--enmeshment, rigidity, overprotectiveness, and lack of conflict resolution, as described by Minuchin and colleagues--are tested in families that include patients with eating disorders, especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia. We redefined the family features as dimensions and measured them with two behavioral methods (direct observation and behavioral product) and a self-report method. The two behavioral methods showed convergent as well as discriminant validity for the intensity of intrafamilial boundaries, the degree of the family's adaptability, and the family's way of handling conflicts. The self-report method showed only convergent validity for the latter dimension and discriminant validity for none of them. Besides intrafamilial conflict, the self-report method seemed to measure other constructs. A factor analysis of the family questionnaire indeed yielded three more evaluative constructs: conflict, cohesion, and disorganization. We interpreted these findings according to two usually interwoven mechanisms: the different research context (insider/outsider evaluation) in self-report and behavioral observation, and the different level of specification (micro/global evaluation) of certain operationalizations. We draw some conclusions about the psychosomatic family model and discuss the clinical implications of our findings.
This is the second part of an extended review on pain and families. The first paper dealt with the role of the family in the etiology and maintenance of chronic pain and discussed the impact of chronic pain on families. The paper will examine the role of the family in the assessment and treatment of chronic pain. Finally, problems of the theoretical models and empirical studies reviewed will be discussed and suggestions for future research will be presented.
Four well-known, self-report measures of family functioning were serially examined in order to identify a limited set of reliable concepts for describing families. Following the completion of four separate data collection procedures, a 75-item scale comprising 15 dimensions of family functioning was constructed. The dimensions appear reasonably independent of each other and have satisfactory psychometric properties. An initial effort to validate the scales was undertaken by contrasting scale scores obtained from descriptions of intact families with those obtained from descriptions of families that subsequently were disrupted by separation and divorce. Significant differences in scale scores were obtained on 12 of the 15 dimensions of family functioning. The 15 dimensions of family functioning could be subsumed under the three general headings suggested by Moos, Insel, and Humphrey (14)--relationship dimensions, personal growth or value dimensions, and system maintenance dimensions.
A major problem facing family clinicians and researchers is creating data that will reflect the family as a unit. To address this problem, we present a framework for family assessment based on three measurement strategies: individual family member assessment, relational family assessment, and transactional family assessment. Within this context, we present several categories of methods for combining individual family member data into "relational" scores that reflect the couple or family as a unit. The problems and benefits of each method are presented, and it is suggested that the choice of method is dependent upon the content of the assessment, the theory underlying the content, and the statistical properties of the individual family member scores.
Parents of schizophrenics have increasingly been included in the treatment of their offspring, either in psychoeducational oriented approaches (Anderson et al. 1980) or in regular family therapy (Hoffman 1981). However, the success of such interventions may depend on the nature of the parental relationship. Furthermore, in designing treatment programs for schizophrenics that include their parents, the particularities of the parental relationship need to be taken into account. Hence, descriptions of the relationship between parents of schizophrenics should be valuable for the clinician. Providing such descriptions is the general aim of the present study.
This article describes the development and validation of the McMaster Clinical Rating Scale (MCRS). The MCRS is a 7-item scale designed to be completed by a trained rater after completion of an in-depth interview of the family. We present data from four new studies and review previously published articles concerning the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of the MCRS. Adequate interrater reliability and rater stability were obtained. The MCRS was found to correlate significantly with the self-report Family Assessment Device and to discriminate between families in different phases of a depressive disorder.
In this article, the authors discuss conceptual and pragmatic considerations for conducting research of families using large secondary data sets. Conceptual considerations include establishing consistency among the theory, variables, and available data, and determining reliability and validity of the data in the context of the theory. Pragmatic considerations include the use of resources such as management of the data among several authors, criteria and methods for selection of a subsample, and, recoding of the data to examine dyadic difference scores. The Family Special Interest Group of the Eastern Nursing Research Society initiated this research as part of a project to analyze families using large national data sets. The purpose of the secondary analysis was to identify family beliefs about healt-promoting behaviors. Combining parent and teen data to create relational level data resulted in new information that had not been identified in the original survey.
Methodological and statistical challenges have been identified in family research when the parental dyad is under study. The purposes of this article are to review the literature on methodological and statistical procedures in research on families, and to introduce an analysis technique that is new to the nursing literature, the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM). The use and interpretation of the APIM method is illustrated through an example of families of young children with asthma. In the APIM an actor effect is the impact a person has on his or her own outcome, whereas a partner effect is the impact a member of a dyad has on his or her partner's outcome. The main findings from the data example indicate that family adaptation is influenced by the actor effect of resiliency factors (sense of coherence and family hardiness), the partner effect of caregiving demands, as well as by both the actor and partner effects of family demands. The APIM method gives new insight into how parental data can be analyzed by taking both the individual and the partner contribution into account when studying family phenomena. Knowing how outcomes may be influenced not only by individuals (via an actor effect) but also by their partners (through a partner effect) enriches our understanding of how families function.
Nowadays, health care delivery systems are changing from hospital-based services to more family-oriented or community-oriented care. The development of family nursing and family research is the focus of more attention than ever before. A family is composed of individuals. It combines the characteristics of individuals and collective groups, which makes family research more complex than studies of individuals. Consequently, research into family-oriented areas presents additional challenges concerning conceptual methodological issues. This article focuses on the issues of family research concepts, research designs, definitions of family, sampling, study tools, and data analysis. In order to promote high-quality family research outcomes, we propose below suggestions to serve as a guide to conducting family research: (1) identify the definition of family involved in a particular research question and choose a suitable methodology; (2) determine the number of family members and un its of analysis on theoretical bases; (3) select high-validity, high-reliability research tools in answering research questions; (4) analysis methods must match the concept of family and the characteristics of the units of analysis; (5) ethical issues must be respected in the recruitment of family members.
Fifty seven direct observation studies comparing family interaction in disturbed (schizophrenic and nonschizophrenic) and normal families were systematically evaluated. Major sections of the review include: a critical evaluation of the methodological adequacy of reviewed studies in terms of various design standards and controls; an extensive review of substantive findings relevant to the content domains of dominance, conflict, affect and communication clarity; and a discussion of difficulties involved in comparison of results because of cross study differences in diagnostic status of experimental groups, measurement techniques, type of analyses and demographic factors.
A review of the literature on dimensions of family assessment is presented. Assessment strategies are grouped into four types: single concept notions, theoretical notions, broadly based clinical lists, and empirically derived approaches; and each is critically reviewed. A summary of major assessment dimensions and an ordering of these dimensions using cultural and developmental principles as contextual assessment categories is presented.
Exciting developments in family theory construction over the past few years demand a constant survey and evaluation of measurable progress. This paper documents some developmental trends that have taken place in family theory construction and its applications, as well as in the relation of theory to advances in methodology. Many of these trends are examined in the light of two earlier reports, Pilgrim's Progress I (21) and Pilgrim's Progress H (13).
The conceptual clustering of numerous concepts from family therapy and other social science fields reveals two significant dimensions of family behavior, cohesion and adaptability. These two dimensions are placed into a circumplex model that is used to identify 16 types of marital and family systems. The model proposes that a balanced level of both cohesion and adaptability is the most functional to marital and family development. It postulates the need for a balance on the cohesion dimension between too much closeness (which leads to enmeshed systems) and too little closeness (which leads to disengaged systems). There also needs to be a balance on the adaptability dimension between too much change (which leads to chaotic systems) and too little change (which leads to rigid systems). The model was developed as a tool for clinical diagnosis and for specifying treatment goals with couples and families.
Toward a Differentiation of a Self from One's Own Family Family Interaction: A Dialogue Between Family Researchers and Family Therapists
- M Bowen
Bowen, M., "Toward a Differentiation of a Self from One's Own Family," in J. L. Framo (ed.), Family Interaction: A Dialogue Between Family Researchers and Family Therapists, New York, Harper & Row, 1972.
A Theory of Relationships: Experience and Transaction
- I Nagy
Nagy, I., "A Theory of Relationships: Experience and Transaction", in I. Nagy and J.L. Framo (eds.), Intensive