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Pesticides in Household Dust and Soil: Exposure Pathways for Children of Agricultural Families
Abstract
Children of agricultural families are likely to be exposed to agricultural chemicals, even if they are not involved in farm activities. This study was designed to determine whether such children are exposed to higher levels of pesticides than children whose parents are not involved in agriculture and whose homes are not close to farms. Household dust and soil samples were collected in children's play areas from 59 residences in eastern Washington State (26 farming, 22 farmworker, and 11 nonfarming families). The majority of the farm families lived within 200 feet of an operating apple or pear orchard, whereas all reference homes were located at least a quarter of a mile from an orchard. Four organophosphorous (OP) insecticides commonly used on tree fruit were targeted for analysis: azinphosmethyl, chlorpyrifos, parathion, and phosmet. Samples were extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass selective detection. Pesticide concentrations in household dust were significantly higher than in soil for all groups. OP levels for farmer/farm-worker families ranged from nondetectable to 930 ng/g in soil (0.93 ppm) and from nondetectable to 17,000 ng/g in dust (17 ppm); all four OP compounds were found in 62% of household dust samples, and two-thirds of the farm homes contained at least one OP above 1000 ng/g. Residues were found less frequently in reference homes, and all levels were below 1000 ng/g. Household dust concentrations for all four target compounds were significantly lower in reference homes when compared to farmer/farmworker homes (Mann-Whitney U test; p
... In contrast, low, chronic exposure to OPs does not result in significant neuropsychological effects, neuropsychiatric problems, or nerve dysfunction (Hoppin et al. 2006, Menini & Gugliucci 2014, Hodgson & Rose 2006, Simcox et al. 1995, Gordon et al. 1999. Young animals and children are reported to have a greater sensitivity towards acute toxicity of OPs which may be due to their low detoxication abilities (Needham et al. 2005). ...
... The agricultural pesticide handlers in Washington State were studied, and it was found that lower plasma levels of PON1 activity show greater BuChE inhibition (Hodgson et al. 2006). Costa et al. (2013) found PON1 to be a crucial factor in diazinon and chlorpyrifosoxon toxicity in rats and mice (Ellison et al. 2012, Needham et al. 2005, Hoppin et al. 2006, Menini & Gugliucc 2014, Hodgson & Rose 2006, Simcox et al. 1995. (Fig. 8). ...
... The non-neuronal effects of OP exposure on humans are little known (Naughton & Terry Jr. 2018, Quistad et al. 2006. A report revealed several non-neuronal tissues, upon exposure to OPs, may disturb biological processes such as carboxylase inhibition by blocking chemical transformation (Simcox et al. 1995). Xenobiotic metabolism disturbance and cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) inhibition by active sulfur during desulphuration (phase I metabolism) is also reported (Bomser et al. 2002). ...
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are phosphoric acid derivatives represented by the formula (R2XP=O/S), R as organic groups; however, they need not contain a direct carbon-phosphorus bond. The organophosphorus compounds can be categorized into three classes, viz., organophosphates, carbamates nerve agents. The OPs having application as insecticides are generally phosphorothioates (i.e., containing P=S bond). These sulfur analogs are first bioactivated (in vivo) and converted to oxygen analogs responsible for exerting toxic action. These organophosphorus compounds are esters, fluorides, anhydrides, and amides of phosphoric, phosphorothioate, and phosphorodithioic acids. The toxicity of OPs is related to their molecular structure, metabolism in the targeted organisms, concentration, mode of decomposition, application, ingestion in organisms, etc. Exposure to OPs leads to the appearance of neurological symptoms followed by acute poisoning by targeting the target primarily, acetylcholine (AChE). However, secondary targets and other harmful effects besides nerve system problems are also reported. Organophosphates poison insects and other animals, including birds, amphibians, and mammals. These chemicals can have neural effects (Neurotoxicity), non-neuronal effects, or acute toxicity, which may also result in fatality. Their uncontrollable widespread became a significant threat to the environment; thus, corrective measures have been essential to save living beings and the environment from further damage.
... Prior studies have reported that OP concentrations in home dust were higher in agricultural households compared to non-agricultural households, as well as in homes that were located in close proximity to agricultural fields treated with pesticides compared to homes that were farther away. [12][13][14][15][16] These higher dust concentrations in agricultural households are associated with increased pesticide metabolites in children's urine. [14,15,17] However, the contribution of pathways to home OP contamination is not well-characterized, including contaminant transport and behaviors, specifically worker behaviors. ...
... Potential determinants identified from prior studies included: (1) type of agricultural work (i.e. fieldwork, fruit sorter or packer in a fruit-packing house, or no agricultural work), [14][15][16] (2) number of agricultural persons in the household, [13] (3) specific home characteristics (i.e., housing type, house ownership, proximity of house to an agricultural field, presence of an entry floor mat, open windows and doors, frequency of cleaning carpeted floors, air cooling systems), [12,22] and (4) hygiene practices after handling pesticides (i.e., wearing work clothes in the home after work, removing shoes prior to entering the home, time before washing off after arriving home). [23,24] We report only on the relationships between the low and high OP concentration groups from the multinomial regression models. ...
... Several studies found higher levels of azinphos-methyl or chlorpyrifos in dust from homes that were located near agricultural fields. [12][13][14][15][16] Having an air conditioner was found to be protective and associated with lower phosmet concentrations at one time point. Harnly et al. also found that having an air conditioner in the home was strongly associated with reduced OP concentrations. ...
Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are commonly applied to agricultural crops. Families living in these communities may have higher exposure to OPs due to take home exposures and close proximity to agricultural fields. The objectives of this study were to measure OP concentrations in home carpet dust in agricultural and non-agricultural households and examine factors that may impact OP concentrations such as occupation, housing characteristics, and resident behaviors. Agricultural households had at least one parent who worked in agriculture during the previous five years. Carpet dust samples were collected at two time points from 278 households in an agricultural community located in the Pacific Northwest from 2008-2011. Samples were analyzed for four types of OPs: azinphos-methyl, phosmet, malathion, and chlorpyrifos. Overall, OP detection frequencies and concentrations were higher in agricultural households compared to non-agricultural households.
Factors associated with higher OP concentrations in home carpet dust were identified and included: (1) homes with two or more agricultural workers living in the home, (2) homes located in close proximity to an agricultural field or orchard, (3) having an entry floor mat, and (4) frequently vacuuming the house. Having air conditioning in the home had a protective effect with OP concentrations. While the use of these four OPs is restricted or limited for residential use in the United States, results show that they were still found in the indoor environment. The understanding of the impact of agricultural work and other factors that elevate levels of OPs in the home is crucial to mitigating pesticide exposure in agricultural communities.
... Samples collected included dust from homes and commuter vehicles, air samples, and floor, toy, and hand wipes. Three of these studies compared farmworker and non-farmworker homes and found significantly higher pesticide levels in the samples collected from the homes/vehicles of farmworkers for at least one pesticide (Butler-Dawson et al., 2016;Quiros-Alcala et al., 2011;Simcox et al., 1995). Furthermore, McCauely et al. (2001) compared pesticide levels in housedust among farmworker and grower homes in two counties in Oregon and found slightly higher median pesticide levels in grower homes (McCauley et al., 2001). ...
... Eleven of the studies included a non-agricultural reference group and one study included comparisons of exposures among grower and farmworker homes. Nine of the studies that included a non-agriculture comparison group found statistically higher urinary metabolite levels and/or house dust concentrations in the farm children/farm homes than non-farm children/non-farm homes for at least one pesticide (p < 0.05) (Butler-Dawson et al., 2016;Coronado et al., 2011;Curwin et al., 2007b;Lambert et al., 2005;Loewenherz et al., 1997;Lu et al., 2000;Quiros-Alcala et al., 2011;Simcox et al., 1995;Suarez-Lopez et al., 2012). One study that included a non-agricultural reference group found marginally significantly higher median pesticide dose estimates for farm children compared to non-farm children (p=0.06 for creatinine-adjusted spray season dose estimates; p=0.07 for creatinineadjusted single-day dose estimates) (Fenske et al., 2000). ...
... Eight studies assessed the effect of residential proximity to OP pesticide-treated farmland on urinary metabolite levels of children. Different distances were used to categorize proximal and non-proximal children in these studies, however all seven found that children living closer to pesticide-treated farmland or orchards either had higher concentrations of OP metabolites or a higher frequency of detectable urinary metabolites (Arcury et al., 2005;Coronado et al., 2011;Loewenherz et al., 1997;Lu et al., 2000;McCauley et al., 2001;Quandt et al., 2004;Simcox et al., 1995;Suarez-Lopez et al., 2012). ...
... Indoor home exposure to pesticides via household dust has been previously identified as an important exposure pathway among agricultural workers and their family members [22,23]. Previous studies showed higher OP dust concentrations in agricultural households and those nearer agricultural fields compared to non-agricultural households or those that were further away [19,24,25]. ...
... One important pathway that has been previously identified is indoor pesticide exposure from household dust, which can be tracked into the home on skin, clothes, and shoes, or blown in from airborne movement [22,23]. Apart from proximity of the household to agricultural fields [19,24,25], individual and household characteristics resulting in OP exposure are less established. We collected household and resident data from Central Valley households within 61 m of agricultural fields at two time points to examine factors associated with OPs in household dust during non-application (winter) and application (summer) seasons. ...
Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are associated with numerous adverse health outcomes. Pesticide use data are available for California from the Pesticide Use Report (PUR), but household- and individual-level exposure factors have not been fully characterized to support its refinement as an exposure assessment tool. Unique exposure pathways, such as proximity to agricultural operations and direct occupational contact, further complicate pesticide exposure assessment among agricultural communities. We sought to identify influencing factors of pesticide exposure to support future exposure assessment and epidemiological studies. Household dust samples were collected from 28 homes in four California agricultural communities during January and June 2019 and were analyzed for the presence of OPs. Factors influencing household OPs were identified by a data-driven model via best subsets regression. Key factors that impacted dust OP levels included household cooling strategies, secondary occupational exposure to pesticides, and geographic location by community. Although PUR data demonstrate seasonal trends in pesticide application, this study did not identify season as an important factor, suggesting OP persistence in the home. These results will help refine pesticide exposure assessment for future studies and highlight important gaps in the literature, such as our understanding of pesticide degradation in an indoor environment.
... Parental occupation in construction was also associated with childhood cancers, highlighting the possibility of chronic low-level take-home exposure to solvents and hydrocarbons during developmental periods (Savitz and Chen, 1990;Moore et al., 2005). Take-home of pesticides (primarily organophosphates) via agricultural workers has been well documented, starting in the mid 1990s (Simcox et al., 1995). Apart from consistently high levels of organophosphates in the homes of workers (Simcox et al., 1995;Lu et al., 2004) and high metabolite levels in the urine of their children (Lu et al., 2000), take-home exposure has been correlated with decreases in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity (Suarez-Lopez et al., 2012;Suarez-Lopez et al., 2018) and neurocognitive impairment on math and language tests in children and adults (Rohlman et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2016a;Waheed et al., 2017). ...
... Take-home of pesticides (primarily organophosphates) via agricultural workers has been well documented, starting in the mid 1990s (Simcox et al., 1995). Apart from consistently high levels of organophosphates in the homes of workers (Simcox et al., 1995;Lu et al., 2004) and high metabolite levels in the urine of their children (Lu et al., 2000), take-home exposure has been correlated with decreases in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity (Suarez-Lopez et al., 2012;Suarez-Lopez et al., 2018) and neurocognitive impairment on math and language tests in children and adults (Rohlman et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2016a;Waheed et al., 2017). Children are particularly affected by overlapping cumulative exposures in these settings, with decreasing AChE activity correlated with an increasing number of potential pathways through which a child can be exposed (Suarez-Lopez et al., 2012). ...
Toxic contaminants inadvertently brought from the workplace to the home, known as take-home or paraoccupational exposures, have often been framed as a problem that arises due to unsanitary worker behavior. This review article conceptualizes take-home exposures as a public health hazard by (i) investigating the history of take-home contaminants and how they have been studied, (ii) arguing that an ecosocial view of the problem is essential for effective prevention, (iii) summarizing key structural vulnerabilities that lead populations to be at risk, and (iv) discussing future research and prevention effort needs. This article reframes take-home exposures as one of many chronic pathways that contributes to persistent health disparities among workers, their families, and communities. Including the role of work in community health will increase the comprehensiveness of prevention efforts for contaminants such as lead and pesticides that contribute to environmental disparities.
... Otro aspecto relevante vinculado con la presencia de residuos de plaguicidas en suelos de uso agrícola es el impacto de estas sustancias sobre los organismos no-blanco, particularmente en la microflora del suelo, cuyas funciones son críticas para la productividad y sostenibilidad de la actividad agrícola y la calidad del ambiente (Imfeld y Vuilleumier 2012). Adicionalmente, se ha reportado que la presencia de estos compuestos en polvo y suelo constituye una importante vía de exposición humana, ya que las partículas contaminadas pueden ser inhaladas y adherirse fácilmente a la piel, mucosas, alimentos y otros objetos, a través de los cuales pueden ser ingeridas por los agricultores y los habitantes de las zonas de producción y sus alrededores, siendo la población infantil la más susceptible debido a su tendencia a jugar en el suelo y llevarse objetos y manos a la boca (Simcox et al. 1995, US-EPA 2011. ...
... En Venezuela no existen regulaciones sobre los niveles de residuos de plaguicidas en suelo y los organismos multinacionales como OMS, FAO o la Unión Europea tampoco lo han establecido, por lo que es difícil establecer la forma en que estos residuos afectan la salud y calidad de vida de los trabajadores y habitantes de las zonas de producción agrícola. Dentro de este contexto, algunos autores han sugerido que la ingesta de polvo y suelo contaminado podría constituir un importante medio de exposición (Simcox et al. 1995, Morgan et al. 2014, Richards et al. 2016. Esta ingesta no dietética afectaría en mayor grado a los grupos etarios más bajos, es decir, niños en edad preescolar y escolar, debido a su mayor tendencia a jugar en el suelo y a llevarse las manos y otros objetos a la boca. ...
There is a growing concern about the presence of pesticide residues in agricultural land because they constitute an environmental risk and a source of human exposure. In this work, the presence of these residues and the risk of exposure was determined in the micro-watershed of Los Zarzales, Rivas Dávila municipality, Mérida, Venezuela. Soil samples were taken in the initial, middle and final stages of short cycle crops, and the active ingredients were extracted and analyzed by HPLC. The risk of exposure was estimated by calculating the dose of pesticides through non-dietary intake of contaminated soil and dust, according to the US-EPA criteria. The highest concentration and variety of compounds was recorded during the middle stage: 26 ± 7 mg/kg of total residues and 100% detection frequency, standing out among them paraquat (15 ± 7 mg/kg), carbendazim (8 ± 2 mg/kg), mancozeb (3.7 ± 0.7 mg/kg) and carbofuran (1.2 ± 0.5 mg/kg). Based on these values, the calculated daily doses were 1.5, 0.8, 0.37 and 0.12 μg/day, respectively, all of which were below the admissible daily intake established by FAO/WHO, which is used as reference. Despite of this, the total dose reached 2.8 μg/day, which is considered as a risk of exposure.
... Pesticides more generally associated with outdoor uses and urban runoff can also make their way into wastewater via transport indoors followed by washing, cleaning, and laundry activities. Pesticides in outdoor-use products can be tracked indoors via shoes, clothing, and skin (27,31), with higher levels observed for professional pesticide applicators and agricultural workers (28,31,32). Indoor contamination can also result from air deposition of volatile or spray pesticide applications from nearby outdoor settings (33). ...
... Pesticides more generally associated with outdoor uses and urban runoff can also make their way into wastewater via transport indoors followed by washing, cleaning, and laundry activities. Pesticides in outdoor-use products can be tracked indoors via shoes, clothing, and skin (27,31), with higher levels observed for professional pesticide applicators and agricultural workers (28,31,32). Indoor contamination can also result from air deposition of volatile or spray pesticide applications from nearby outdoor settings (33). ...
... Although dust pesticide concentrations are a potentially useful exposure indicator in children [43], their relevance to adult exposure is less established [44]. We used house dust pesticide concentrations as a surrogate for chronic exposure because pesticides in indoor dust resist degradation due to limited sunlight, microbial activity, and moisture (Simcox et al. 1995; [45,32]). Biological monitoring data from spouses/ women in agricultural areas, a more direct measure of exposure, was not used here to predict exposure contrast, because pesticide biomarkers tend to have low percent detection and limited variability within study populations, and generally reflect recent exposures [1,16,46,47]. ...
... Although dust pesticide concentrations are a potentially useful exposure indicator in children [43], their relevance to adult exposure is less established [44]. We used house dust pesticide concentrations as a surrogate for chronic exposure because pesticides in indoor dust resist degradation due to limited sunlight, microbial activity, and moisture (Simcox et al. 1995; [45,32]). Biological monitoring data from spouses/ women in agricultural areas, a more direct measure of exposure, was not used here to predict exposure contrast, because pesticide biomarkers tend to have low percent detection and limited variability within study populations, and generally reflect recent exposures [1,16,46,47]. ...
Residents of agricultural areas experience pesticide exposures from sources other than direct agricultural work. We developed a quantitative, active ingredient-specific algorithm for cumulative (adult, married lifetime) non-occupational pesticide exposure intensity for spouses of farmers who applied pesticides in the Agricultural Health Study (AHS). The algorithm addressed three exposure pathways: take-home, agricultural drift, and residential pesticide use. Pathway-specific equations combined (i) weights derived from previous meta-analyses of published pesticide exposure data and (ii) information from the questionnaire on frequency and duration of pesticide use by applicators, home proximity to treated fields, residential pesticide usage (e.g., termite treatments), and spouse’s off-farm employment (proxy for time at home). The residential use equation also incorporated a published probability matrix that documented the likelihood active ingredients were used in home pest treatment products. We illustrate use of these equations by calculating exposure intensities for the insecticide chlorpyrifos and herbicide atrazine for 19,959 spouses. Non-zero estimates for ≥1 pathway were found for 78% and 77% of spouses for chlorpyrifos and atrazine, respectively. Variability in exposed spouses’ intensity estimates was observed for both pesticides, with 75th to 25th percentile ratios ranging from 7.1 to 7.3 for take-home, 6.5 to 8.5 for drift, 2.4 to 2.8 for residential use, and 3.8 to 7.0 for the summed pathways. Take-home and drift estimates were highly correlated (≥0.98), but were not correlated with residential use (0.01‒0.02). This algorithm represents an important advancement in quantifying non-occupational pesticide relative exposure differences and will facilitate improved etiologic analyses in the AHS spouses. The algorithm could be adapted to studies with similar information.
... Comparative studies in the US have measured the risk of pesticide exposure at agricultural workers' houses and non-agricultural workers' houses living near agricultural zones. These studies have shown the presence of contaminated soil inside the houses of agricultural workers brought in through contaminated clothes, pesticide applicators, and vehicles used in the field (Simcox 1995, Curwin et al. 2007). Other studies addressed this issue focusing on children from agricultural families, highlighting the risk of living with contaminated clothes and shoes inside the houses (Curwin et al. 2007). ...
... These studies have suggested that children have a high risk of exposure to pesticides through contact with environmental contaminants on the floor as well as through hand-to-mouth behavior with dust and soil. The latter represents a significant source of pesticide exposure (Simcox et al. 1995, Castañeda-Yslas 2016. Furthermore, the results of the review by Deziel et al. (2015) found five studies with evidence of cleaning practices that had a potential impact on the concentration of pesticides in the dust at home. ...
The adverse effects of pesticides on public health have been well documented in different populations across the world. Families of agricultural workers, particularly their wives, face pesticide exposures through a number of complex patterns even when they do not directly engage in agricultural work. Nonetheless, these patterns of exposure among women in agricultural communities remain understudied. Unfortunately, in Mexico there are no studies examining these patterns yet. In consequence, the main goals of this study were to: 1) evaluate pesticide exposure in a rural community of Southeast Mexico, 2) examine the patterns of environmental and para-occupational pesticide exposure, and 3) document the para-occupational and environmental pesticide exposure among women who are not agricultural workers but have an agricultural family or are wives of agricultural workers. We conducted a cross-sectional study of 78 women who did not themselves participate in any agricultural activity, but lived in an agricultural community. Questionnaires and interviews were used to construct a Pesticide Exposure Index (PEI) estimating the degree of pesticide exposure among women from agricultural families and wives of agricultural workers. Through the PEI we showed that women living in agricultural communities using pesticides are inherently exposed to a certain level of pesticides. With the PEI we showed that women from agricultural families, especially wives of agricultural workers, have a long-term para-occupational pesticide exposure that should not be underestimated because they are not agricultural workers. © 2018, Centro de Ciencias de la Atmosfera, UNAM. All rights reserved.
... 57 Given the setting of Pedro Moncayo, potential pathways of pesticide exposure that may influence urinary pesticide concentrations include pesticide drift from pesticide-treated agricultural crops (flowers, wheat, corn, soybean, barley, etc.) onto populations nearby, cohabitation with an agricultural worker (para-occupational exposure), residential pesticide use, or contact with contaminated sources (i.e., dust, water, food). 58 All participants at the time of the ESPINA assessment reported not working in agriculture, thus occupational exposure of pesticides is not or rarely anticipated in this population. ...
Background:
Herbicides are the most used class of pesticides worldwide, and insect repellents are widely used globally. Yet, there is a dearth of studies characterizing the associations between these chemical groups and human neurobehavior. Experimental studies suggest that glyphosate and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicides can affect neurobehavior and the cholinergic and glutamatergic pathways in the brain. We aim to assess whether herbicides and insect repellents are associated with neurobehavioral performance in adolescents.
Methods:
We assessed 519 participants (11-17 years of age) living in agricultural communities in Ecuador. We quantified urinary concentrations of glyphosate, 2,4-D, and two N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) insect repellent metabolites [3-(diethylcarbamoyl)benzoic acid (DCBA) and 3-(ethylcarbamoyl)benzoic acid (ECBA)] using isotope-dilution mass spectrometry. We assessed neurobehavioral performance using 9 subtests across 5 domains (attention/inhibitory control, memory/learning, language, visuospatial processing, and social perception). We characterized the associations using generalized estimating equations and multiple imputation for metabolites below detection limits. Models were adjusted for demographic and anthropometric characteristics, urinary creatinine, and sexual maturation. Mediation by salivary cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, 17β-estradiol, and testosterone was assessed using structural equation modeling.
Results:
The mean of each neurobehavioral domain score was between 7.0 and 8.7 [standard deviation (SD) range: 2.0-2.3]. Glyphosate was detected in 98.3% of participants, 2,4-D in 66.2%, DCBA in 63.3%, and ECBA in 33.4%. 2,4-D was negatively associated with all neurobehavioral domains, but statistically significant associations were observed with attention/inhibition [score difference per 50% higher metabolite concentration (β)=-0.19 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.31, -0.07], language [β=-0.12 (95% CI: -0.23, -0.01)], and memory/learning [β=-0.11 (95% CI: -0.22, 0.01)]. Glyphosate had a statistically significant negative association only with social perception [β=-0.08 (95% CI: -0.14, -0.01)]. DEET metabolites were not associated with neurobehavioral performance. Mediation by gender and adrenal hormones was not observed.
Conclusion:
This study describes worse neurobehavioral performance associated with herbicide exposures in adolescents, particularly with 2,4-D. Replication of these findings among other pediatric and adult populations is needed. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11383.
... Simcox et al. reported that children whose parents worked in agriculture fields received higher exposure than those whose parents did not. It has been reported that in rural regions, the concentration of pesticides in indoor air of homes located in the vicinity of farmlands is many times greater than homes farther away, particularly during the period when fields are sprayed (Simcox et al. 1995). ...
Although the fundamental reasons for cognitive function disorders have been well documented, little is known about the impact of environmental exposures, such as pesticides, on children’s cognitive function development. This study investigated the effect of exposure to organophosphate pesticides on children’s cognitive function. In order to determine various factors of exposure, hair samples were collected from 114 elementary school children who lived in Boyer–Ahmad County in the province of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer–Ahmad, Iran. A detailed questionnaire was utilized to gather demographic information and exposure profile. Pesticides were detected in hair samples using a gas chromatography–mass spectrometer (GC–MS); also, cognitive function was assessed using the trail–making test (TMT), which was divided into two parts: TMT–part A and TMT–part B. Participants in the study were 10.12 ± 1.440 years old on average. Children in rural areas had higher mean total pesticide concentrations (13.612 ± 22.01 ng/g) than those who lived in the urban areas (1.801 ± 1.32). The results revealed that boys (46.44 s and 92.37 s) completed the TMT–part A and part B tests in less time than girls (54.95 s and 109.82 s), respectively, and showed better performance (2.14) on the cognitive function exam than girls (2.07). Diazinon and TMT–part B were positively correlated (p < 0.05). With the increase in pesticides, there was no discernible difference in cognitive function. Pesticide use throughout a child’s development may affect certain cognitive function indicators. In order to assess causal relationships, group studies and case studies are required because the current research was cross–sectional in nature.
Graphical abstract
... Over the past few decades, the field of child environmental health (CEH) science has identified powerful effects of early life exposures to common environmental toxicants widely spread through air pollution (Perera, 2017), water (Hanna-Attisha et al., 2016), soil (Simcox et al., 1995), pesticides and other chemicals (Boucher et al., 2014;Eskenazi et al., 2013;Lanphear et al., 2005;Whyatt et al., 2012). CEH scientists have also documented that risk is unequally distributed in the population (Morello-Frosch & Shenassa, 2006;Persico et al., 2016;Sampson, 2022). ...
Child environmental health (CEH) science has identified numerous effects of early life exposures to common, ubiquitous environmental toxicants. CEH scientists have documented the costs not only to individual children but also to population‐level health effects of such exposures. Importantly, such risks are unequally distributed in the population, with historically marginalized communities and the children living in these communities receiving the most damaging exposures. Developmental science offers a lens and set of methodologies to identify nuanced biological and behavioral processes that drive child development across physical, cognitive, and socioemotional domains. Developmental scientists are also experts in considering the multiple, hierarchically‐layered contexts that shape development alongside toxicant exposure. Such contexts and the individuals acting within them make up an overarching “child serving ecosystem” spanning systems and sectors that serve children directly and indirectly. Articulating how biobehavioral mechanisms and social–ecological contexts unfold from a developmental perspective are needed in order to inform CEH translation and intervention efforts across this child‐serving ecosystem. Developmentalists can also benefit from integrating CEH science findings in their work by considering the role of the physical environment, and environmental toxicants specifically, on child health and development. Building on themes that were laid out by Trentacosta and Mulligan in 2020, this commentary presents recommendations for connecting developmental and CEH science and for translating such work so that it can be used to promote child development in an equitable manner across this child‐serving ecosystem. These opportunities include (1) Using Developmentally‐Informed Conceptual Models; (2) Applying Creative, Sophisticated, and Rigorous Methods; (3) Integrating Developmentally‐Sensitive Intervention Considerations; and (4) Establishing Interdisciplinary Collaborations and Cross‐Sector Partnerships.
... Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover to check wastelands, soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the fertility of the land (Simcox et al., 1995). ...
Environment pollution is a burning topic of the day. Air, water and soil are being polluted alike. Soil being a "universal sink" bears the greatest burden of environmental pollution. It is getting polluted in a number of ways. These ways are discussed in the paper and therefore, there is need for urgent control of soil pollution in order to preserve soil fertility and increase the productivity of crops. The paper focuses on the review of sources and causes of soil pollution as well as global warming and their effects on crop production. Finally, the paper explains various farming practices and recommendations towards increased in agricultural production.
... 17,18 However, there is enough evidence to indicate that pesticides are brought into homes through work clothes, footwear, and on the skin from family members engaged in agriculture activities. [19][20][21] Pesticides are capable of reaching homes through the air. 22,23 Volatile pesticide particles accumulate on furniture, floors, and playgrounds. ...
Background
Glyphosate is one of the most commonly used pesticides in agricultural activities worldwide. For the last 20 years, its use has increased rapidly becoming a public health concern. The IARC classified glyphosate as probably carcinogenic; however, the reported evidence is not enough to establish a statement.
Objective
This work aimed to measure glyphosate levels in the urine of children from a single rural community in an endemic region of chronic kidney disease and malnutrition.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was carried out in a rural community in western Mexico. The study included 95 children between the ages of 6 and 16. A urine sample (first-morning spot) was obtained from children and processed to measure glyphosate levels using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.
Results
All samples tested positive for glyphosate levels. Urine glyphosate levels were related to the season and the age of the children.
Conclusion
Glyphosate is present in children of all ages in the community even if they were not in direct contact with it. No toxicity cases were reported, nor were there other health problems related to glyphosate. However, more long-term studies should be done that provide a statement regarding the harmful effects that glyphosate has on public health.
... Concern for this exposure pathway was initially raised in 1995 by the Centers for Disease Control National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) study, which reported that workers' homes in 28 countries and 36 states in the United States (US) were contaminated with workplace chemicals, including pesticides [22,23]. Subsequent research conducted in HICs confirmed that pesticides, such as herbicides, accumulate in workers' homes, potentially exposing their families to residues and the associated health risks [14,15,18,20,21,[24][25][26][27]. A study among farmworkers in North Carolina, US, showed the persistence of pesticides in the indoor environment as concentrations of occupational pesticides no longer registered for use in the US were identified in their homes [28]. ...
Para-occupational "take-home" exposure risks among forestry workers and their families in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) have not been well characterized. This is a concern because research shows an association between chronic low-dose herbicide exposure and adverse health effects. This study explored take-home herbicide residue exposure risks among forestry workers in the Western Cape, South Africa, through the community-based participatory research approach of photovoice. A key finding of the study was the absence of provisions related to take-home exposure in the national legislation and workplace policies, which largely contributed to poor adherence to risk reduction practices at worksites, in addition to workers transporting residues to their homes. This study demonstrated evidence of the key omissions regarding take-home exposure at the policy level (e.g., recommendations for employers to reduce take-home risks among employees, and training of workers and their families on take-home exposure) and take-home herbicide residue exposure among worker's families, including children.
... The agricultural jobs of the parents were found to be significantly associated with taking home pesticides (32). Studies have consistently found high levels of organophosphate (33) in the homes of agricultural workers and high levels of metabolites (20) in the urine of their children. In the studies conducted, high organophosphate levels (33) and high metabolite levels in the urine of their children (20) were found in the homes of agricultural workers. ...
... Farmworkers in the US are overwhelmingly Hispanic or Latinx. The children of Latinx farmworkers are more likely to be exposed to agricultural toxins (Rao et al, 2007;Fenske et al, 2000;Mills & Zahm, 2001;Simcox et al, 1995), live below the poverty line (JBS International, 2016), and face higher levels of food insecurity (Weigel et al, 2007;Quandt et al, 2004). Thus, the children of these farmworkers are not often compelled to willingly pursue careers within the field of agriculture. ...
Soil science is one of the least diverse subdisciplines within the agricultural, earth, and natural sciences. Representation within soil science does not currently reflect demographic trends in the United States. We synthesize available data on the representation of historically marginalized groups in soil science in the United States and identify historical mechanisms contributing to these trends. We review education and employment information within academia and the federal government, land‐grant university participation, and available Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) membership data to gain insight into the current state of representation within soil sciences and implications for the future of this discipline. Across all domains of diversity, historically marginalized groups are under‐represented in soil science. We provide recommendations toward recognizing diversity within the field and improving and encouraging diversity within the SSSA, and suggested responses for both individuals and institutions toward improving diversity, equity, and inclusion.
... We have also previously reported concentrations of phthalates and plasticizers (Hammel et al., 2019), reporting similar levels and similar pattern of occurrence relative to other recent studies. Levels of pesticides were similar to or greater than concentrations (often greater detection frequencies) reported in previous studies (Colt et al., 2004;Rudel et al., 2003;Simcox et al., 1995). PFAS were present at similar or lower concentrations relative to those reported previously in diverse countries Karaskova et al., 2016;Winkens et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2020). ...
In this study, we sought to expand our previous research on associations between bioactivities in dust and associated organic contaminants. Dust samples were collected from central NC homes (n = 188), solvent extracted, and split into two fractions, one for analysis using three different bioassays (nuclear receptor activation/inhibition and adipocyte development) and one for mass spectrometry (targeted measurement of 124 organic contaminants, including flame retardants, polychlorinated biphenyls, perfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, phthalates, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). Approximately 80% of dust extracts exhibited significant adipogenic activity at concentrations that are comparable to estimated exposure for children and adults (e.g. ~20 μg/well dust) via either triglyceride accumulation (65%) and/or pre-adipocyte proliferation (50%). Approximately 76% of samples antagonized thyroid receptor beta (TRβ), and 21% activated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). Triglyceride accumulation was significantly correlated with TRβ antagonism. Sixty-five contaminants were detected in at least 75% of samples; of these, 26 were correlated with adipogenic activity and ten with TRβ antagonism. Regression models were used to evaluate associations of individual contaminants with adipogenic and TRβ bioactivities, and many individual contaminants were significantly associated. An exploratory g-computation model was used to evaluate the effect of mixtures. Contaminant mixtures were positively associated with triglyceride accumulation, and the magnitude of effect was larger than for any individually measured chemical. For each quartile increase in mixture exposure, triglyceride accumulation increased by 212% (RR = 3.12 and 95% confidence interval: 1.58, 6.17). These results suggest that complex mixtures of chemicals present in house dust may induce adipogenic activity in vitro at environmental concentrations and warrants further research.
... Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are commonly used insecticides that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme function and have been associated with poorer neurodevelopment in children (Bouchard et al., residential use, drift from agricultural applications, and take-home exposures (Curl et al., 2002;Fenske et al., 2002;Harnly et al., 2009;Hyland and Laribi, 2017;Koch et al., 2002;Lambert et al., 2005;Lu et al., 2000Lu et al., , 2004Simcox et al., 1995). Assessing exposure to OP pesticides is difficult due to their short biologic half-lives and rapid excretion from the body (Barr and Angerer, 2006;Barr, 2008). ...
Background
Spot urine samples are often used to assess exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides in place of “gold standard” 24-hr samples, which are cumbersome to collect. Assessment of non-persistent chemicals using spot urine samples may result in exposure misclassification that could bias epidemiological analyses towards the null. Few studies have examined the validity of measurements of urinary metabolites in spot samples to estimate daily OP dose or the potential implications of reliance on spot samples for risk assessments.
Objective
Examine the validity of using first morning void (FMV) and random non-FMV urine samples to estimate cumulative 24-hr OP pesticide dose among children living in an agricultural region.
Methods
We collected urine samples over 7 consecutive days, including two 24-hr samples, from 25 children living in an agricultural community. We used measurements of urinary dialkylphosphate (DAP) metabolites, data on nearby agricultural pesticide applications, and daily dietary intake data to estimate internal dose from exposure to a mixture of OP pesticides according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Cumulative Risk Assessment guidelines. Dose estimates from volume- and creatinine-adjusted same-day FMV and non-FMV spot urine samples were compared to the “gold standard” estimates from 24-hr samples.
Results
Non-FMV samples had relatively weak ability to predict 24-hr dose (R² = 0.09–0.38 for total DAPs) and tended to underestimate the percentage of samples exceeding regulatory guidelines. Models with FMV samples or the average of an FMV and non-FMV sample were similarly predictive of 24-hr estimates (R² for DAPs = 0.40–0.68 and 0.40–0.80, respectively, depending on volume adjustment method).
Conclusion
Reliance on non-FMV samples for risk assessments may underestimate daily OP dose and the percentage of children with dose estimates exceeding regulatory guidelines. If 24-hr urine sample collection is infeasible, we recommend future studies prioritize the collection of FMV samples to most accurately characterize OP dose in children.
... Humans and animals living close or around pesticide sprayed croplands can be highly exposed through application drift, over-spray, or off-grassing. Shoes, clothes and even pets which traps a lot of dusts loaded with pesticides are major source of exposure at homes (Simcox, Fenske, Wolz, Lee, & Kalman, 1995;Carnann, 1995;Nigg et al., 1990). Farmers often brings pesticides into the house on their dress and even equipment. ...
Even though pesticides constitute a very essential component of improved and modern agriculture, the abuse of pesticides has brought substantial poisoning worldwide, especially in developing countries. This review investigates the possible sources by which people are exposed to pesticides worldwide and the impact on their livelihood. The group who often are exposed to these chemicals includes farm workers, children, farmers, and family members who have direct link to the pesticide application sites as well as persons who are exposed to these pesticides through the domestic use of waterbodies and consumption of foodstuff or crops sprayed with these pesticides. Central to this review is the critical discussions of the different scientific research findings on health effects and risks related to pesticide usage. Again, organophosphates and organochlorine pesticides are found in most of the pesticide-contaminated sites and can remain in soil and water bodies for a long time. This work has also provided cases of incidence of carcinogenicity in humans, as a result of pesticide use. We concluded that breeding or developing insect tolerant or resistant crops may curb the profuse use of pesticides in agriculture.
Keywords: Pesticides, carcinogenic, pesticide production and exposure, pesticides use.
... We use an ambient exposure framework based on agricultural applications reported in the California Pesticide Use Registry. Living and working near these agricultural applications may result in exposures via inhalation, dermal absorption, hand-tomouth transmission, and exposure to dust and dust reservoirs in the home (Simcox et al., 1995;Lu et al., 2004). ...
Background
Pyrethroid pesticide use is increasing worldwide, although the full extent of associated health effects is unknown. An epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) with exploratory pathway analysis may help identify potential pyrethroid-related health effects.
Methods
We performed an exploratory EWAS of chronic ambient pyrethroid exposure using control participants' blood in the Parkinson's Environment and Genes Study in the Central Valley of California (N = 237). We estimated associations of living and working near agricultural pyrethroid pesticide applications in the past 5 years (binary) with site-specific differential methylation, and used a false discovery rate (FDR) cut off of 0.05 for significance. We controlled for age, sex, education, cell count, and an ancestral marker for Hispanic ethnicity. We normalized methylation values for Type I/II probe bias using Beta-Mixture Quantile (BMIQ) normalization, filtered out cross-reactive probes, and evaluated for remaining bias with Surrogate Variable Analysis (SVA). We also evaluated the effects of controlling for cell count and normalizing for Type I/II probe bias by comparing changes in effect estimates and p-values for the top hits across BMIQ and GenomeStudio normalization methods, and controlling for cell count. To facilitate broader interpretation, we annotated genes to the CpG sites and performed gene set overrepresentation analysis, using genes annotated to CpG sites that were associated with pyrethroids at a raw p < 0.05, and controlling for background representation of CpG sites on the chip. We did this for both a biological process context (Gene Ontology terms) using missMethyl, and a disease set context using WebGestalt. For these gene set overrepresentation analyses we also used an FDR cut off of 0.05 for significance of gene sets.
Results
After controlling for cell count and applying BMIQ normalization, 4 CpG sites were differentially methylated in relation to pyrethroid exposures. When using GenomeStudio's Illumina normalization, 415 CpG sites were differentially methylated, including all four identified with the BMIQ method. In the gene set overrepresentation analyses, we identified 6 GO terms using BMIQ normalization, and 76 using Illumina normalization, including the 6 identified by BMIQ. For disease sets, we identified signals for Alzheimer's disease, leukemia and several other cancers, diabetes, birth defects, and other diseases, for both normalization methods. We identified minimal changes in effect estimates after controlling for cell count, and controlling for cell count generally weakened p-values. BMIQ normalization, however, resulted in different beta coefficients and weakened p-values.
Conclusions
Chronic ambient pyrethroid exposure is associated with differential methylation at CpG sites that annotate to a wide variety of disease states and biological mechanisms that align with prior research. However, this EWAS also implicates several novel diseases for future investigation, and highlights the relative importance of different background normalization methods in identifying associations.
... They (Krawinkel, 1989;Ahmad et al., 2002b) have also documented non-occupational pesticide exposure accidents due to pesticides left on commercial foods, home germicides, toilet cleaners, termicides and suicides. The same situation has already been recognized that people living in agricultural areas may have significant public health consequences by nonoccupational exposure (Scarborough et al., 1989;Simcox et al., 1995). ...
This is the first systematic review of studies done since 1960, and to give an integrated picture of pesticides exposure to humans, animals, plants, waters, soils/sediments, atmosphere etc. in Pakistan. Authors have extracted data from different departments, published literature in research journals and National reports. Although the wide-spread usage of pesticides in Pakistan has controlled the pests, but like other countries, it has started causing environmental problems in the area. In some areas of Punjab and Sindh groundwater has been found contaminated and is constantly being under the process of contamination due to pesticide use. There is considerable evidence that farmers have overused and misused pesticides especially in cotton-growing areas. It is evident from the biological monitoring studies that farmers are at higher risk for acute and chronic health effects associated with pesticides due to occupational exposure. Furthermore, the intensive use of pesticides (higher sprays more than the recommended dose) in cotton areas involves a special risk for the field workers, pickers, and of an unacceptable residue concentration in cottonseed oil and cakes.
The authors have also discussed the merits and demerits of different studies. The review will set the future course of action of different studies on pesticide exposure in Pakistan. Data limitations are still the major obstacle towards establishing clear environmental trends in Pakistan. The authors suggest that a reliable monitoring, assessment and reporting procedures shall be implemented in accordance with appropriate environmental policies, laws and regulations in order to minimize the pesticides exposure.
... Lawn-applied pesticides can follow these same transport routes [10]. Once inside a home, pesticide residues accumulate in dust and degrade at a lower rate than they do outdoors because they are shielded from the effects of rain, sun, and soil microbial activity [12]. ...
... Quantifying the amount of soil and dust children ingest has been used to assess their exposure to heavy metals such as lead [1], high doses of which may result in anemia, neurobehavioral toxicity, and death [2]. Soil and dust ingestion is also an important pathway for intake of pesticides [3], which can be carcinogenic and neurotoxic [4]. Soil ingestion by young children has also been associated with markers of environmental enteric dysfunction and growth faltering [5]. ...
Ingestion of soil and dust is a pathway of children’s exposure to several environmental contaminants, including lead, pesticides, and fecal contamination. Empirically based estimates of central tendency for soil consumption by children in high-income countries range from 9 to 135 dry mg/day. Using a Monte Carlo simulation, we modeled the mass of soil directly and indirectly ingested per day by rural Bangladeshi children and identified the parameters that influence the mass ingested. We combined data from observations of direct and indirect ingestion among children with measurements of soil mass on the children’s hands, mother’s hands, and objects to quantify soil ingestion/day. Estimated geometric mean soil ingestion was 162 dry mg/day for children 3–5 months, 224 dry mg/day for children 6–11 months, 234 dry mg/day for children 12–23 months, 168 dry mg/day for children 24–35 months, and 178 dry mg/day for children 36–47 months old. Across all age groups, children placing their hands in their mouths accounted for 46–78% of total ingestion and mouthing objects contributed 8–12%. Direct ingestion of soil accounted for nearly 40% of soil ingested among children 6–23 months old. Sensitivity analyses identified that the parameters most affecting the estimates were the load of soil on the child’s hand, the frequency of hand-to-mouth contacts while not eating, and, for children 6–23 months old, the frequency of direct soil ingestion. In a rural, low-income setting, children’s soil consumption was substantially more than the estimates for children in high-income countries. Further characterizing soil ingestion of children in low-income contexts would improve assessments of the risks they face from soil-associated contaminants.
... Multiple investigations have studied the association between proximity of homes to agricultural crops and pesticide exposure (Coronado et al., 2011;Deziel et al., 2015;Loewenherz et al., 1997;Lu et al., 2000;Simcox et al., 1995;Ward et al., 2006). While maximal exposure attributable to pesticide drift, among these studies, varied from 60 to 750 m, this collection of studies rather consistently indicates that homes residing closer to pesticide treated fields tend to have higher pesticide levels and that children residing closer to pesticide treated fields tend to reflect higher pesticide exposure levels using bio-monitoring studies. ...
Background:
Children living near greenhouse agriculture may have an increased risk of pesticide exposure due to drift or direct contact with pesticide-treated areas. However, little is known about whether this increased potential for chronic exposure may impair their neurodevelopment.
Methods:
We examined 307 children aged 4-9 years, living in agricultural communities in Ecuador (ESPINA study). The two exposures calculated were residential distance from the nearest flower plantation perimeter and flower plantation surface area within 100 m of homes. Five neurobehavioral domains were assessed: Attention/Inhibitory Control, Memory/Learning, Visuospatial processing and Sensorimotor (higher values reflect better performance). Low scores were defined according to the test's cut-offs. Models were adjusted for demographic, socio-economic and growth variables.
Results:
The mean (SD) residential distance to the nearest flower plantation was 446 m (344). Living 100 m closer to crops was associated with increased odds (OR [95% CI]) of low scores in the domains of Memory/Learning (1.24 [1.05, 1.46]) and Language (1.09 [1.00, 1.19]). Associations were strongest among children living within 50 m, having significantly lower scores in Language (-1.28 which is ~50% of a SD [-2.50, -0.06]), Attention/Inhibitory Control (-1.24 units, [-2.45, -0.04]), and Memory/Learning (-0.91, [-1.99, 0.17]), compared to children living farther than 500 m. Analyses of areas of flower crops near homes concurred with these findings.
Conclusions:
Close residential proximity to greenhouse floricultural crops was associated with adverse neurobehavioral performance in Attention/Inhibitory Control, Language and Memory/Learning among children. This highlights the importance of reducing pesticide drift from plantations to nearby homes.
... Risk managers may be concerned on the potential health effects of occupational and nonoccupational exposure to OPs among farmer families in an area known for intensive use of these substances (e.g. Azaroff, 1999;Simcox et al., 1995). Other risk managers may be interested in effects of OPs on wildlife in such an area (e.g. ...
Historically, human health and environmental risk assessment methodologies have
generally developed independently. Regulatory agencies often use a chemical-by-chemical approach, focusing on a single media, a single source, and a single toxic endpoint. Many international and national organizations have expressed a need for an integrated, holistic approach to risk assessment that addresses real life situations of multichemical, multimedia, multiroute, and multispecies exposures. In response to this need, the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) convened a group of international scientific experts to develop approaches for integrated risk assessment.
In April 1998, IPCS convened an IPCS/OECD/EPA Scoping Meeting on Integrated Approaches to Human Health and Environmental Risk Assessment, in conjunction with a US EPA national symposium on Extrapolation in Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment. A number of potential activities/issues related to integrated risk assessment were identified at this scoping meeting. In November 1998, a follow-up planning meeting was convened by IPCS to further identify mechanisms and approaches for integrated risk assessment. That planning meeting agreed on a working definition of integrated risk assessment, developed a preliminary generic framework for integrated risk assessment, and proposed that a number of case studies be developed to evaluate the framework. IPCS convened a Framework Sub-Group meeting in July 1999 to review and revise the draft generic framework, and to develop criteria for identification of case studies and guidance for how the case studies would be developed. A meeting to further evaluate possible case study demonstrations of the generic framework was held in November 1999 and four case studies were chosen and their format/content finalized in July 2000. An international workshop was convened in April 2001 to evaluate the framework and demonstrate the benefits of integration using the four case studies.
... [7] In children, the non-dietary ingestion of dust has been estimated to contribute up to 40% of the overall exposure to different classes of pesticides. [8][9][10] Previous studies by Lewis et al., Simcox et al., and Trunnelle et al., [11][12][13] have demonstrated the influence of agriculture use of pesticides in the nearby of households in determining their presence in housedust along with resident exposure. Such evidence prompted regulatory agencies such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to account for professional workers and for bystander health in the risk assessment of the agronomic use of plant protection products. ...
The presence of the insecticide Fipronil and its main products of toxicological relevance, namely Sulfone and Desulfinyl, was assessed in 161 residential house dust samples in the absence (N = 101) and presence (N = 60) of cats and dogs in Italy. High-resolution mass spectrometry analysis revealed a significant difference (p < 0.001) in the dust contamination in the presence of pets (median: 467 vs. 24 ng/g dry weight), even if the highest value was found in the absence of pets (82,069 vs. 67,799 ng/g dry weight). Fipronil intake estimates from dust in toddlers, computed according to US-EPA and EU-ECHA guidelines, ranged from 333 to 556 and from 20 to 34 ng/kg per day for acute and chronic scenario, respectively. Dust seemed not able itself to lead to Fipronil overexposure with respect to acute and chronic toxicity health-based guidance values. Kittens were potentially overexposed to Fipronil under both acute (26,076 ng/kg per day) and chronic (1,633 ng/kg per day) scenarios. The mild symptomatology associated with acute intoxication could possibly determine case underreporting within pharmacosurveillance schemes. Its administration was estimated in 7.3–9.7 tons per year. Such a range suggests its prudent use under strict veterinary control to prevent pest resistance and ecotoxicological outcomes.
... higher than that in other homes where significant sources of exposure to farm worker families may be derived from their residential proximity to fields. In Iowa and North Carolina, between 40 and 50% of families' homes were located within 100 yards of crop fields inducing higher levels of pesticides in house dust associated with risks among residents.(35) and whenAbd-Allah & Abdel-Halim 719 compared to the herbicide levels detected in non-farm homes, farmhouses had significantly greater frequency of detection and elevated concentrations in dust. ...
Objective: This study was designed to examine the existence of pesticide residues in both indoor dust and consumable subsurface shallow ground water and its association with community health in an agro-ecosystem in the Nile Delta Region.
Methods: Pesticide exposure via consumption of shallow groundwater and contact with indoor dust were assessed in 7 villages in the Nile Delta of Egypt. Hand-pumped water and households’ dust samples were collected on a spatio-temporal monitoring basis. A total of 50 households were randomly selected and residents were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to determine pesticide usage, exposure pathways and behavioral/health risk factors.
Results: Analyses revealed that the examined shallow groundwater and indoor dust samples failed to realize the respective standards of safety in most cases. Pesticide residues detected in indoor dust were more abundant than those in groundwater. Pyrethroid compounds represented the highest residues detected in indoor dust samples, where their mean levels were 4.75, 2.69, and 15.21 ppm for permethrin, cypermethrin, and cyahalothrin respectively. DDT, HCH and endosulfan were also detected in many samples in mean concentrations of 10.42, 36.01 and 33.68 ppb; respectively. As for the link between environmental contamination and community health, through our field questionnaire, the villagers stated that water-related diseases particularly diarrhea and infectious hepatitis were predominant.
Conclusion: Age, living in close proximity to agricultural fields, excessive use of pesticides indoors without adequate aeration, lack of awareness and poor water quality, represented the major risk factors. More exposure/risk assessment studies related to the Egyptian setting are necessary to enhance drinking water regulations and lower the health risks of pesticide exposure.
... Exposure to pesticides through surface soil and sediment is one of the most common exposure routes, which include direct ingestion of soil, inhalation of soil dust, and dermal contact with pesticide-contaminated soil (Ghadiri et al., 1995;Jennings and Li, 2014;Li, 2018a). Because of the exposure frequency, behavior patterns, and physiological conditions, children are usually mainly exposed to pesticides via soil and are more vulnerable than adults (Simcox et al., 1995). Biological monitoring studies from children's urine, blood, and hand wipe samples also indicate that pesticide residues in soil can cause adverse health effects (Lewis et al., 1994;Loewenherz et al., 1997). ...
Exploring better models for evaluating the distribution of pesticide residues in soil and sediment is necessary to assess and avoid population health risk. Frequentist philosophy and probability are widely used in many studies to apply a log-normal distribution associated with the maximum likelihood estimation, which assumes fixed parameters and relies on a large sample size for long-run frequency. However, frequentist probability might not be suitable for analyzing pesticide residue distribution, whose parameters are affected by many complex factors and should be treated as unfixed. This study aimed to implement a Bayesian generalized log-normal (GLN) model to better understand the distribution of pesticide residues in soil and quantify population risks. The Bayesian GLN model, including location, scale, and shape parameters, was applied for the first time to dynamically evaluate pesticide residue distribution in soil and sediments. In addition, a comprehensive human health risk assessment of exposure to lindane via soil was conducted using the lifetime cancer risk for carcinogenic effect, margin of exposure for non-carcinogenic effect, and disability-adjusted life year for health damage. The Bayesian posterior analysis results indicated that the distribution of the concentration of some pesticide was better fitted to a log-Laplace (e.g., the mode value of shape parameter for lindane is 1.079) or showed mixtures of distributions within the family of log-normal distributions (e.g., the mode value of shape parameter for p,p′-DDE is 2.395), which can better explain the long-tail phenomenon of pesticide residue distribution and dynamically evaluate distribution models. For lindane, the 95% uncertainty bounds on the 95th percentile computed from 95% highest probability density regions (credible intervals) of three parameters by using the Bayesian p-box method were [2.063, 1558.609] ng/g, which is several orders of magnitude larger than the computed frequentist 95% confidence interval of [4.690, 8.095] ng/g and indicates that the population could have cancer risk concerns. These uncertainty analysis results from the Bayesian GLN approach indicated a larger variation of Lindane soil residues, which might reflect the complex and unpredictable mechanism of pesticide residue distribution including both unfixed models and distribution parameters. In summary, Bayesian GLN model is more flexible for the dynamic evaluation of pesticide soil residue distribution, retains posteriors for future data analysis, and could better quantify the uncertainties in population health risks. Therefore, this study can provide a novel and dynamical perspective of pesticide residue distribution and help better quantify health risks.
... Although several early studies indicated that 'drift' may be an important contributor to residential pesticide exposure [11,[15][16][17][18], more recent studies failed to replicate previous findings or yielded inconsistent results [19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. As noted below, Deziel (2015) has highlighted additional important distinctions between studies consistently finding evidence of the drift pathway and those that have not. ...
Reducing residential pesticide exposure requires identification of exposure pathways. Compared to the agriculture worker 'take-home' and residential use pathways, evidence of the 'drift' pathway to pesticide exposure has been inconsistent. Questionnaire data from individuals (n = 99) and dust samples (n = 418) from households across three growing seasons in 2011 were from the For Healthy Kids!
Study:
Summed dimethyl organophosphate pesticide (OP) (Azinphos-Methyl, Phosmet, and Malathion) concentrations were quantified from house dust samples. Spatially-weighted orchard densities surrounding households were calculated based on various distances from homes. Regression models tested associations between orchard density, residential pesticide use, agriculture worker residents, and summed dimethyl OP house dust concentrations. Estimated relationships between orchard density and dimethyl OP in house dust were mixed: a 5% increase in orchard density resulted in 0.3 and 0.5% decreases in dimethyl OP house dust concentrations when considering land-cover 750 m or 1250 m away from households, respectively, but null associations with land-cover 60 m or 200 m away. Dimethyl OP house dust concentrations were 400% higher within homes where at least two residents were agriculture workers. Despite inconclusive evidence for the drift pathway due to potential for bias, relationships between number of agriculture workers and dimethyl OP house dust concentration underscores the take-home pathway.
... 12.1 The strong relationship between soils and humans in general include two sides: the first represents the harmful or negative action (destroying the soil through human activities like pollution) and the second includes the positive activities, which leads to increase soil health or quality. Source: authors Albering et al. 1999;Gu et al. 2016;Li et al. 2017;Tepanosyan et al. 2017;Zhang et al. 2017) and organic contaminants in soils (Pohl et al. 1995;Simcox et al. 1995;Burgess 2013;Burras et al. 2013;Liu et al. 2016;Cai et al. 2017;Wei et al. 2017), geophagy or medical geology (Selinus et al. 2005;Hooda and Henry 2007;Henry and Cring 2013), biofortification (Cakmak 2002(Cakmak , 2008El-Ramady et al. 2015a;El-Ramady et al. 2016a, b;dos Reis et al. 2017), and many other subjects (Lichtfouse 2012;Bini and Bech 2014;Alshaal et al. 2017;Bourliva et al. 2017;dos Reis et al. 2017). ...
Soil has a great and holy position worldwide. This position has been acquired from the importance of soil in saving food, feed, fuel, and fibre for animals and humans. Egypt was and still one of the most important countries, which soils played a crucial role in the Egyptian civilization. Therefore, very strong link between soils and humans has been reported based on the great roles of soils in plant and human nutrition. On the other hand, there are several anthropogenic activities, which cause many problems for soils such as pollution, degradation, and erosion. There are direct and/or indirect effects of soils on human health as well as plants. Therefore, this chapter is an attempt to emphasize the great roles of soils in plant and human health as well as the security of soils under pollution conditions.
... The GC-MS analysis was performed according to the conventional method for assessing residual pesticides by multiple reaction monitoring [39]. Standard organophosphate (OP) solutions was prepared at 1 mg/mL of each relevant analyte in acetone using neat materials (>98% purity) [40]. Further dilutions were made in hexane to prepare OP calibrant solutions. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the function of tree belts in reducing the aeolian transport of dust particles carrying pesticides. The study examined the importance of the buffer zones created by commonly planted trees (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Pinus halepensis (pine) and Ceratonia siliqua (carob)). The methods include analyzing the quantity and the chemical composition of pesticides carried by aeolian dust particles from the intensively cultivated fields and orchards, where pesticides were applied, towards the tree belts nearby. Eighteen different chemicals used as insecticides, fungicides and herbicides, were found both in the agricultural fields and in the adjacent tree belts, suggesting an important function of the trees. This ecological service has rarely been taken into consideration by management policies of tree plantings in farmland areas. To integrate this service into agriculture, especially in the case of agricultural fields and orchards, which are adjacent to populated areas, planting tree belts should be positively considered as a means for reducing aeolian dust and air pollution, mainly in order to reduce leakage of pesticides, which are a cause for significant health concerns.
... After application, pesticides can be transported or stay on the surface of residential soil causing human health damages (Steingrímsd ottir et al., 2018;Ryberg et al., 2018;Fantke et al., 2012a;Fantke, 2012b;Fantke and Jolliet, 2016;Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011). Children can be easily exposed to pesticides via ingestion of pesticide contaminated soil, inhalation of pesticide contaminated dust, and dermal contact with pesticide contaminated soil (Simcox et al., 1995;Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016;Fenske et al., 2002;Eskenazi et al., 1999). Exposure to pesticides through residential soil can cause adverse human health effects (Lu et al., 2000;Lewis et al., 1994;Zahm and Ward, 1998;Ogbeide et al., 2018;Ullah et al., 2018;Dasgupta et al., 2010), especially in children because they are more vulnerable and exposed to more pesticides via soil ingestion than adults (Freeman et al., 2001;Hawley, 1985;Tulve et al., 2006). ...
Children can be exposed to organophosphate and carbamate mixtures, which pose additive health effects via soil exposure. However, only 23 countries have soil standard values for organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, and most regulatory jurisdictions do not consider the cumulative exposure. This study derived proposed soil standards for organophosphates and carbamates by introducing the relative potency quotient approach (RPQ). The probabilistic cumulative risk assessment was also applied to evaluate current soil standards of pesticide mixtures. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have soil standards of 19 organophosphates and five carbamates. However, these standards cannot protect population health via chronic exposure in conservative and semi-conservative scenarios based on the probabilistic risk assessment because the U.S.EPA simplified the regulatory process for the cumulative exposure to pesticide mixtures and omitted the soil allocation factor, which should be set for aggregate exposure. The analysis of proposed soil standards developed by the RPQ approach indicates that some human behavior variables, such as soil intake rate and exposure duration, have stronger impacts on the proposed soil standards than human biometric variables like body weight. This study may be helpful to develop regulatory standards and a framework for pesticide mixtures having additive health effects.
... A Tanzanian study in 2005 reported that mothers who retail pesticides may take their children with them to their shops where pesticides are stocked and sold [23]. Studies in the United State (US) confirm that children of agricultural families are at risk of being exposed to agricultural pesticides even if they are not involved in farm activities [24] and that children living with parents who work with agricultural pesticides, or who live in proximity to pesticide-treated farmland, have higher exposures than other children living in the same community [25]. ...
Background
Acute pesticide poisoning (APP) is a serious problem worldwide. Because the burden of childhood APP is unknown in Tanzania, this study describes the distribution, circumstances, and patterns of APP involving children under 18 years in Tanzania.
Methodology
A 12-month prospective study was conducted in 10 Tanzanian healthcare facilities in 2006 using a data collection tool for surveillance.
Results
Of 53 childhood poisoning cases identified, 56.6% were female. The most common poisoning circumstances were accidents (49.1%) and suicide (30.2%). The most vulnerable children were 16-17 years old (30.2%). Suicide was significantly more common in females (PRR females/males = 1.66; 95% CI = 1.03–2.68) and accidental cases were more common in children aged 10 years or younger. Suicide was concentrated in children over 10 years, comprising 53% of cases in this age group. Organophosphates (OPs), zinc phosphide, and endosulfan were common amongst reported poisoning agents. The annual APP incidence rate was 1.61/100,000.
Conclusion
APP is common among children in this region of Tanzania. Prevention of suicide in older children should address mental health issues and control access to toxic pesticides. Prevention of accidents in younger children requires safer storage and hygiene measures. Diverse interventions are needed to reduce pesticide poisoning among children in Tanzania.
... 8 Children of parents working with pesticides may be exposed from occupational sources (storing working equipment in the house, contamination of clothes). [9][10][11][12] Residing near pesticide treated areas or in agricultural regions, or having home and yard treated with pesticides also contribute to children exposure. [11][12][13][14][15] Direct indoor application of pesticides contaminates the house and exposes its occupants to volatile ingredients and residues. ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the associations between caregiver-reported use of medications, alcohol, cigarette and/or waterpipe (WP), and exposure to pesticides/detergents during pregnancy with childhood-onset asthma. The study design consisted of a case-control study, conducted between December 2015 and April 2016, recruited 1503 children, aged between 3-16 years old. A questionnaire assessed the sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, education level of both parents), the family history of asthma, and other known risk factors of asthma (heating system at home, child history of recurrent otitis, humidity in the house, child went to a daycare, smoking and drinking alcohol during pregnancy, exposure to pesticides and detergents). The multivariate analysis showed that children living in North and South Lebanon and the children living in areas where pesticides are frequently used had an increased risk of asthma (ORa=1.625, CI 1.034-2.554, p=0.035, ORa=13.65, CI 3.698-50.385; p<0.001 and ORa=3.307, CI 1.848-5.918, p<0.001 respectively). Smoking WP during pregnancy and cigarette during lactation would increase the risk of asthma in children (ORa=6.11; CI 1.244-30.008; p=0.026 and ORa=3.44; CI 1.024-11.554; p=0.046 respectively). We conclude that asthma may originate from the environmental exposure to toxics such as pesticides and tobacco (cigarettes and WP) or to alcohol and prescribed medications during pregnancy and lactation. Spreading awareness by health professionals about these preventable causes can help educate the parents and children to prevent asthma and its exacerbation.
... Some routes of exposure of children who do not work in agriculture include off-target drift from pesticide application sites and take-home pathways from farm workers. This has been shown in multiple US studies that have measured pesticide levels in house dust, urine and skin swabs in relation to residential proximity to plantations and the presence of farmworkers at home (Simcox et al. 1995;Loewenherz et al. 1997;Lu et al. 2000;McCauley et al. 2001;Curl et al. 2002;Hogenkamp et al. 2004;Quandt et al. 2004;Curwin et al. 2005;Ward et al. 2006;Weppner et al. 2006;Ramaprasad et al. 2009). ...
Purpose:
Mother's Day (May) is a holiday with substantial demand for flowers, associated with heightened flower production and escalated pesticide use. The effect of spray seasons on pesticide exposures of children living in agricultural communities but who do not work in agriculture is poorly understood. In this study, we estimated the association of time after Mother's Day harvest with children's acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. AChE is a physiological marker of organophosphate/carbamate pesticide exposures that may take up to 3 months to normalize after its inhibition.
Methods:
We examined 308 children, aged 4-9 years, in Ecuadorian agricultural communities during a low flower-production season but within 63-100 days (mean: 81.5 days, SD: 10.9) after Mother's Day harvest. We quantified AChE activity (mean: 3.14 U/mL, SD: 0.49) from a single finger-stick sample.
Results:
We observed positive linear associations between time after the harvest and AChE among participants living near plantations. The associations were strongest among participants living within 233 m [(0.15 U/mL (95% CI 0.02, 0.28)], slightly weaker among participants living within 234-532 m [0.11 U/mL (0.00, 0.23)], and not associated among participants at greater distances. Similar findings were observed across categories of areas of flower plantations within 500 m of homes.
Conclusions:
These cross-sectional findings suggest that a peak pesticide-use period can decrease AChE activity of children living near plantations. These seasonal pesticide exposures could induce short- and long-term developmental alterations in children. Studies assessing exposures at multiple times in relation to pesticide spray seasons among children who do not work in agriculture are needed.
... In the USA, adults spend roughly 21 h/day indoors, while children spend 17-19 h/day, justifying the need to evaluate the potentially deleterious effect of indoor dust on human health. Some studies (Berkowitz et al. 2003;Simcox 1995) have evaluated human risks of indoor dust exposure on infants and pregnant women. Not surprisingly, for infants and toddlers, the primary route of exposure was through hand-tomouth activities, such as eating fallen food contaminated with dust (Butte and Heinzow 2002). ...
On a daily basis, humans, and their colonizing microbiome, are exposed to both indoor and outdoor dust, containing both deleterious organic and inorganic contaminants, through dermal contact, inhalation, and ingestion. Recent studies evaluating the dust exposure responses of opportunistic pathogens, such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, revealed significant increases in biofilm formation following dust exposure. In this study, the effects of dust exposure on mixed bacterial cultures as well as HT-29 co-cultures were evaluated. As it was observed in pure, single bacterial cultures earlier, neither indoor nor outdoor dust exposure (at concentrations of 100 μg/mL) influenced the growth of mixed bacterial liquid cultures. However, when in paired mixed cultures, dust exposure increased sensitivity to oxidative stress and significantly enhanced biofilm formation (outdoor dust). More specifically, mixed cultures (E. coli-Klebsiella pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae-P. aeruginosa, and E. coli-P. aeruginosa) exhibited increased sensitivity to 20 and 50 mM of H2O2 in comparison to their pure, single bacterial culture counterparts and significantly enhanced biofilm production for each mixed culture. Finally, bacterial proliferation during a eukaryotic gut cell (HT29) co-culture was significantly more robust for both K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa when exposed to both house and road dust; however, E. coli only experienced significantly enhanced proliferation, in HT29 co-culture, when exposed to road dust. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that bacteria respond to dust exposure differently when in the presence of multiple bacterial species or when in the presence of human gut epithelial cells, than when grown in isolation.
... [7] In children, the non-dietary ingestion of dust has been estimated to contribute up to 40% of the overall exposure to different classes of pesticides. [8][9][10] Previous studies by Lewis et al., Simcox et al., and Trunnelle et al., [11][12][13] have demonstrated the influence of agriculture use of pesticides in the nearby of households in determining their presence in housedust along with resident exposure. Such evidence prompted regulatory agencies such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to account for professional workers and for bystander health in the risk assessment of the agronomic use of plant protection products. ...
The occurrence of pesticides intended for non-agricultural use was investigated in 206 dust samples drawn from vacuum-cleaner bags from residential flats in Italy. The multi-residue analysis targeted on 95 different active principles was performed with UPLC-MS/MS, with a Limit of Quantification (LOQ) of 0.008 μg/g dry weight. The results indicated the presence of imidacloprid (IMI) and carbendazim (CARB) in 30% and 26% of the samples, with a mean and P95 concentration between 1.6 and 39 and between 0.08 and 4.9 μg/g, respectively. Combined presence of two biocides was noted in 19.4% samples, of three biocides in 9.2% samples, of four biocides in 3.4% samples, and of five and six biocides in 0.5% and 1% samples, respectively. According to the estimated dust intake in infants/toddlers aged 6–24 months (16–100 mg d⁻¹) and cats (200 mg d⁻¹), it was possible to obtain risk characterization with respect to the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for IMI of 0.060 mg/kg body weight (bw) proposed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the chronic Population Adjusted Dose (cPAD) of 0.019 mg/kg bw d⁻¹ by US-EPA. Under the worst-case scenario, the presence of IMI in dust indicates potential exceedance of the cPAD in kittens, to be considered as sentinel also accounting for combined exposure. This study highlights the relevance of consumer empowerment about the responsible use of pesticides as biocidal products in indoor environment.
... The consumption of OPs was about 3 × 10 5 t, which accounted for about 72% of the total consumption of pesticides in China in 2010 (Hao et al., 2010). However, because of being extensively used, OPs can be released into the natural environment and are frequently detected in the water, soil and sediments (Lacorte and Barcelo, 1994;Simcox et al., 1995;Liu et al., 2001). OPs have received an increasing concern due to their potential risk for wildlife and human health (Smith, 1987;Loewenherz et al., 1997;Fenske et al., 2000;Bai et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2016). ...
Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are one of the most regular pollutants and frequently detected in the contaminated sites, so developing an efficient method for the treatment of OPs is highly required. The aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of persulfate (PS) activation and Fenton reaction in remediating the soil polluted with OPs. The polluted soil used in this study was sampled from an abandoned insecticide factory in Nantong, Jiangsu Province of China, mainly containing chloropyrifos (CP) and 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol (BCP, the raw material of profenofos) with total concentration of about 30 000 mg kg⁻¹. The results showed that both BCP and CP were efficiently degraded by base activation of PS, and increasing the ratio of NaOH/PS enhanced CP degradation, but slightly decreased BCP degradation. The greatest degradation rates for CP and BCP were 92% and 97%, respectively, with 7.0 mol L⁻¹ NaOH and 0.21 mol L⁻¹ PS and a soil-to-liquid ratio of 1:1. Furthermore, ferrous iron activation of PS also degraded BCP efficiently, but only 60% of CP was degraded under the same reaction conditions. These results indicated that base activation of PS was more feasible than Fe²⁺ activation and Fenton reaction in remediating the soil polluted with OPs. The high degradation rate for CP may be linked to the initial hydrolyzation of CP by base to 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, which can be further rapidly degraded by free radicals generated from base activation of PS.
... Another point to consider is the pollution of surface soils materials (e.g., vegetables, rotten and decomposed leaves, wooden pieces, animal wastes and carcasses, and papers) and many nonbiodegradable materials (such as plastic bags, bottles and other wastes, cloths, glass pieces, bottles) [34,35]. In case the pollution is left uncollected and decomposed, they are a cause of several problems such as clogging of drains, including the burst/leakage of drainage lines; barrier to natural waterways, causing damage to nature but also man-made constructions; foul smell; and elevated microbial activity in particular along with decomposition of organic material. ...
Soil is the basis of agriculture and consists of organic matters, minerals, water, and several gasses. All plants require soil both as an anchor to attach and as water and nutrient source. Unfortunately, lifestyles of humans, industrial progress, chemicals used in agriculture contaminate soil and cause soil pollution. A pollutant may be natural or human‐made in origin such as petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals, and solvents. Since the quality of the soil affects the growth and product yield of plants, soil pollution is a crucial problem needs to be addressed urgently. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are microorganisms living in soil, on the plants roots, or inside the plant. PGPRs synthesize chemicals to stimulate plant growth and promote nutrient uptake, help degrading soil pollutants and fending off pathogens. While some pollutants can be degraded by enzymes produced by bacteria and fungi, degradation of heavy metals requires alternative methods. In this chapter, three enzymes produced by PGPRs are reviewed briefly. Aminocyclopropane‐1‐carboxylate (ACC) deaminase is responsible of lowering the ethylene levels of plants during stress conditions, whereas nitrogenase is responsible for N2 reduction to NH3. Moreover, phytase enables the degradation of phytate which is a main storage form of phosphate in plants.
Background:
We previously reported associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer neurodevelopment in early childhood and at school age, including poorer cognitive function and more behavioral problems, in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a birth cohort study in an agriculture community.
Objective:
We investigated the extent to which early-life exposure to OP pesticides is associated with behavioral problems, including mental health, in youth during adolescence and early adulthood.
Methods:
We measured urinary dialkylphosphates (DAPs), nonspecific OP metabolites, in urine samples collected from mothers twice during pregnancy (13 and 26 wk) and at five different times in their children (ages 6 months to 5 y). We assessed maternal report and youth report of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems using the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition (BASC-2), when the youth were ages 14, 16, and 18 y. Because there was evidence of nonlinearity, we estimated associations across quartiles of DAPs and modeled repeated outcome measures using generalized estimating equations.
Results:
There were 335 youths with prenatal maternal DAP measures and 14-. 16-, or 18-y BASC-2 scores. Prenatal maternal DAP concentrations (specific gravity-adjusted median, Q1-Q3=159.4, 78.7-350.4 nmol/L) were associated with higher T-scores (more behavior problems) from maternal report, including more hyperactivity [fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β=2.32; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.18, 4.45], aggression (β=1.90; 95% CI: 0.15, 3.66), attention problems (β=2.78; 95% CI: 0.26, 5.30), and depression (β=2.66; 95% CI: 0.08, 5.24). Associations with youth report of externalizing problems were null, and associations with depression were suggestive (fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β=2.15; 95% CI: -0.36, 4.67). Childhood DAP metabolites were not associated with behavioral problems.
Discussion:
We found associations of prenatal, but not childhood, urinary DAP concentrations with adolescent/young adult externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. These findings are consistent with prior associations we have reported with neurodevelopmental outcomes measured earlier in childhood in CHAMACOS participants and suggests that prenatal exposure to OP pesticides may have lasting effects on the behavioral health of youth as they mature into adulthood, including their mental health. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11380.
Background
Pesticide exposure has been associated with adverse health effects. We evaluated relationships between proximity to agricultural insecticide applications and insecticides in household dust, accounting for land use and wind direction.
Methods
We measured concentrations (ng/g) of nine insecticides in carpet-dust samples collected from 598 California homes. Using a geographic information system (GIS), we integrated the California Pesticide Use Reporting (CPUR) database to estimate agricultural use within residential buffers with radii of 0.5 to 4km. We calculated the density of use (kg/km²) during 30-, 60-, 180-, and 365-day periods prior to dust collection and evaluated relationships between three density metrics (CPUR unit-based, agricultural land area adjusted, and average daily wind direction adjusted) and dust concentrations. We modeled natural-log transformed concentrations using Tobit regression for carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, diazinon, and permethrin. Odds of detection were modeled with logistic regression for azinphos-methyl, cyfluthrin, malathion, and phosmet. We adjusted for season, year, occupation, and home/garden uses.
Results
Chlorpyrifos use within 1-4km was associated with 1 to 2-times higher dust concentrations in both the 60- and 365-day periods. Carbaryl applications within 2-4km of homes 60-days prior to dust collection were associated with 3 to 7-times higher concentrations and the 4km trend was strongest using the wind-adjusted metric (p-trend=0.04). For diazinon, there were 2-times higher concentrations for the 60-day metrics in the 2km buffer and for the CPUR and wind-adjusted metrics within 4km. Cyfluthrin, phosmet, and azinphos-methyl applications within 4km in the prior 365-days were associated with 2-, 6-, and 3-fold higher odds of detection, respectively.
Conclusions
Agricultural use of six of the nine insecticides within 4km is an important determinant of indoor contamination. Our findings demonstrated that GIS-based metrics for quantifying potential exposure to fugitive emissions from agriculture should incorporate tailored distances and time periods and support wind-adjustment for some, but not all insecticides.
Pesticides are extensively used to improve crop yield and quality in many African countries where agricultural production is a critical economic activity, including Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) in southern Africa. However, the potential health effects of indoor exposure to agricultural pesticides are deeply concerning, and children are particularly vulnerable. This case study assessed such exposure and its risks by sampling and analyzing the air inside the homes of 15 pesticide applicators and 12 non-applicators in Swazi communities surrounded by nearby (~200 m) sugarcane fields on pesticide spraying days. Applying liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to the samples revealed mean ametryn, atrazine, pendimethalin and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) concentrations of 0.75, 0.32, 0.57 and 0.004 µg m–3, respectively, in the applicator households and corresponding values of 0.19, 0.03, 0.04 and 0.003 µg m–3, respectively, in the non-applicator households. Notably, the non-applicator households exhibited pesticide concentrations far exceeding previously published data. Furthermore, we measured significantly higher levels of ametryn and pendimethalin inside the homes of the applicators than those of the non-applicators. Daily inhalation exposure to agricultural pesticides resulted in cumulative hazard index values above 1.0 at the 95th percentile for children 3 years of age and younger in the applicator households. Thus, the take-home pathway, spray drift and household-to-field distance all play crucial roles in determining the pesticide exposure and health risks indoors. Owing to the dominance of the first factor, we advise applicators to shower and change into clean clothes before returning home to their families. This safety measure is essential for the many families living near agricultural land throughout Africa.
Background: Off-target drift of pesticides from farms increases the risk of pesticide exposure of people living nearby. Cholinesterase inhibitors (i.e. organophosphates and carbamates) are frequently used in agriculture and inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Greenhouse agriculture is an important production method, but it is unknown how far pesticide drift from greenhouses can extend and expose people living nearby.
Methods: This study included 1156 observations from 3 exams (2008, Apr 2016 and Jul-Oct 2016) of 623 children aged 4-to-17 years living in agricultural communities in Ecuador. AChE, a physiological marker of cholinesterase inhibitor exposure, was measured in blood. Geographic positioning of greenhouses and homes were obtained using GPS receivers and satellite imagery. Distances between homes and the nearest greenhouse edge, and areas of greenhouse crops within various buffer zones around homes were calculated. Repeated-measures regression adjusted for hemoglobin and other covariates estimated change in AChE relative to distance from greenhouses.
Results: The pooled mean (SD) of AChE activity was 3.58 U/mL (0.60). The median (25th-75th %tile) residential distance to crops was 334 m (123, 648) and crop area within 500 m of homes (non-zero values only) was 18,482 m² (7115, 61,841). Residential proximity to greenhouse crops was associated with lower AChE activity among children living within 275m of crops (AChE difference per 100m of proximity [95% CI]= -0.10 U/mL [-0.20, -0.006]). Lower AChE activity was associated with greater crop area within 500m of homes (AChE difference per 1000m2 [95% CI]= -0.026 U/mL [-0.040, -0.012]) and especially within 150m (-0.037 U/mL [-0.065, -0.007]).
Conclusions
Residential proximity to floricultural greenhouses, especially within 275m, was associated with lower AChE activity among children, reflecting greater cholinesterase inhibitor exposure from pesticide drift. Analyses of residential proximity and crop areas near homes yielded complementary findings. Mitigation of off-target drift of pesticides from crops onto nearby homes is recommended.
Background:
A number of epidemiologic studies with a variety of exposure assessment approaches have implicated pesticides as risk factors for childhood cancers. Here we explore the association of pesticide exposure in pregnancy and early childhood with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) utilizing land use and pesticide use data in a sophisticated GIS tool.
Methods:
We identified cancer cases less than 6 years of age from the California Cancer Registry and cancer-free controls from birth certificates. Analyses were restricted to those living in rural areas and born 1998-2011, resulting in 162 cases of childhood leukemia and 9,805 controls. Possible carcinogens were selected from the Environmental Protection Agency's classifications and pesticide use was collected from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation's (CDPR) Pesticide Use Reporting (PUR) system and linked to land-use surveys. Exposures for subjects were assessed using a 4000m buffer around the geocoded residential addresses at birth. Unconditional logistic and hierarchical regression models were used to assess individual pesticide and pesticide class associations.
Results:
We observed elevated risks for ALL with exposure to any carcinogenic pesticide (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR): 2.83, 95% CI: 1.67-4.82), diuron (Single-pesticide model, adjusted (OR): 2.38, 95% CI: 1.57-3.60), phosmet (OR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.46-3.02), kresoxim-methyl (OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.14-2.75), and propanil (OR: 2.58, 95% CI: 1.44-4.63). Analyses based on chemical classes showed elevated risks for the group of 2,6-dinitroanilines (OR: 2.50, 95% CI: 1.56-3.99), anilides (OR: 2.16, 95% CI: 1.38-3.36), and ureas (OR: 2.18, 95% CI: 1.42-3.34).
Conclusion:
Our findings suggest that in rural areas of California exposure to certain pesticides or pesticide classes during pregnancy due to residential proximity to agricultural applications may increase the risk of childhood ALL and AML. Future studies into the mechanisms of carcinogenicity of these pesticides may be beneficial.
Asthma in childhood seems affected by exposure to various factors in early life. To assess this hypothesis, we conducted 2 studies: one in France, and the other in Lebanon. In the French study, we aimed at describing wheezing phenotypes between the ages of two months and one year, and assess risk factors associated with these wheezing phenotypes in a large birth cohort. In the Lebanese study, the aims were to evaluate the associations between caregiver-reported use of medications, alcohol, cigarette and/or waterpipe (WP), and exposure to pesticides/detergents during pregnancy with childhood-onset asthma in Lebanon and to validate the Arabic version of the Asthma Control Test (ACT) among these children and identify risk factors that might affect asthma control.Methods: We studied 18,041 infants from the ELFE (French Longitudinal Study of Children) birth cohort. Parents reported wheezing and respiratory symptoms at two and 12 months, and answered a complete questionnaire (exposure during pregnancy, parental allergy).The study design of the Lebanese project consisted of a case-control study, conducted between December 2015 and April 2016, recruited 1503 children, aged between 3-16 years old. A questionnaire assessed the sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, education level of both parents), the family history of asthma, and other known risk factors of asthma (heating system at home, child history of recurrent otitis, humidity in the house, child went to a daycare, smoking and drinking alcohol during pregnancy, exposure to pesticides and detergents).Results: Children with no symptoms (controls) accounted for 77.2%, 2.1% had had wheezing at two months but no wheezing at one year (intermittent wheezing), 2.4% had persistent wheezing, while 18.3% had incident wheezing at one year. Comparing persistent wheezing to controls showed that having one sibling (ORa=2.19) or 2 siblings (ORa=2.23) compared to none, nocturnal cough (OR=5.2), respiratory distress (OR=4.1) and excess bronchial secretions (OR=3.47) at two months, reflux in the child at 2 months (OR=1.55), maternal history of asthma (OR=1.46) and maternal smoking during pregnancy (OR=1.57) were significantly associated with persistent wheezing. These same factors, along with cutaneous rash in the child at 2 months (OR=1.13) and paternal history of asthma (OR=1.32) were significantly associated with increased odds of incident wheezing. Having one sibling (ORa=1.9) compared to none, nocturnal cough at 2 months (OR=1.76) and excess bronchial secretions at 2 months (OR=1.65) were significantly associated with persistent compared to intermittent wheezing.In the Lebanese study, the multivariate analysis showed that children living in North and South Lebanon and the children living in areas where pesticides are frequently used had an increased risk of asthma (ORa=1.625; ORa=13.65; ORa=3.307) respectively. Smoking WP during pregnancy and cigarette during lactation would increase the risk of asthma in children (ORa=6.11; ORa=3.44 respectively). A high Cronbach’s alpha was found for the full scale (0.959). As for the asthma control scale (ACT), the correlation factors between each item of the ACT scale and the whole scale ranged between 0.710 and 0.775 (p<0.001 for all items). Mother’s low educational level as well as the history of asthma in the mother and the father would significantly increase the risk of uncontrolled asthma (Beta= 1.862; Beta= 3.534; and Beta= 1.885 respectively). Cigarette smoking during breastfeeding and waterpipe smoking by the mother during pregnancy were both significantly associated with uncontrolled asthma (Beta= 2.105; Beta=2.325 respectively). Mother’s high educational level was significantly associated with more asthma control (Beta= -0.715).
Pyrethroids are a class of neurotoxic insecticides and some studies have used single‐time wiping of hard surface flooring to estimate indoor pyrethroid concentrations. Considering that human activities may affect concentrations, knowledge of temporal variability is needed to reduce the uncertainty of exposure estimates that are calculated using wipe sampling of pyrethroids in occupied housing.
During weeks one, two, and six of a six‐week study, two wipe samples of hard surface kitchen flooring were collected in each of 50 occupied residences and used to estimate the temporal variability of eight pyrethroids and six pyrethroid degradation products. Beginning one month prior to sample collection, the participants kept pesticide usage diaries.
All pyrethroids were widely distributed among the houses and co‐occurrence of multiple pyrethroids was common and structured. Application diaries and detection frequencies appeared unconnected but the applications were correlated with measurable changes in pyrethroid concentrations. In general, degradation products were detected less frequently and at lower concentrations than their parent pyrethroids. Estimates of the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for individual pyrethroids ranged from 0.55 (bifenthrin) to 0.80 (deltamethrin), and two sampling events at each residence would have been sufficient to estimate the mean concentration of most pyrethroids with an ICC of 0.80.
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We investigated risks of preeclampsia phenotypes from potential residential pesticide exposures, including 543 individual chemicals and 69 physicochemical groupings that were applied in the San Joaquin Valley of California during the study period, 1998-2011. The study population was derived from birth certificate data linked with Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development maternal and infant hospital discharge data. The following numbers of women with preeclampsia phenotypes were identified: 1045 with superimposed (pre-existing hypertension with preeclampsia) preeclampsia (265 with gestational weeks 20-31 and 780 with gestational weeks 32-36); 3471 with severe preeclampsia (824 with gestational weeks 20-31 and 2647 with gestational weeks 32-36); and 2780 with mild preeclampsia (207 with gestational weeks 20-31 and 2573 with gestational weeks 32-36). The reference population for these groups was 197,461 women who did not have diabetes (gestational or pre-existing), did not have any hypertensive disorder, and who delivered at 37 weeks or later. The frequency of any exposure was lower or about the same in each preeclampsia case group (further delineated by gestational age), and month time period, relative to the frequency in reference population controls. Nearly all odds ratios were below 1.0 for these any vs no exposure comparisons. This study showed a general lack of increased risks between a range of agriculture pesticide exposures near women's residences and various preeclampsia phenotypes.
Background:
Pesticides exposures are aspects of the human exposome that have not been sufficiently studied for their contribution to risk for preterm birth. We investigated risks of spontaneous preterm birth from potential residential exposures to 543 individual chemicals and 69 physicochemical groupings that were applied in the San Joaquin Valley of California during the study period, 1998-2011.
Methods:
The study population was derived from birth certificate data linked with Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development maternal and infant hospital discharge data. After exclusions, the analytic study base included 197,461 term control births and 27,913 preterm case births. Preterm cases were more narrowly defined as 20-23 weeks (n=515), 24-27 weeks (n=1792), 28-31 weeks (n=3098), or 32-36 weeks (n=22,508).
Results:
The frequency of any (versus none) pesticide exposure was uniformly lower in each preterm case group relative to the frequency in term controls, irrespective of gestational month of exposure. All odds ratios were below 1.0 for these any vs no exposure comparisons. The majority of odds ratios were below 1.0, many of them statistically precise, for preterm birth and exposures to specific chemical groups or chemicals.
Conclusions:
This study showed a general lack of increased risk of preterm birth associated with a range of agriculture pesticide exposures near women's residences.
A survey of metals in United Kingdom dusts and soils has confirmed widespread lead contamination with a geometric mean value for lead in surface (0-5 cm) garden soils of 266 micrograms/g and in housedusts of 561 micrograms/g (excluding old mining areas). A subsequent detailed survey of 97 householders in Birmingham with 2-year-old children showed dust lead loading in the home environment to be an important predictor of blood lead concentrations in young children, when both variables fell within the normal range for the U.K. The total estimated lead uptake by the young child was 36 micrograms/day of which 1 microgram was by inhalation and 35 micrograms by ingestion.
This investigation was undertaken to provide quantitative estimates of soil ingestion in young children on a population basis, and to identify demographic and behavioral characteristics that influence the amount of soil ingested. A total of 104 children between the ages of 2 and 7 yr were selected randomly from the population of a three-city area in southeastern Washington State. Using aluminum, silicon, and titanium as tracer elements, a mass-balance approach was employed to assess daily soil ingestion. A duplicate of all food items consumed, all feces, and some urine excreted were collected on 4 consecutive d, along with soil and house dust samples from each child's home. Samples were analyzed by x-ray fluorescence spectrometry. After adjustment of the soil ingestion estimates to account for missing food, excreta samples, and nonfood items consumed, the average daily values based on the three tracer elements were: aluminum, 38.9 mg/d (median = 25.3 mg/d); silicon, 82.4 mg/d (median = 59.4 mg/d); and titanium, 245.5 mg/d (median = 81.3 mg/d). No consistent pattern emerged regarding a demographic or behavioral profile that was predictive of soil ingestion. This work demonstrates (a) the feasibility of conducting large-scale studies to determine soil intake levels in human populations, (b) provides estimates of soil ingestion in small children based on a random population sample, and (c) suggests several possibilities for additional research initiatives in this area.
In this pilot study, we modified methods used in estimating the amount of soil ingested by ruminants to measure soil ingested by children. Using aluminum, silicon, and titanium as tracers, we estimated soil ingestion for 59 children aged 1-3 yr from East Helena, Montana. Estimated daily soil ingestion based on aluminum and silicon concentrations were 181 and 184 mg/day, respectively, whereas the estimate based on the titanium concentration was about 10 times higher, 1,834 mg/day. Although we do not consider these estimates accurate measures of soil ingestion, the method we used is a reasonable approach that, to our knowledge, has not been used before in humans. However, our estimates will be revised as refinement of this method and better understanding of the metabolism of aluminum, silicon, and titanium lead to more accurate data for analysis.
The transfer of pesticide residues from a carpeted floor to human subjects wearing dosimeter clothing was measured. Subject motions were standardized using aerobic dance routines (JazzerciseR). This method allows reproducible exposure assessment and the derivation of transfer coefficients reflecting transfer of surface residues to exposed subjects.
Acute organophosphate pesticide poisonings cause substantial morbidity and mortality world wide; however, whether organophosphates cause chronic neurological sequelae has not been established. To see whether single episodes of acute unintentional organophosphate intoxication lead to chronic neuropsychological dysfunction, we carried out a retrospective study of agricultural workers in Nicaragua who had been admitted to hospital between July 1, 1986, and July 31, 1988, for occupationally related organophosphate intoxication. This "poisoned" group (36 men) was tested on average about two years after the episode of pesticide poisoning and compared with a matched control group. The poisoned group did much worse than the control group on all neuropsychological subtests, with significantly worse performance on five of six subtests of a World Health Organisation neuropsychological test battery and on 3 of 6 additional tests that assessed verbal and visual attention, visual memory, visuomotor speed, sequencing and problem solving, and motor steadiness and dexterity. Differences in neuropsychological performance could not be explained by other factors. The findings of a persistent decrease in neuropsychological performance among individuals with previous intoxication emphasise the importance of prevention of even single episodes of organophosphate poisoning.
Sixty-four children aged 1–4 years were evaluated for the extent to which they ingest soil. The study followed the soil tracer methodology of S. Binder, D. Sokal, and D. Maughan (1986, Arch. Environ. Health, 41, 341–345). However, the present study included a number of modifications from the Binder et al. study. The principal new features were (1) increasing the tracer elements from three to eight; (2) using a mass-balance approach so that the contribution of food and medicine ingestion would be considered; (3) extending the period of observation from 3 days to 8 days; and (4) validating the methodology by having adult volunteers ingest known amounts of soil in a mass-balance validation study. The principal findings reveal the following. (1) The adult study confirmed the validity of the tracer methodology to estimate soil ingestion. (2) Of the eight tracers employed in the adult study, only Al, Si, and Y provided sufficient recovery data that was directly acceptably stable and reliable. (3) If food ingestion determinations were taken into consideration, the median estimates of soil ingestion from the eight tracers ranged from a low of 9 mg/day (Y) to a high of 96 mg/day (V); the median values of Al, Si, and Y, the three most reliable tracers, ranged from 9 mg/day to 40 mg/day. (4) One child had soil ingestion values ranging from 5 to 8 g/day, depending on the tracer. (5) If food ingestion had not been considered, the estimates of soil ingestion would have increased about two-to sixfold, depending on the tracer with Ti and Y being most affected by food intake. (6) Since soil and dust samples did not significantly differ in their levels of tracer elements, no reliable differentiation between the contribution of ingestion of dust and soil could be made. (7) These findings are generally consistent with the previously reported findings of Binder et al. (1986) and P. Clausing, B. Brunekreff, and J. H. van Wijnen (1987, Int. Arch. Occup. Med., 59, 73) if these latter studies are corrected for ingestion of tracers in food and medicine. The findings also account for the apparent discrepancy between the estimates from Al and Si and estimates based on Ti in previous studies. Thus the elevated estimates of soil ingestion by Ti were substantially reduced when food ingestion is considered.
Diethyl phosphate (DEP), an organophosphate metabolite, was found in the urine of symptomatic residents who resided in a household that had been sprayed with diazinon 4.5 mo earlier. Pre- and post-decontamination data with regard to symptoms, DEP, cholinesterase, and surface and air levels underscore the utility of alkyl phosphate metabolites for monitoring exposure. The data also emphasize the efficacy of clean-up measures when baseline data are not available to determine if "within-normal" cholinesterase levels are, in fact, depressed.
Acute organophosphate pesticide poisonings cause substantial morbidity and mortality world wide; however, whether organophosphates cause chronic neurological sequelae has not been established. To see whether single episodes of acute unintentional organophosphate intoxication lead to chronic neuropsychological dysfunction, we carried out a retrospective study of agricultural workers in Nicaragua who had been admitted to hospital between July 1, 1986, and July 31, 1988, for occupationally related organophosphate intoxication. This "poisoned" group (36 men) was tested on average about two years after the episode of pesticide poisoning and compared with a matched control group. The poisoned group did much worse than the control group on all neuropsychological subtests, with significantly worse performance on five of six subtests of a World Health Organisation neuropsychological test battery and on 3 of 6 additional tests that assessed verbal and visual attention, visual memory, visuomotor speed, sequencing and problem solving, and motor steadiness and dexterity. Differences in neuropsychological performance could not be explained by other factors. The findings of a persistent decrease in neuropsychological performance among individuals with previous intoxication emphasise the importance of prevention of even single episodes of organophosphate poisoning.
Air and surface chlorpyrifos residues were measured for 24 hours following a 0.5 percent Dursban broadcast application for fleas inside a residence. Two of the three treated rooms were ventilated following application. Maximum air concentrations were measured 3-7 hours post-application. Peak concentrations in the infant breathing zone were 94 micrograms/m3 in the nonventilated room and 61 micrograms/m3 in the ventilated room, and were substantially higher than concentrations in the sitting adult breathing zone. Concentrations of approximately 30 micrograms/m3 were detected in the infant breathing zone 24 hours post-application. Surface residues available through wipe sampling were 0.7-1.6 micrograms/cm2 of carpet on the day of application and 0.3-0.5 micrograms/cm2 24 hours post-application. Estimated total absorbed doses for infants were 0.08-0.16 mg/kg on the day of application and 0.04-0.06 mg/kg the day following application, with dermal absorption representing approximately 68 percent of the totals. These doses are 1.2-5.2 times the human No Observable Effect Level (NOEL). Exposures to cholinesterase inhibiting compounds following properly conducted broadcast applications could result in doses at or above the threshold of toxicological response in infants, and should be minimized through appropriate regulatory policy and public education.
Four major studies have attempted to qualitatively and quantitatively assess the extent of soil ingestion in children using the soil tracer methodology. The validity of the estimates of soil ingestion in each study was reevaluated in light of the inherent strengths and limitations of study design and/or execution, as well as via a novel methodology for estimating the soil recovery variance for each tracer, which then led to the estimation of soil ingestion detection limits for each tracer for studies performing mass-balance analyses. Based on these analyses it is concluded that the Binder et al. (1986, Arch. Environ. Health 41, 341-345) and Van Wijnen et al. (1990, Environ. Res. 51, 147-162) studies provide no convincing evidence to support qualitative and quantitative estimates of soil ingestion due to inherent limitations in their respective study designs. The Davis et al. (1990, Arch. Environ. Health 45, 112-122) and Calabrese et al. (1989, Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 10, 123) studies displayed convincing qualitative evidence of soil ingestion. However, the results indicate that the median soil ingestion estimates of Davis et al. were less reliable than those of Calabrese et al. The range of detection limits vary according to the tracer and the assumption of acceptable precision in recovery estimation. The minimum detection level of soil ingestion in children in the Calabrese et al. study, with a variance in recovery of 100% +/- 20%, was 21 mg/day based on Zr.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Ample evidence demonstrates that many chemicals, at some concentration, affect the nervous system. Disastrous incidents resulting from food adulteration, medical experiments and pharmaceutical errors, and industrial and environmental exposures warn of the serious potential for neurotoxicants to affect human health. This article identifies the approximately 185 epidemiological behavioral neurotoxicology studies published through 1989 of extended workplace exposures to chemicals. Approximately 250 different tests have been administered to exposed workers in primarily cross sectional studies, and statistically significant decrements were reported in 43% of the approximately 1100 test/population administrations (virtually all 185 studies employed several of the 250 tests). In this research, 28 different chemicals as well as multiple chemical exposures have been studied. The most extensive findings are seen in research on carbon disulfide, lead, mercury, and multiple solvent exposures, although three or more independent studies also have been reported on workers exposed to styrene and organophosphates. Analyzing the consistent findings in these studies, they reveal a broad spectrum of cognitive, motor, and affective or personality changes. The most frequently reported functional deficits are in tests of intelligence, memory, spatial relations, coordination, and speed plus coordination. Individual behavioral measurement methods and significant test batteries that have been employed to assess changes in human nervous system functions to determine the degree of risk posed by new and established chemicals are described; two of those human behavioral test batteries are predicted to dominate research at the onset of the 1990's. There is a lack of parallelism between the human test methods found in these batteries and the US Environmental Protection Protection Agency (EPA) and Food and Drug Agency (FDA) guideline methods for pre-production screening of chemicals and food additives in animals, and it appears unlikely that the widely employed human and animal behavioral test batteries, as currently evaluated, could identify disease complexes newly suspected of having a chemical etiology.
Attention is focused on the role played by lead-in-dust in contributing to childhood lead exposure. Evidence of enhanced child/adult blood-lead ratios suggests an exposure route important for children but less so for adults; this is probably the dust-hand-mouth route. Reported levels of lead in dust, soil, and on children's hand are presented; the merits of these parameters as indicators of environmental contamination are discussed. In urban and city areas, vehicular-derived lead is a major source, but in some circumstances contributions from industrial sources and paint are more important. Quantitative assessments predict an average increase in children's blood-lead concentrations of about 5 μg/dl for each increment of 1,000 μg/g in the dust-lead concentration. Thus, there is some case for a lead-in-dust standard of about 1,000 μg/g. The implications of a such a standard would be widespread, since this value is exceeded in many urban areas.
Dermal exposure to soils contaminated with toxic chemicals represents a potential public health hazard. These soils, contaminated with chemicals such as PCBs and dioxins, may be found at various locations throughout the U.S. (EPA 1987). Furthermore, dermal contact with pesticidecontaining particles and contaminated soil particles is of importance for exposures to agricultural workers who reenter fields after pesticide application (Knaak et al. 1989). Dermal exposure estimates based on the dislodgeable residue procedures for measuring the transfer of pesticide residues to workers includes pesticide residues present on contaminated particulate material that adheres to foliage. Particles present on sprayed foliage surfaces can consist of dried pesticide deposits from liquid formulation, granular formulations, and dust or clay particles, especially when they are used as inert carriers in the applied formulation. It has
The Childrens Cancer Study Group conducted a case-control study of occupational exposures of parents of 204 children (under 18 yr of age) with acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia. The most consistent finding was an association of acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia risk with pesticide exposure. Controls matched by date of birth and race were obtained through random digit dialing. Odds ratio (OR) for paternal pesticide exposure in jobs held for longer than 1000 days was 2.7 (95% confidence interval, 1.0 to 7.0; trend, P = 0.06), and seven case mothers and no control mothers had prolonged exposure (trend, P = 0.008). Risk estimates for parental pesticide exposure were substantially increased for children under age 6 at diagnosis (OR for prolonged exposure to either parent = 11.4; trend, P = 0.003) and for those with myelomonocytic and monocytic subtypes (OR, 13.6; trend, P = 0.007). Moreover, there were significantly elevated risks for direct exposure of the child to pesticides in the household (OR for exposure most days = 3.5; trend, P = 0.04) and for maternal exposure to household pesticides at the time of pregnancy (eight case mothers versus no controls for exposure most days; trend, P = 0.05). Paternal exposures to solvents (OR, 2.1; P = 0.003) and petroleum products (OR, 2.4; P = 0.002) were reported more commonly for cases than controls. Other occupational exposures reported significantly more often by case parents were paternal exposure to plastics or lead and maternal exposure to paints and pigments, metal dusts, and sawdust. These data provide further evidence for a role of occupational risk factors in the etiology of childhood cancer.
A population-based case-control interview study of 309 childhood leukemia cases and 618 healthy population control children was conducted in urban Shanghai, China. Like some studies in other countries, excess risks for both acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL) were associated with intrauterine and paternal preconception diagnostic x-ray exposure, and with maternal employment in the chemical and agricultural industries during pregnancy. ANLL was linked to maternal occupational exposure to benzene during pregnancy, whereas both ALL and ANLL were significantly associated with maternal exposure to gasoline and the patient's prior use of chloramphenicol. New findings, previously unsuspected, included an association of ANLL with younger maternal age at menarche (odds ratio [OR] = 4.3; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.3-13.9); a protective effect for long-term (greater than 1 year) use of cod liver oil containing vitamins A and D for both ALL (OR = 0.4; 95% CI = 0.2-0.9) and ANLL (OR = 0.3; 95% CI = 0.1-1.0); and excess risks of ANLL among children whose mothers were employed in metal refining and processing (OR = 4.6; 95% CI = 1.3-17.2) and of ALL associated with maternal occupational exposure to pesticides (OR = 3.5; 95% CI = 1.1-11.2). No relationships were found with late maternal age, certain congenital disorders, or familial occurrence, which have been related to childhood leukemia in other studies. In contrast with other reports, an excess of leukemia, primarily ANLL, occurred among second or later-born rather than firstborn children.
To evaluate the latent neurological effects of organophosphate pesticide poisoning, this epidemiologic study examined 100 matched-pairs of individuals with previous acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning and nonpoisoned controls. No significant difference between poisoned subjects and controls was found on audiometric tests, ophthalmic tests, electroencephalograms, or the clinical serum and blood chemistry evaluations. Of the more than 50 scores from the neurological examination, abnormalities were demonstrated among the cases only on measures of memory, abstraction, and mood, and on one test of motor reflexes. Differences between the two cohorts were much more apparent in the neuropsychological tests. The differences occurred on tests of widely varying abilities including intellectual functioning, academic skills, abstraction and flexibility of thinking, and simple motor skills. Twice as many cases as controls (24 vs. 12) had Halstead-Reitan Battery summary scores in the range characteristic of individuals with cerebral damage or dysfunction. Results from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the Patient's and Relative's Assessment of Patient Functioning Inventories also revealed greater distress and complaints of disability for the poisoned subjects.
A case-control study of children of ages 10 years and under in Los Angeles County was conducted to investigate the causes of leukemia. The mothers and fathers of acute leukemia cases and their individually matched controls were interviewed regarding specific occupational and home exposures as well as other potential risk factors associated with leukemia. Analysis of the information from the 123 matched pairs showed an increased risk of leukemia for children whose fathers had occupational exposure after the birth of the child to chlorinated solvents [odds ratio (OR) = 3.5, P = .01], spray paint (OR = 2.0, P = .02), dyes or pigments (OR = 4.5, P = .03), methyl ethyl ketone (CAS: 78-93-3; OR = 3.0, P = .05), and cutting oil (OR = 1.7, P = .05) or whose fathers were exposed during the mother's pregnancy with the child to spray paint (OR = 2.2, P = .03). For all of these, the risk associated with frequent use was greater than for infrequent use. There was an increased risk of leukemia for the child if the father worked in industries manufacturing transportation equipment (mostly aircraft) (OR = 2.5, P = .03) or machinery (OR = 3.0, P = .02). An increased risk was found for children whose parents used pesticides in the home (OR = 3.8, P = .004) or garden (OR = 6.5, P = .007) or who burned incense in the home (OR = 2.7, P = .007). The risk was greater for frequent use. Risk of leukemia was related to mothers' employment in personal service industries (OR = 2.7, P = .04) but not to specified occupational exposures. Risk related to fathers' exposure to chlorinated solvents, employment in the transportation equipment-manufacturing industry, and parents' exposure to household or garden pesticides and incense remains statistically significant after adjusting for the other significant findings.
Preliminary analysis of environmental contributions to pesticide body burden revealed household dust as a major reservoir of pesticides in the environment. A year long monthly study of the households of pesticide exposed persons and control households in Weld County, Colo., in 1968 revealed appreciable levels of selected chlorinated pesticides in the exposed group. Exposed subjects varied from entire farm families with high agricultural use of pesticides to households with at least one member who formulated pesticides, either as an employee of a local plant or as a professional applicator who mixed and loaded pesticides for commercial use. In the overall data no quantitative relationships were demonstrated between pesticide levels in household dust and pesticide levels in blood, although circumstantial data from individual households indicate that a certain connection does exist. No correlation could be shown between levels of p,p' DDT and p,p' DDE in household dust. Pesticide levels in the dust indicate a probable influence on body burden contributing to total environmental exposure of the individual to pesticides.
A method has been developed to test the hypothesis that lead-containing house dust is responsible for the elevated levels of lead in blood of inner city children. Dust analyses of smears from the floors, walls, and windowsills in low-income inner city dwellings have shown a median concentration of lead five times as high in suburban homes. It is suggested that lead-containing dust may be one of the most important environmental sources of increased lead exposure in this specific population group.
Chlordane and heptachlor are used for preventative and remedial termite control in buildings. Quantities of the diluted insecticides are applied into the soil, wall voids, pilasters, chimney bases, termite-damaged wood and under slabs of dirt-filled porches, basement floors, and slab houses. In the working environment, the maximum allowable limit to a continuous exposure of chlordane is 500 ~g/m 3 (40-h workweek) (AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTAL INDUSTRIAL HYGIENISTS 1980). However, the NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES COMMITTEE ON TOXICOLOGY (1979) considered this level unacceptable in the home environment because of the potential for 24 h/day exposure, and they recommended a level of 5 ~g/m ~ as acceptable in homes. MALINA et al. (1975) reported that chlordane was not detected in the air of 5 houses treated for termites, even though the sensitivity of the detection method was one hundredth of the air concentration reported to be safe. CALLAHAN (1970) reported that chlordane, inadvertently placed in heating ducts during termite control at an air base, vaporized and disseminated throughout the living area of a house when the furnace was activated. In 1978 a similar incident occurred at another air base in houses pretreated for termites (unpublished data, USAF, Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory, Aerospace Medical Division, Brooks Air Force Base, TX 78235). These incidences prompted sampling of ca. 500 ground-floor apartments at a midwestern air base in 1980 (LIVINGSTON and JONES 1981~ Chlordane concentrations ranged from below the detection level o 379 ~g/m . Insecticide levels varied widely. An additional study was performed at seven Air Force installations during the winter of 1980-81 in which airborne levels of chlordane were measured in 474 family housing units (LILLIE 1981). All units were treated with chlordane by either subslab injection or exterior ditching after constr~ction. Eighty-six percent had chlordan~ levelsobelow 3.5 ~g/m ; 12% had l~vels between 3.5 - 6.5 ~g/m~; and 2% had levels above 6.5 ug/m ~.
A 12-week-old infant girl developed persistent hypertonicity of the extremities, and, at the age of 8 months, it was discovered that her home had been treated with an excessive application of the organophosphate insecticide diazinon 5 weeks prior to the onset of symptoms. An estimation of her daily diazinon dose and possible correlation with her disease was made.
Analyses were performed for residues of diazinon in the home and for metabolites of diazinon in the infant. The infant was removed from the home.
Six months after application the remaining diazinon residue on the floor was 230 ng/cm2 vs 38 ng/cm2 expected immediately after a normal application. Vacuum cleaner dust contained 1700 parts per million of diazinon. The air contained 2.8 ng/m3. The infant's urine contained 60 parts per billion of diethylphosphate and 20 parts per billion of diethylthiophosphate which calculates to a diazinon dose of approximately 0.02 mg/kg/d. When the infant was removed from the home, muscle tone returned to normal shortly thereafter.
The evidence for an association between organophosphate exposure and the sole de-velopment of hypertonicity without other signs of intoxication in an infant is presented. Physicians should consider organophosphate insecticide exposure as a possible cause of hypertonicity in infants.
The Non-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study, funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, was designed to assess total human exposures to 32 pesticides and pesticide degradation products in the non-occupational environment; however, the study focused primarily on inhalation exposures. Two sites--Jacksonville, Florida (USA) and Springfield/Chicopee, Massachusetts (USA)--were studied during three seasons: Summer 1986 (Jacksonville only), Spring 1987, and Winter 1988. Probability samples of 49 to 72 persons participated in individual site/seasons. The primary environmental monitoring consisted of 24-hr indoor, personal, and outdoor air samples analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/electron capture detection. Indoor and personal air concentrations tended to be higher in Jacksonville than in Springfield/Chicopee. Concentrations tended to be highest in summer, lower in spring, and lowest in winter. Indoor and personal air concentrations were generally comparable and were usually much higher than outdoor air concentrations. Inhalation exposure exceeded dietary exposure for cyclodiene termiticides and for pesticides used mainly in the home. Dietary exposures were greater for many of the other pesticides. Inhalation risks were uncertain for termiticides (depending on rates of degradation) but were negligible for other pesticides. The data were insufficient to support risk assessments for food, dermal contact, or house dust exposures.
A nine-home pilot study was conducted to evaluate monitoring methods in the field that may be used to assess the potential exposures of children aged 6 months to 5 years to pesticides found in the home environment. Several methods, some of which were newly developed in this study, were tested for measuring pesticide residues in indoor air, carpet dust, outdoor soil, and on the children's hands. Information was also collected on household characteristics, pesticides used and stored at the residence, and children's activities.
Pesticides were detected at all nine study homes. With the exception of one home, at least one pesticide was detected in all matrices sampled at each house. Of the 30 target pesticides, 23 were detected during the study. The most frequently detected pesticides were chlordane, chlorpyrifos, dieldrin, heptachlor, and pentachlorophenol. The greatest number of pesticides and highest concentrations were found in carpet dust. The results of these investigations will be discussed in terms of performance of the methods and the distribution of pesticides across the various media sampled.
The scientific literature published over the period 1975-1991 on long-term health effects from prolonged exposure to pesticides has been reviewed, in order to document the state-of-knowledge on the mortality and morbidity of groups of the population exposed to pesticides. Specific aims of the review were to identify (1) which groups of the population have been more broadly surveyed, (2) which adverse effects have been consistently associated with specific pesticide exposures, (3) which are the pesticides of concern and (4) which health effects would require special attention in future research. The literature on acute effects and animal toxicology studies have not been considered at all in this monograph. In the period of interest, 440 papers have been published. Apart from 97 reviews and a small number of case reports, approximately half of the original investigations were of the case-control design (n = 108), while the remaining papers reported results from proportionate mortality (n = 10), cohort (n = 66) or cross-sectional studies (n = 51), carried out on pesticide applicators (n = 48), agricultural workers (n = 26) or people employed in the pesticide manufacturing industry (n = 50). Most of the case-control studies related to cases of cancer from various sites, especially myelolymphoproliferative disorders (MLP) and soft-tissue sarcomas (STS). When compared to the general population total mortality has been found to be consistently lower among pesticide manufacturers as well as among other groups of workers. This observation has been mostly attributed to the 'healthy worker effect' or, in the case of agricultural workers, to the healthier lifestyle of farm families. With the exception of deaths by accidental causes, non-cancer causes of death (mainly represented by cardiovascular diseases), were generally found to be less frequent than expected among manufacturers or users of pesticides, in particular among farmers.
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