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Parenting Practices and Expectations Among Mexican Mothers with Young Children
Abstract
Parenting practices and developmental expectations were examined in a sample of 221 Mexican mothers with very young children living in Guadalajara, Jalisco. They completed a Spanish version of the Parent Behavior Checklist (PBC), a 100-item rating scale that measures parents' developmental expectations, discipline, and nurturing practices. The psychometric properties of the PBC for Mexican mothers, including test-retest reliabilities, were very similar to those found for mothers of young children in the United States. Younger Mexican mothers used more frequent discipline and less nurturing with their young children than older mothers did. Married mothers nurtured their children more than unmarried mothers; young, unmarried mothers nurtured their children the least. Lower nurturing scores were associated with lower education levels, and higher nurturing scores were associated with higher education levels. Mothers from higher socioeconomic levels held higher developmental expectations for their children, and they used less frequent discipline and more frequent nurturing practices than mothers from lower socioeconomic levels. These findings are consistent with those for mothers of young children in the United States.
... While several of these investigations have focused largely on parenting in middleclass European American populations (e.g., Bogenschneider et al., 1997;Bronstein et al., 1996), others have focused on specific ethnic groups (Bluestone & Tamis-LeMonda, 1999;Chao, 2001;Contreras, Narang et al., 2002;Eamon, 2002;Foss, 1996;Gallagher, 2002;McLoyd, 1990;McLoyd et al., 1994;Solis-Camara & Fox, 1996). For example, Bluestone and Tamis-LeMonda (1999) examined maternal characteristics, negative childrearing histories, and parenting styles in 114 working and middle-class African American mothers of children ages 5 to 12 using the Parenting Dimensions Inventory. ...
... Specifically, authoritarian parenting was highly related to adolescent engagement for Hispanic adolescents, whereas the effect was relatively weak for other subgroups. -Camara and Fox (1996) note that, whereas parenting style sets the context of the parent-child relationship by communicating the parent's attitude toward the child, parenting practices represent the specific parent behaviors used to guide children toward attaining socialization goals. In this section, studies investigating the relationship of parenting practices to child outcomes are reviewed. ...
... One other important parenting construct noted by the literature that seems to predict children's competence and psychosocial adjustment is parental emotional support (Bronstein et al., 1996;Maccoby & Martin, 1983;Solis-Camara & Fox, 1996). Parental support consists of guiding behaviors to encourage maturity, such as assigning chores, and nurturing behaviors, such as hugging the child, praising the child to nurture selfesteem, and responding to the child's needs (Bronstein et al., 1996). ...
... The evolving evidence on parenting in Mexico highlights that in addition to socio-economic status (SES) and education, ethnicity and rurality may also influence parenting practices in Mexico [24]. However, previous studies have largely treated parents in Mexico as a single ethnic group and have taken place in urban areas [29,30], without explicit examination of Mexico's demographic diversity in ethnicity and rurality. ...
... The findings in the non-indigenous communities were consistent with a gradient effect of wealth on parenting. The findings in indigenous communities did not display a clear gradient, but nevertheless supported the findings of previous literature linking stimulating parenting practices to SES in Mexico [30] and added nuance of the relative importance of family wealth between indigenous and non-indigenous communities. In contrast, community marginalization (controlling for community indigenous status) was not associated with less stimulating parenting practices, suggesting that community-level poverty was not a good indicator of individual-level outcomes, and variations in parenting practices were determined to a greater extent by individual and household characteristics. ...
Parenting may be influenced by ethnicity; marginalization; education; and poverty. A critical but unexamined question is how these factors may interact to compromise or support parenting practices in ethnic minority communities. This analysis examined associations between mothers' stimulating parenting practices and a range of child-level (age; sex; and cognitive and socio-emotional development); household-level (indigenous ethnicity; poverty; and parental education); and community-level (economic marginalization and majority indigenous population) variables among 1893 children ages 4-18 months in poor; rural communities in Mexico. We also explored modifiers of associations between living in an indigenous community and parenting. Key findings were that stimulating parenting was negatively associated with living in an indigenous community or family self-identification as indigenous (β = -4.25; SE (Standard Error) = 0.98; β = -1.58; SE = 0.83 respectively). However; living in an indigenous community was associated with significantly more stimulating parenting among indigenous families than living in a non-indigenous community (β = 2.96; SE = 1.25). Maternal education was positively associated with stimulating parenting only in indigenous communities; and household crowding was negatively associated with stimulating parenting only in non-indigenous communities. Mothers' parenting practices were not associated with child sex; father's residential status; education; or community marginalization. Our findings demonstrate that despite greater community marginalization; living in an indigenous community is protective for stimulating parenting practices of indigenous mothers.
... La Escala de Comportamiento para Madres y Padres de Niños Pequeños (ECMP) es una lista de expectativas y comportamientos de los padres de niños con un margen de edad de 1 a 5 años 11 meses. Su contenido y estructura factorial son semejantes a la escala desarrollada anteriormente por los autores, y se validó con 1600 familias mexicanas (12,13). Incluye las siguientes escalas: a) Expectativas, 48 reactivos: "Mi niño(a) usa pañales en la noche"; b) Disciplina, 31 reactivos: "Yo le grito a mi hijo(a) por tirar la comida"; y c) Crianza, 20 reactivos: "Yo paseo con mi niña(o) una vez por semana". ...
... El hecho de que las diferentes percepciones entre estas familias fuesen congruentes con sus calificaciones en la ECMP genera confianza en su importancia. Además, estudios con el modelo contextual indican que las diferencias en cómo educan los padres de familia pueden explicarse parcialmente por variables como los años de escolaridad y la ocupación (5,13,15). En este estudio, las variables socioculturales más relevantes según el modelo no indicaron efectos principales entre estas familias. ...
In this study, the term children with special needs is used to refer to children who comprise a population at risk for various medical and psychological disorders. Studies of parenting practices compare families with children with special needs not sharing a specific disability to parents of average children. Moreover, studies usually compare white middle class mother-child pairs. It is acknowledged that too much about these families is unknown, particularly with Latinamerican families. Therefore, research on parenting children with special needs is essential. A logical starting point would be to test appropriate assessment materials for this population. The present study analyzes the usefulness of an instrument, the ECMP, developed to assess parenting of young children. The main concern relates to how mothers and fathers of children with special needs differ from parents of average children on discipline and nurturing practices as well as on developmental expectations. Research has suggested that parents perceptions of their children's behavior as problematic may increase the distress of parents. This study also examines mothers' and fathers' perceptions of child deviance. We administered to parents a health scale for children (ESN) as a measure of children's psychosocial adjustment. We wanted to identify first mothers' and fathers' perceptions of their child deviant behaviors; and, secondly, we wanted to know if such perceptions were related to developmental expectations and parenting practices. The study sample included 166 families with at least one child between the ages of 12 and 56 months (44 boys, 36 girls). Families with a child with special needs (FNES) included 80 mothers and 80 fathers. Of the children's sample, 6.2% had cerebral palsy, 16.2% psychomotor retardation, 6.2% Down syndrome, 11.2% brain damage, 8.7% language handicapped, 8.7% respiratory disorders, 5% other syndromes, 27.5% multiple diagnosis, and 15% had no specific disorder. Families with an average child (FNOR) were drawn from the normative population of the ECMP. This sample included 86 fathers and 86 mothers; there were 46 boys and 40 girls. Both samples completed a socio-cultural quesfionnaire and the ECMP. FNES also completed the ESN. discipline, and nurturing. For each scale, scores were higher for families with a single child compared with families with more than one child. Also when both mother and father took care of the child, their reported expectations and nurturing were higher than when the mother was the sole responsible of the child. To determine if significant differences existed between FNES groups and FNOR in regard to their ratings of parenting, a two-way MANOVA (scale X groups: NES-F, NES-D, NES-NC, FNOR) was conducted. Higher scores were found for the three ECMP scales for FNOR than for NES-D. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed from the mothers' and fathers' scores on the ECMP and the ESN. A different pattern of significant relationships were found between the scores by groups: FNOR and NES-D mothers, and FNOR and NES-D fathers. A stepwise discriminant analysis indicated that the expectations scale discriminated FNOR and FNES. Separated analyses for mothers and fathers from FNOR and NES-D indicated a different picture. For mothers, the expectations scale and also this scale plus the discipline one discriminated between them. For fathers, both expectations and nurturing scales discriminated between them. In the groups of mothers, 65 out of 86 (76%) FNOR children were correctly classified and 28 out of 41 (68%) NES-D children were correctly predicted. In the groups of fathers, 64 out of 86 (77%) FNOR children were correctly classified and 30 out of 41 (73%) NES-D children were correctly predicted. The present study found similar parenting practices and developmental expectations within families. Developmental expectations increased with child's age for FNOR but not for FNES; this result may reflect that the child's inability could become more evident as he/she gets older forcing parents to adjust their expectations to the child's actual capacity. Comparisons between families indicated that FNOR had significantly higher developmental expectations and discipline scores than FNES. Previous comparisons of Mexican mothers and fathers have indicated that discipline and nurturing scores are higher for mothers than for fathers from different families; in the present study, a similar gender effect was found only for nurturing between married couples. The children with special needs were rated by their parents as having lower or higher psychosocial problems. The higher scores of NES-D families may reflect the parents' sensitivity to their children's health conditions and a tendency to presume their children may be experiencing social problems. Parents may compensate for this perception by lowering their developmental expectations and discipline practices. Another interpretation of the lower expectation scores may be that some of the ECMP items were specifically related to the child's inability and were truly beyond the child's capacity. The present study also found that nurturing practices differ between FNOR and NES-D. This result and the reported correlations suggest that lower child functional ability is associated with less nurturing practices. In general, these results, as well as the discriminant analyses, indicate that comparisons of parenting practices between these families are strongly influenced by parents' perceptions of their child's deviant behaviors. This research expands the presently limited knowledge base regarding the child with special needs in the context of the family. The data support the usefulness of the assessment tools for psychologists working with families with young children. There are several limitations of the study that should be noted. First, the heterogeneous disabilities of the children, and secondly, the small samples by children's age, and by socio-cultural variables. Consequently, our findings and conclusions require additional research to examine child and parent factors through the use of more specific criteria.
... Bir başka araştırmada Andrade ve arkadaşları (2005), annenin eğitim seviyesinin, çocuğun bilişsel gelişimini yordayan ev ortamının uyarıcı niteliğiyle (günlük uyaranların çeşitliliği, çocuğa sağlanan oyun materyalleri, çocuk ile sözel ve duygusal iletişim gibi) ilişkili olduğunu bulmuştur. Bulgulara göre, eğitimi arttıkça, annenin çocuğun duygusal, sosyal ve bilişsel gelişimi hakkında bilgisi ve olumlu ebeveynlik davranışları da artmaktadır (Harris, Terrel ve Allen, 1999; Solis-Camara ve Fox, 1996;Vernon-Feagans ve ark., 2008). Daha fazla sözcük kapasitesine ve sözlü iletişim becerisine sahip olan yüksek eğitimli anneler, göstererek öğretme yöntemine dayanan bir ebeveynlikten ziyade, çocuğun bilişsel, sosyal ve dil gelişimlerini destekleyen açıklamaya dayalı çocuk yetiştirme yöntemlerini daha çok kullanmaktadırlar (Kağıtçıbaşı, 1989). ...
... Previous studies have shown that education is closely associated with how parents organize their parental beliefs, child-rearing behaviors, and home environment (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky, & Haynes, 2003). Parents who have higher levels of education have been shown to know more about child development, communicate more effectively, and provide higher levels of appropriate cognitive stimulation and emotional support (Andrade et al., 2005;Davis-Kean, 2005;Solis-Camara & Fox, 1996). Examining the role of education in parenting variables is of special importance to understand parenting and child development. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate parenting cognitions, behaviors, and home environment in metropolitan and rural cities (in Anatolia) to explore the generalizability of parenting research that frequently includes high-and/or low-educated populations in big cities. The data were obtained from 162 mothers (88 high-educated) living in Istanbul (metropolis) and 73 mothers (32 high-educated) living in much smaller cities in Anatolia. Mother reports and structured observations were used to measure mothers' developmental expectations, child-rearing practices, and home environment. Results showed that mothers living in Istanbul reported earlier ages of development on all domains of skills except for moral values and lower levels of obedience-demanding and punitive behaviors compared to mothers living in rural cities. The physical environment of home was found to be safer in rural cities. Comparisons based on educational background showed that high-educated mothers in Istanbul reported earlier ages of mastery on all domains, and also lower levels of obedience-demanding and higher levels of permissive behaviors than loweducated mothers. High-educated mothers also provided more learning materials to their children and the physical environment of their homes was safer. Findings regarding the relation between background characteristics (e.g., education and residency), child-rearing environment and parenting behaviors of mothers were discussed in reference to existing literature. The importance of studying parenting issues with respect to socioeconomic characteristics of different groups within one country is stressed.
... Camara and Fox (1995) compared the parenting practices and developmental expectations of parents from Mexico and the United States matched on educational levels and found no differences between groups on the use of corporal or verbal punishment as a form of discipline, nurturing, or developmental expectations. Camara and Fox (1996) studied parenting practices among a sample of 221 Mexican mothers and found that younger, unmarried, lower income, and less educated mothers were less nurturing and used stricter forms of discipline than older, married, higher income, and more educated mothers, which was consistent with findings from a large, representative sample of 1,140 mothers in the United States (Fox et al., 1995). In another study (Fox & Solis-Camara, 1997), Mexican and U.S. fathers from lower and higher socioeconomic levels were compared. ...
... and Nurturing = .83, .91 (Solis-Camara & Fox, 1996). For the present sample, the following coefficient alphas were found: Expectations = .80, ...
Parenting practices contribute significantly to the social-emotional development of young children. There is limited literature that addresses the role of culture in parenting, particularly among Latino families who have very young children with significant behavior problems. The current study compared the parenting practices of 30 low-income Latino mothers whose young children had been referred for mental health services for their behavior problems with a similar group of 30 mothers of children without behavior problems. Results showed that mothers in the clinical sample nurtured their children less often and used more frequent verbal and corporal punishment as discipline than the nonclinical sample. The clinical sample also had a significantly higher incidence of mental health problems in their families. Results also showed the significant toll that raising young children with challenging behaviors takes on their mothers. The implications of these findings for the early identification of these children are discussed.
... La Escala de Comportamiento para Madres y Padres de Niños Pequeños (ECMP) es una lista de expectativas y comportamientos de los padres de niños con un margen de edad de 1 a 5 años 11 meses. Su contenido y estructura factorial son semejantes a la escala desarrollada anteriormente por los autores, y se validó con 1600 familias mexicanas (12,13). Incluye las siguientes escalas: a) Expectativas, 48 reactivos: "Mi niño(a) usa pañales en la noche"; b) Disciplina, 31 reactivos: "Yo le grito a mi hijo(a) por tirar la comida"; y c) Crianza, 20 reactivos: "Yo paseo con mi niña(o) una vez por semana". ...
... El hecho de que las diferentes percepciones entre estas familias fuesen congruentes con sus calificaciones en la ECMP genera confianza en su importancia. Además, estudios con el modelo contextual indican que las diferencias en cómo educan los padres de familia pueden explicarse parcialmente por variables como los años de escolaridad y la ocupación (5,13,15). En este estudio, las variables socioculturales más relevantes según el modelo no indicaron efectos principales entre estas familias. ...
Este estudio analiza la utilidad de la Escala de Comportamientos para Madres y Padres de Niños Pequeños (ECMP) para distinguir las expectativas del desarrollo y las prácticas disciplinarias y de crianza de parejas de mamás y papás que tienen un hijo sano o uno con necesidades especiales. Además, en este estudio se explora, con la Escala de Salud del Niño (ESN), la percepción que tienen las mamás y los papás sobre el estado de salud de su hijo, que se sabe de antemano que presenta un trastorno o alteración en su desarrollo. Todas las familias tenían al menos un hijo de entre uno y cinco años de edad. La muestra de familias con hijos con necesidades especiales (FNES) quedó formada por 80 mamás y 80 papás. Los problemas de salud de los niños se distribuyeron así: 6.2%, parálisis cerebral; 16.2%, retraso psicomotor; 6.2%, síndrome de Down; 11.2%, lesión cerebral; 8.7%, problemas de lenguaje; 8.7%, problemas respiratorios; 5%, síndromes varios; 22.5% múltiples diagnósticos, y 15%, trastornos vagamente definidos. La muestra de familias normativas (FNOR) quedó formada por 86 mamás y 86 papás. Todas las familias contestaron una forma socio-cultural y la ECMP; las FNES respondieron también la ESN. Los resultados indican que las expectativas y prácticas disciplinarias y de crianza intrafamilias son semejantes, y que unas y otras se incrementan del primer año de edad del niño en adelante para las FNOR. Los resultados entre familias indican que las FNOR esperan que sus hijos dominen mucho más pronto ciertas habilidades y les imponen una disciplina más severa que las FNES. La única diferencia por género favoreció a las mamás, quienes indicaron tener más prácticas de crianza que sus parejas. La inclusión de la ESN fue fundamental porque hizo resaltar la importancia de la percepción de la salud del niño por parte de los padres de familia. Las comparaciones indicaron que las familias que percibían que su hijo tenía una disfunción psicosocial (NES-D), tenían las más bajas expectativas, y ejercían una disciplina menos severa, pero tenían pocas actividades de crianza en comparación con las familias que percibían a su hijo como funcional y con las FNOR. Las correlaciones y los análisis efectuados para distinguir entre familias NES-D y FNOR indicaron que alrededor de 70% de las mamás y de los papás se ubican correctamente con la ECMP, pero sólo cuando se toma en cuenta la propia percepción de ellos. Este estudio es un intento por ampliar el limitado conocimiento existente sobre las expectativas y las prácticas disciplinarias y de crianza de familias con un niño pequeño con necesidades especiales. Los resultados apoyan la utilidad de la ECMP, particularmente después de considerar la percepción diferencial de mamás y papás con la ESN, por lo que ambas escalas pueden ser herramientas adicionales en el estudio de estas familias.
... La Escala de Comportamiento para Madres y Padres de Niños Pequeños (ECMP) es una lista de expectativas y comportamientos de los padres de niños con un margen de edad de 1 a 5 años 11 meses. Su contenido y estructura factorial son semejantes a la escala desarrollada anteriormente por los autores, y se validó con 1600 familias mexicanas (12,13). Incluye las siguientes escalas: a) Expectativas, 48 reactivos: "Mi niño(a) usa pañales en la noche"; b) Disciplina, 31 reactivos: "Yo le grito a mi hijo(a) por tirar la comida"; y c) Crianza, 20 reactivos: "Yo paseo con mi niña(o) una vez por semana". ...
... El hecho de que las diferentes percepciones entre estas familias fuesen congruentes con sus calificaciones en la ECMP genera confianza en su importancia. Además, estudios con el modelo contextual indican que las diferencias en cómo educan los padres de familia pueden explicarse parcialmente por variables como los años de escolaridad y la ocupación (5,13,15). En este estudio, las variables socioculturales más relevantes según el modelo no indicaron efectos principales entre estas familias. ...
Este estudio analiza la utilidad de la Escala de Comportamientos para Madres y Padres de Niños Pequeños (ECMP) para distinguir las expectativas del desarrollo y las prácticas disciplinarias y de crianza de parejas de mamás y papás que tienen un hijo sano o uno con necesidades especiales. Además, en este estudio se explora, con la Escala de Salud del Niño (ESN), la percepción que tienen las mamás y los papás sobre el estado de salud de su hijo, que se sabe de antemano que presenta un trastorno o alteración en su desarrollo. Todas las familias tenían al menos un hijo de entre uno y cinco años de edad. La muestra de familias con hijos con necesidades especiales (FNES) quedó formada por 80 mamás y 80 papás. Los problemas de salud de los niños se distribuyeron así: 6.2%, parálisis cerebral; 16.2%, retraso psicomotor; 6.2%, síndrome de Down; 11.2%, lesión cerebral; 8.7%, problemas de lenguaje; 8.7%, problemas respiratorios; 5%, síndromes varios; 22.5% múltiples diagnósticos, y 15%, trastornos vagamente definidos. La muestra de familias normativas (FNOR) quedó formada por 86 mamás y 86 papás. Todas las familias contestaron una forma socio-cultural y la ECMP; las FNES respondieron también la ESN. Los resultados indican que las expectativas y prácticas disciplinarias y de crianza intrafamilias son semejantes, y que unas y otras se incrementan del primer año de edad del niño en adelante para las FNOR. Los resultados entre familias indican que las FNOR esperan que sus hijos dominen mucho más pronto ciertas habilidades y les imponen una disciplina más severa que las FNES. La única diferencia por género favoreció a las mamás, quienes indicaron tener más prácticas de crianza que sus parejas. La inclusión de la ESN fue fundamental porque hizo resaltar la importancia de la percepción de la salud del niño por parte de los padres de familia. Las comparaciones indicaron que las familias que percibían que su hijo tenía una disfunción psicosocial (NESD), tenían las más bajas expectativas, y ejercía
... It has also been suggested that family background variables, such as financial resources (Kinnunen & Pulkkinen, 1998), parents' level of education (Fox et al., 1995;Zussman, 1978), socioeconomic factors (Maccoby & Martin, 1983;Melson et al., 1993;Ogby, 1981) and parents' occupational status (Dodge et al., 1994;Goodnow, 1988) provide a basis for various parenting styles. For example, mothers from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have been shown to be less warm (Solis-Camara-R & Fox, 1996), to employ harsher and more authoritarian discipline (Conger et al., 1992;Dodge et al., 1994;Lempers et al., 1989;McLoyd, 1990), to have lower developmental expectancies concerning their children (Solis-Camara-R & Fox, 1996), and to provide less cognitive stimulation (Dodge et al., 1994;Liang & Sugawara, 1996) than mothers from a higher socioeconomic background. In addition to parenting styles, social background has been found to be associated with how parents feel about parenting. ...
... It has also been suggested that family background variables, such as financial resources (Kinnunen & Pulkkinen, 1998), parents' level of education (Fox et al., 1995;Zussman, 1978), socioeconomic factors (Maccoby & Martin, 1983;Melson et al., 1993;Ogby, 1981) and parents' occupational status (Dodge et al., 1994;Goodnow, 1988) provide a basis for various parenting styles. For example, mothers from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have been shown to be less warm (Solis-Camara-R & Fox, 1996), to employ harsher and more authoritarian discipline (Conger et al., 1992;Dodge et al., 1994;Lempers et al., 1989;McLoyd, 1990), to have lower developmental expectancies concerning their children (Solis-Camara-R & Fox, 1996), and to provide less cognitive stimulation (Dodge et al., 1994;Liang & Sugawara, 1996) than mothers from a higher socioeconomic background. In addition to parenting styles, social background has been found to be associated with how parents feel about parenting. ...
In order to examine the extent to which parents' levels of education, financial resources, self-esteem, and their mastery-orientation versus task-avoidance are associated with their parenting styles and parental stress, data from two studies were analyzed. In Study I, parents of 105 6 to 7-year old children were asked to fill in scales measuring their parenting styles and parental stress, mastery-orientation, financial resources, and their level of education. In Study II, 235 parents were asked to fill in the same scales. An identical pattern of results was found in the two studies. Parents' self-esteem and their use of mastery-oriented strategy were found to be associated with authoritative parenting and low parental stress, whereas parents' low level of education was related to an authoritarian parenting style. The results further showed that the impact of parents' self-esteem on authoritative parenting and parental stress was partly mediated by their use of a mastery-oriented strategy.
... Although the values of familismo and compadrazgo are prevalent among Latinx individuals, these concepts are not equally salient to all Latinx families (Calzada, 2010;Guarnaccia & Rodriguez 1996;Guilamo-Ramos et al., 2007;Martinez, 1999;Solís-Cámara & Fox, 1996). Certain components of familismo like family obligation varied among Latinx families, for example by nation/region of origin (i.e., Mexican, Cuban, Central American) and acculturation, yet the perception of family support was salient across individuals and subgroups (López, 1999). ...
Latinx children under five years of age are more likely to experience home-based than center-based care (Crosby, Mendez, Guzman, & Lopez, 2016). A large and growing literature documents familismo (i.e., familism) and compadrazgo (literally, co-parenting) as common beliefs among Latino/a families who are themselves diverse in many ways including national origin, generational status, and SES. Using a cultural model framework (Quinn & Holland, 1987) and Eco(logical)-cultural Theory (Weisner, 2002, 2005), previous research indicated that family child care (FCC) providers’ descriptions of their work reflected varying prioritization of a Love and Affection cultural model. In this paper, we aimed to (a) explore the relevance of familismo and compadrazgo for FCC, and (b) refine and confirm the Love and Affection cultural model in a second sample of FCC providers. To do so, we conducted qualitative analyses of in-depth, semi-structured interviews as part of a larger study including licensed FCC providers serving children in selected areas of Los Angeles County. Many providers’ descriptions of their work contained elements of familismo and compadrazgo in ways that were quite compatible with a Love and Affection cultural model. We also identified barriers to Love and Affection. Local communities may be better able to meet the needs of Latino/a families by helping ECE professionals communicate and advertise their beliefs, as well as help Latino/a families identify ECE settings that prioritize Love and Affection.
... La ECMP ha demostrado validez y confiabilidad internas (8,8) y de medidas repetidas (,92), con población mexicana. Se usó la forma con 32 reactivos (Solís-Cámara, 1995;Solís-Cámara & Fox, 1996). ...
The purpose of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of a parenting program with parents of young children in Mexico. A parenting program (STAR) specifically designed for parents of young children was selected for this project. 121 parents of children (ages I to 5 five years), participated in the program offered through 11 child care centers. The dependent measures were completed by parents before the training and after it, and included: a self-report measure of parenting behaviors; an inventory designed to measure parenting attitudes; a questionnaire developed to identify behavioral problems in young children, and an index to measure knowledge of parenting skills. A demographic form was also included. The 10-hour STAR Program was delivered to groups of 8 to 12 parents. 95 mothers and 26 fathers participated. Parents showed significant overall improvement on the parenting measures. Analyses also indicated that parent education was the main significant determinant of pretest scores. Post-hoc analyses showed that both pretest and post-test scores were higher as years of education increased. Results suggests that the STAR Program is an effective intervention for parents of young children. Implications of these results for intervention studies for parents and its effects on children's behavioral problems are discussed.
... Por otra parte, en una serie de estudios con mamás de México (Solís-Cámara, 1995; Solís-Cámara y Fox, 1996), los autores encontraron que los coeficientes de consistencia interna y de medidas repetidas eran de .95 y .96, ...
This study analyzes the factor structure of a measure of parenting young children (ECMP); this instrument is a Spanish version of the Parent Behavior Checklist. A representative sample of children aged between one yr. and five yrs. 11 months was drawn from an urban area of Mexico. The ECMP was administered to mothers (n= 982) or fathers (n= 618) of the selected children. Factor analysis identified a version of the scale with a pool of 99 items, and three legitimate factors with eigenvalues greater than one (i.e., expectations, discipline and nurturing); the three factors accounted for 31.8 percent of the variance. The coefficient alpha value for the scale was: .95. The present results provide evidence of the adequate factor structure and internal consistency of the ECMP. Further support for the adequacy of the ECMP is reported via comparisons between mothers' and fathers' scores, and between parents of different-aged children.
... En los estudios comparando los procesos de socialización de niños entre familias latinoamericanas, viviendo en Estados Unidos de América o en su propio país, las comparaciones han indicado descripciones divergentes de las actitudes y comportamientos de esas familias. Esto, a su vez, se ha explicado por la ausencia de controles sobre los múltiples factores, como la aculturación, que influyen en la expresión de las actitudes y comportamientos de los padres (véase Salís-Cámara y Fox, 1996). ...
The main purpose of this work was to analyze the psychometric properties of a parenting behavior scale (ECMP, in Spanish). The ECMP is a tool that measures three aspects of parenting young children, namely, expectations, discipline, and nurturing. Due to the recent development of this tool several psychometric properties of it have not been assessed. Therefore, we designed four studies to establish repeated measures reliability, convergent validity, and the possible influence of social desirability response set on the ECMP, we also compared two versions of the ECMP. Subjects for each study were parents with one child between 1 year and 5 years, 11 months of age. We administered a demographic questionnaire and the ECMP in every study. Convergent validity of the ECMP was assessed by comparing it with the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory-Spanish. To assess social desirability, we administered a brief version of a scale of social desirability. The ECMP was also compared with a 32-item version of it. Results indicate that the ECMP shows adequate psychometric properties and the discussion focuses on the possible applications for this scale.
... É possível concluir também que pais e mães emitem comportamentos diferentes ao educarem seus filhos, concordando com os achados de Sólis-Cámara e Fox ( , 1996 que concluíram serem as mães quem mais puniam seus filhos. O uso da punição pelas mães parece estar associado não só à experiência (é um comportamento reforçado pela conseqüência imediata de suprimir o estímulo aversivo do comportamento da criança) mas também a crenças transmitidas pela cultura, sobre os custos e benefícios da punição (Frias-Armenta, Sotomayor-Petterson, Corrar-Verdugo, & Castell-Ruiz, 2004). ...
Studies have shown a relationship to exist between behavior problems in children and quality of parental practices such as communication, expressivity, consistency, and monitoring. This study aimed at describing relationships that parents have with their preschool children, and also at relating parenting skills to child behavior. We compared fathers' and mothers' social educational skills in two groups of children, with or without behavior problems at school. Research was conducted in a town in the State of Sao Paulo, BR. Participants were biological mothers and fathers of 48 preschoolers; twenty-five children presented behavior problems at school, and 24 had high social skills. Parents were individually interviewed at home. Results showed that fathers and mothers of socially skilled children were more consistent in their practices. They were more able to identify and describe their children's socially skilled behaviors. They also reported they gave more positive feedbak for their children's good behavior.
... Later she adds: "In fact, the discipline in Mexico and the United States is very similar." This belief that parents of young children from Mexico and the United States may have much in common regarding their child rearing practices has been supported in studies with Mexican mothers (Solís-Cámara and Fox 1995Fox , 1996 and Mexican fathers (Fox and Solís-Cámara 1997 ). Therefore, this research on Mexican families conducted in the US supports many of the cultural concepts regarding parenting that were found from studies within Mexico. ...
Mexico boasts the third largest population in the Americas and consists of the largest Spanish-speaking population in the world. This chapter summarizes parenting in Mexico starting with the first half of the twentieth century that was characterized by the unquestionable and absolute supremacy of the father and the sacrificial role of the mother. Eventually counter-cultural beliefs emerged that have challenged these traditional cultural values (e.g., decline in agreement with submissiveness of females). In addition to describing research related to the unique cultural influences in Mexico on parenting, research on Mexican families conducted outside of the boundaries of Mexico is also included. Overall, it appears that particularly for families with very young children, there are more similarities than differences in parenting practices between families in Mexico and elsewhere. In order to support Mexican families who are experiencing challenges in child rearing, intervention programs have been developed to offer parent–child training programs with positive results for the parents and their children. Recently, parenting research has explored the possibility of bridging the indigenous psychologies, such as Mexican ethnopsychology, with mainstream psychology. The initial findings appear to support the idea that traditional Mexican values continue to exist while a progressive infusion of counter-cultural values are gradually altering Mexican parenting attitudes and practices. This chapter concludes by providing a brief glimpse into the lives of two families in Mexico, one from a small city and another from the country.
... Previous studies have shown that education is closely associated with how parents organize their parental beliefs, child-rearing behaviors, and home environment (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky, & Haynes, 2003). Parents who have higher levels of education have been shown to know more about child development, communicate more effectively, and provide higher levels of appropriate cognitive stimulation and emotional support (Andrade et al., 2005;Davis-Kean, 2005;Solis-Camara & Fox, 1996). Examining the role of education on parenting variables is of special importance to understand parenting and child development. ...
... En los estudios comparando los procesos de socialización de niños entre familias latinoamericanas, viviendo en Estados Unidos de América o en su propio país, las comparaciones han indicado descripciones divergentes de las actitudes y comportamientos de esas familias. Esto, a su vez, se ha explicado por la ausencia de controles sobre los múltiples factores, como la aculturación, que influyen en la expresión de las actitudes y comportamientos de los padres (véase Salís-Cámara y Fox, 1996). ...
The main purpose of this workwas toanalyzethepsycboll1~tric pro~rties of a parenting behavior scale (ECMP, in .Spanish), Thé ECM'p is atool thattneasuresthree aspéctsof parenting yourig children, namely.expectations, discipline, and ntirt«rlng.)J)uetC) tJ1e reeentdevelopment of this tool several psyohometricprópertiesof it havenotbeenass~s~éd''1'h~J'efhre; we .designed four studies lo establish repeated measures reliability,convergent Vjllidity, and the possible influence of social desirability responsesetón the ECMP{wealsÚ comparedtwo versions oí the ECMP. Subjects for each study wereparents withone child}betweenlyeai aad 5yejlfS, 11 months ofage.We administered a demograpI1icquestionnaire rold tbe .ECMPlrt every study. Convergent validity of'the ECMPwás ·assessedby comparll1gitwith the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory-Spanish, To assess social desirability,we¡aamitliste~eda brief versión of a scale of social desirabilíry. The ECMP was alsó eotnpjlfed'with á32~it~m' versíonof it. Results indicate that the ECMP shows adequate psychometricpropertiesandthe diseussíor; focuses on the possíble appíícarícas for this seale,
... Por otra parte, en una serie de estudios con mamás de México (Solís-Cámara, 1995; Solís-Cámara y Fox, 1996), los autores encontraron que los coeficientes de consistencia interna y de medidas repetidas eran de .95 y .96, ...
Este trabajo analiza la estructura factorial de la Escala de Comportamientos para Madres y Padres con Niños Pequeños (ECMP); este instrumento es una adaptación al castellano del Parent Behavior Checklist, que evalúa las prácticas paternas. Se seleccionó una muestra representativa de niños (1.0-5.11 años), de una Cd. de México. La ECMP fue contestada por las mamás (n= 982), o por los papás (n= 618) de esos niños. Los análisis factoriales permitieron identificar una versión de la ECMP con 99 ítems y tres factores con valores eigen mayores de uno (i.e., expectativas, disciplina y crianza); el porcentaje de varianza explicada por los tres factores fue de 31.8. El coeficiente alfa total fue de .95. Estos resultados indican que la estructura factorial y la consistencia interna de la ECMP son adecuadas. Además, como apoyo adicional de la adecuación de la ECMP, se presentan comparaciones entre mamás y papás y entre padres con niños de diferente edad.
... However, traditional parenting practices from the country of origin changed over time due to the exposure to American cultural values and the eventual "Americanization" of parents resulting in less effective parental behaviors (e.g., less monitoring, less consistent use of discipline, and less restrictive rules and norms). Other studies have also documented that more acculturated parents report less knowledge on children's academic achievement and adolescent's perceived efficacy, and have lower educational expectations for their children (Planos, Zayas, & BuschRossnagel, 1995;Rodríguez et al., 2006;Solís-Cámara & Fox, 1996). In general, these studies suggest that there may be differences in how parents parent their offspring across generations in Hispanic families and that such differences are related to dissimilar levels of acculturation. ...
Though official data document that Hispanic youth are at a great risk for early sexual intercourse, STDs, and teen pregnancy, only few etiological studies have been conducted on Hispanic youth; almost no work has examined potential generational differences in these behaviors, and thus, these behaviors may have been mistakenly attributed to cultural differences. The current study examined the relationships between maternal parenting (general communication, communication about sex, monitoring, support) and risky sexual behaviors, and potential moderating effects by immigration status and acculturation in 1st and 2nd generation Hispanic immigrant adolescents (N = 2,016) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Waves I and II). Maternal communication about sex and maternal support emerged as key predictors of risky sexual behaviors across generational groups; neither immigration status nor acculturation moderated the maternal parenting constructs-risky sexual behaviors links. Furthermore, maternal parenting constructs and their relationships with risky sexual behaviors did not differ by generational groups.
... La ECMP ha demostrado validez y confiabilidad internas (8,8) y de medidas repetidas (,92), con población mexicana. Se usó la forma con 32 reactivos (Solís-Cámara, 1995;Solís-Cámara & Fox, 1996). ...
The purpose of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of a parenting program with parents of young children in Mexico. A parenting program (STAR) specifically designed for parents of young children was selected for this project. 121 parents of children (ages 1 to 5 years), participated in the program offered through 11 child care centers. The dependent measures were completed by parents before the training and after it, and included: a self- report measure of parenting behaviors; an inventory designed to measure parenting attitudes; a questionnaire developed to identify behavioral problems in young children, and an index to measure knowledge of parenting skills. A demographic form was also included. The 10 hour STAR Program was delivered to groups of 8 t0 12 parents. 95 mothers and 26 fathers participated. Parents showed significant overall improvement on the parenting of pretest scores. Post - hoc analyses showed that both pretest and post - test scores were higher as year of education increased. Results suggests that the STAR Program is an effective intervention for parents of young children. Implications of these results for intervention studies for parents and its effects on children´s behavioral problems are discussed
... The Hispanic mothers reported a higher frequency of discipline and a lower frequency Cardona, Nicholson, Fox 6 of nurturing with their very young children; there were no differences in expectations between Hispanic and Anglo-American mothers. Although our results may be generally consistent with results showing evidence of an authoritarian parenting style among Hispanic parents (Fromm & Maccoby, 1970; Martinez, 1988), they are inconsistent with previous research with the PBC (Solis-Camara & Fox, 1995, 1996), which included only mothers living in Mexico. The present sample included Hispanic mothers living in the United States who came from higher socioeconomic circumstances than previous samples. ...
The authors examined parenting practices and developmental expectations among 38 Hispanic and 38 Anglo-American mothers living in the United States. Mothers of children 3 to 5 years of age completed the Parent Behavior Checklist (R. A. Fox, 1994), a 100-item measure of parents' developmental expectations, discipline, and nurturing practices. In addition, the authors appraised the Hispanic mothers' acculturation and selected them for participation if their scores on an acculturation scale indicated (a) that their lifestyle was predominantly Hispanic and (b) that they had not been assimilated into the dominant culture. The 2 ethnic groups were also divided by socioeconomic status (SES). There were significant main effects for ethnicity and SES on the discipline and nurturing scores but not on the expectations scores. The Hispanic and higher SES mothers reported higher discipline and lower nurturing scores than did the Anglo-American and lower SES mothers. An unexpected finding was the tendency for higher SES Hispanic mothers to report more frequent use of discipline than the other 3 groups.
Behavior problems in very young children including aggression, property destruction, self-injury, hyperactivity, and noncompliance are common. Research has shown that 50% of children with moderate behavior problems, without intervention, will continue to have behavioral difficulties well into their school years when they are more intractable to treat. Consequently, early intervention is necessary, and providing evidence-based programs tailored to treat such issues in very young children is important. This is especially true for a diverse population of children living in poverty, including Latino children, where early behavior problems are even more prevalent. This chapter describes the Early Pathways Program, a culturally adapted, home-based mental health program for young children with behavior problems. Eight in-home sessions are included to help parents better understand and manage their young children’s behavior problems. This chapter also includes measures to assess program outcomes and several parent handouts in Spanish that are used throughout the intervention.
This paper describes and evaluates a training program for parental leaders. Nineteen volunteers from child care centers and a university participated. Training included 3 areas. In the first, subject mastery, participants attended eight, 2 1/2 hours weekly sessions, and presented a written examination, a written feedback, and a pre-post parenting test. In the second, program applications, participants were observed teaching a parenting session to a group of parents with young children. In the third, program teaching, participants were observed as educators organizing and leading a 5-weeks series of parenting classes. Evaluations of the training program showed improved knowledge and healthier parenting attitudes, particularly regarding cognitive strategies, nurturing and discipline abilities, punishment, and parent-child role-reversal. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of extensive and formal training for parental educators as compared with previous findings.
The purpose of this study was to compare the cross-cultural effectiveness of a psychoeducational
program with 82 Mexican and 63 American mothers with very young children. The 10-hour program was
presented by trained facilitators in Mexico and the United States to small groups of mothers. Results
showed that the both groups of mothers significantly increased their expectations and use of nurturing
strategies and reduced their use of verbal and corporal punishment with their young children following the
program. In addition, the reported frequency of child behavior problems decreased significantly at
post-test. The similar results obtained across cultures were explained based on research finding similar
parenting practices with young children between Mexican and American parents.
Variáveis do relacionamento conjugal e relacionamento pais-filhos podem afetar o comportamento das crianças. O objetivo deste trabalho é comparar relatos de pais e mães de pré-escolares com e sem problemas de comportamento, quanto ao relacionamento conjugal. Participaram 48 casais, distribuídos em dois grupos: pais biológicos de crianças com problemas de comportamento e pais biológicos de crianças socialmente habilidosas, segundo avaliação de professores. Os pais foram entrevistados, individualmente, sobre expressão de carinho, comunicação conjugal, características positivas e negativas do cônjuge e qualidade do relacionamento conjugal. Foram encontrados alguns resultados na direção esperada. Os casais com criança socialmente habilidosa foram mais positivos quanto à comunicação e características do cônjuge. Não foram encontradas diferenças na expressão de carinho.
Cluster analysis was used to empirically determine if parenting practices would reflect distinct patterns of parental behavior in a sample of 1,056 mothers. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering was performed with J. H. Ward's (1963) method. R. Mojena's (1977) criterion determined that a 4-cluster solution was optimal; the resulting patterns are described. Simplified rules for classifying new cases also were generated. The clusters differentiated the mothers by age, education, number of children, socioeconomic status, and frequency of reported behavior problems. Theoretical and methodological issues, links to D. Baumrind's (1991) parenting styles, and the heuristic potential of classifying parenting practices are discussed.
Previous developmental research has found that children from households with high shared parenting, childrearing agreement, and equitable division of parental labor experience positive developmental and social outcomes; a major limitation of these studies is that shared parenting measures do not assess the amount of total parental effort the child receives, but instead partitioning the amount of effort between parents. Life History (LH) theory predicts that the total amount of parenting the child receives should produce a greater developmental impact on the future LH strategies of children than precisely how that parental effort was apportioned between mothers and fathers. This report presents a cross-cultural study using convenience samples of university students in Mexico, the United States, and Costa Rica, investigating the relationship of total as well as shared parental effort on family emotional climate and the LH strategy of the participants as young adults. The first study was performed exclusively in Mexico; results indicated that higher levels of shared parenting experienced as a child were associated with Family Emotional Climate also during childhood and with participant adult LH. The second study extended these findings; higher total parental effort predicted shared parenting effort, positive emotional climate, and slower offspring adult life history strategy in the three convenience samples of Mexico, the United States, and Costa Rica.
Behavior problems are common in toddlers and preschoolers. Richman, Stevenson, and Graham (1975) identified difficulties with eating, sleeping, toileting, temper, fears, peer relations, and activity as typical in this young population. While all young children should be expected to experience behavior problems as part of their normal development, an ongoing challenge in the field has been to determine when these “normal” developmental problems rise to the level of being considered “clinical” behavior problems (Keenan & Wakschlag, 2000). For example, when does a two-year-old child's tantrum behavior, a three-year-old's urinary accidents, and a four-year-old's defiance become clinically significant? To answer these questions, clinicians must examine the frequency, intensity, and durability of these difficulties, their potential to cause injury to the child or others, the extent to which they interfere with the child development, and the degree to which they disrupt the lives of their siblings, caregivers, peers, teachers, and others.
This study tested a model of shared parenting as its centerpiece that incorporates cultural values as predictors and family emotional climate as the outcome variable of interest. We aimed to assess the predictive power of the Mexican cultural values of familismo and simpatia over couples' shared parenting practices. We anticipated that higher levels of shared parenting would predict family emotional climate. The participants were 61 Mexican American, low income couples, with at least one child between 3 and 4 years of age, recruited from a home-based Head Start program. The predictive model demonstrated excellent goodness of fit, supporting the hypothesis that a positive emotional climate within the family is fostered when Mexican American couples practice a sufficient level of shared parenting. Empirical evidence was previously scarce on this proposition. The findings also provide evidence for the role of cultural values, highlighting the importance of family solidarity and avoidance of confrontation as a pathway to shared parenting within Mexican American couples.
This study used an established behavioral observation methodology to examine the parenting practices of first-generation Latino parents of children 4 to 9 years of age. The study had three central aims, to examine: (1) the feasibility of using a behavioral observation methodology with Spanish-speaking immigrant families, (2) the utility of the Parent Peer Process Code (PPPC; Forgatch, Knutson, & Mayne, 1992) for coding parentñchild interactions, and (3) the relationship between observed parenting practices, as coded with the PPPC, and child outcomes. Families consisted of 48 fathers, 49 mothers, and 50 children. Families participated in cooperative, problem-solving, and skillsbuilding tasks. The authors coded in five broad categories: problem solving, skills building, positive involvement, effective discipline, and monitoring. Findings show that the behavioral observation methodology is feasible to use with Spanish-speaking immigrant families, that the PPPC is useful in understanding parentñchild interactions, and that the coded parentñchild interactions predict differential child outcomes. This information can help inform the development or adaptation of culturally sensitive parenting interventions to this underserved population.
Tiivistelmä: Oppilaiden suoritusstrategiat, perhetausta ja koulumenestys. Diss. -- Helsingin yliopisto.
Studies have shown a relationship to exist between behavior problems in children and quality of parental
practices such as communication, expressivity, consistency, and monitoring. This study aimed at describing
relationships that parents have with their preschool children, and also at relating parenting skills to child
behavior. We compared fathers and mothers social educational skills in two groups of children, with or without
behavior problems at school. Research was conducted in a town in the State of Sao Paulo, BR. Participants were
biological mothers and fathers of 48 preschoolers; twenty-five children presented behavior problems at school,
and 24 had high social skills. Parents were individually interviewed at home. Results showed that fathers and
mothers of socially skilled children were more consistent in their practices. They were more able to identify and
describe their childrens socially skilled behaviors. They also reported they gave more positive feedbak for their
childrens good behavior
Parenting, parental educators, parental leaders, cognitive strategies,
nurturing, discipline.
In the present study, the parenting practices and developmental expectations were examined in a sample of 96 fathers from Mexico and the United States, all with children from 1 to 5 years of age. The selection of fathers from both countries was controlled for the family's socioeconomic status (SES) and for the age and gender of their children. The Parent Behavior Checklist, a 100-item rating scale was used to measure parents' developmental expectations and their discipline and nurturing practices. According to the results, Mexican and U.S. fathers did not differ significantly in their developmental expectations or parenting practices. In both countries, fathers from lower SES families were less nurturing and used more frequent discipline than fathers from higher SES families.
The impact of parent education programs on early intervention programs is not thought to be uniform among children from majority and minority populations. This study examined the relationship between maternal childrearing practices and behaviors and the developmental status of Mexican-American infants.
Participants were 62 Mexican-American mother-infant pairs. The infants' mean adjusted age was 12 months (SD=1.7, range=9-14). A third of the children were diagnosed with developmental delays and referred for early intervention by physicians or therapists when the children received their medical follow-up. The group was stratified according to socioeconomic status and acculturation using the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics. This scale uses cutoff points to classify individuals into 3 levels of acculturation.
Information on childrearing practices and behaviors was gathered using the Parent Behavior Checklist (PBC), the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory, and the Nursing Child Assessment Teaching Scale (NCATS). Infants' developmental status was assessed by use of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II (BSID II). The Pearson product moment correlation, partial correlations, Fisher z transformation, and multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between childrearing practices and parenting behaviors, demographic factors, and infants' developmental status.
Maternal nurturing behaviors, parent-child interaction, and quality of the home environment were positively correlated with the infants' cognitive development. Maternal years of education modified the observed relationship between PBC and BSID II scores but not the observed relationship between HOME Inventory and NCATS scores. The childrearing practices, maternal socioeconomic status (SES) and age, and infants' gestational age at birth (GA) explained 45% of the variance in infants' cognitive scores. The infants' GA, maternal SES and age, and NCATS scores accounted for 32% of the motor scores on the BSID II.
The findings partially support a link between aspects of the mothers' childrearing behaviors and their infants' cognitive developmental status. For motor developmental status, the association appeared stronger with the infants' characteristics than with maternal childrearing practices and behaviors tested in this study.
To examine the psychometric adequacy of two existing instruments, the Functional Status Questionnaire (FS IIR) and the Parent Behavior Checklist (PBC), in two ethnic minority groups. Age-specific items that were not relevant for children ages 1 to 5 were removed from the FS IIR and PBC. Measures were administered to 196 Latino and African American parents of children aged 1 to 5. Reliability, variability, item-convergence, and factor structure were examined. The results highlight common pitfalls in using existing measures in populations other than those on which they were originally developed. Both measures were modified resulting in all scales having low or acceptable reliability. Construct validity was supported for both the FS IIR and the PBC through confirmation of hypothesized relationships. In both ethnic groups, factor analyses supported the hypothesized factor solutions for the FS IIR and the PBC. Use of measures in minority groups requires researchers to be cognizant of the issues of psychometric adequacy in all groups. The psychometric properties of the FS IIR and the PBC were generally acceptable for Hispanics and African Americans, but each had some problems in at least one psychometric characteristic in one or both groups. Different factor loadings for some items for Hispanics and African Americans suggest different interpretation of items between the two cultural groups.
This study presents descriptive qualitative data about Latino parenting practices in an urban context. Focus groups were conducted with Dominican and Puerto Rican mother-adolescent pairs in the Bronx borough of NewYork City. When parenting style typologies are integrated with the Latino cultural components familismo, respeto, personalismo, and simpatía, Latino parenting practices and their underlying styles are better understood. Content analysis of parents' focus groups revealed five essential Latino parenting practices: (1) ensuring close monitoring of adolescents; (2) maintaining warm and supportive relationships characterized by high levels of parent-adolescent interaction and sharing; (3) explaining parental decisions and actions; (4) making an effort to build and improve relationships; and (5) differential parenting practices based on adolescents' gender. Mothers reported concerns related to the risks associated with living in an urban area, exposure to different cultural values, and opportunities for engaging in risky behaviors. Adolescents' recommendations for effective parenting strategies were similar to the practices reported by their mothers. The study has important applied implications for culturally competent social work practice with Latino adolescents and their families.
The history of research on childhood socialization in the context of the family is traced through the present century. The 2 major early theories (behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory) are described. These theories declined in mid-century, under the impact of failures to find empirical support. Simple reinforcement theory was seriously weakened by work on developmental psycholinguistics, attachment, modeling, and altruism. The field turned to more domain-specific mini-theories. The advent of microanalytic analyses of parent–child interaction focused attention on bidirectional processes. Views about the nature of identification and its role in socialization underwent profound change. The role of "parent as teacher" was reconceptualized (with strong influence from Vygotskian thinking). There has been increasing emphasis on the role of emotions and mutual cognitions in establishing the meaning of parent–child exchanges. The enormous asymmetry in power and competence between adults and children implies that the parent–child relationship must have a unique role in childhood socialization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attempted (a) to replicate or modify parent-child relationships found in 2 previous studies by D. Baumrind (see record
1967-05780-001) and D. Baumrind and A. E. Black (see record
1967-10271-001); and (b) to differentiate further among patterns of parental authority and measure their effects upon the behavior of preschool children. Data were based upon observational procedures, and were analyzed for boys and girls separately. Ss were 146 white preschool children and their families. Results include the following: (a) authoritative parental behavior was clearly associated with independent, purposive behavior for girls but only associated with such behavior for boys when the parents were nonconforming; (b) authoritative parental control was clearly associated with all indexes of social responsibility in boys compared to authoritarian and permissive parental control, and with high achievement in girls, but not with friendly, cooperative behavior; and (c) contrary to expectations, parental nonconformity was not associated with lack of social responsibility in either boys or girls. (45 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article summarizes how cultural research can inform mainstream psychology. It focuses on an organizing theme that has been explored in research in non-Western groups: the role of specific cultural practices in organizing human endeavors. This perspective has influenced the direction of mainstream research, encouraging the advancement of our ideas of the domain-specific nature of psychological processes, and their relation to sociocultural practices. The article provides a brief description of Vygotsky's theoretical approach, a perspective comfortable for many working within this tradition. Finally, a discussion of research on children in cultural groups in the United States suggests that the cultural perspective can be useful in advancing research on issues involving American children with different cultural backgrounds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite broad consensus about the effects of parenting practices on child development, many questions about the construct parenting style remain unanswered. Particularly pressing issues are the variability in the effects of parenting style as a function of the child's cultural background, the processes through which parenting style influences the child's development, and the operationalization of parenting style. Drawing on historical review, the authors present a model that integrates 2 traditions in socialization research, the study of specific parenting practices and the study of global parent characteristics. They propose that parenting style is best conceptualized as a context that moderates the influence of specific parenting practices on the child. It is argued that only by maintaining the distinction between parenting style and parenting practice can researchers address questions concerning socialization processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article introduces the special section on cross-cultural studies of development. The articles in this special section are powerful examples of how cross-cultural work can inform developmental theory. Each documents an "experiment in nature," and they are good experiments indeed. They cover topics from sleeping arrangements to language development and represent a process of growing sophistication in cross-cultural work. Rather than relying on unsystematic and unreliable but compelling narratives, these studies use systematic and sophisticated methodologies and theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article develops and tests a reformation of Baumrind's typology of authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting styles in the context of adolescent school performance. Using a large and diverse sample of San Francisco Bay Area high school students (N = 7,836), we found that both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were negatively associated with grades, and authoritative parenting was positively associated with grades. Parenting styles generally showed the expected relation to grades across gender, age, parental education, ethnic, and family structure categories. Authoritarian parenting tended to have a stronger association with grades than did the other 2 parenting styles, except among Hispanic males. The full typology best predicted grades among white students. Pure authoritative families (high on authoritative but not high on the other 2 indices) had the highest mean grades, while inconsistent families that combine authoritarian parenting with other parenting styles had the lowest grades.
Ten Indian families in Zinacantan, Mexico, were observed and the quality and quantity of interaction within each family recorded. These data are used to test six hypotheses, based on small group research and on the theory of self-other patterns. The hypotheses predict that, within family dyads, 1) affection elicits affection, 2) dominance elicits submission, and 3) high interaction rate is related to affection: and that, within each family, all individuals will exhibit, 4) the same degree of affection, 5) the same degree of dominance-submission, and 6) the same interaction rate. Hypotheses 1, 2, 4, and 5 are supported.
Using data from the National Survey of Families and Households, this paper reports a study of cultural variations in parenting of mothers and fathers in two-parent families. Caucasian, African-American, Hispanic, and Asian-American parents were assessed in terms of parenting attitudes, parenting behaviors, and parenting involvement. Multivariate analyses of covariance and analyses of covariance with socioeconomic status as the covariate indicated more similarities than differences between and among the four parenting groups. However, as a group, the ethnic parents indicated a greater general emphasis on their children exercising self-control and succeeding in school than did Caucasian parents.
Three aspects of the burgeoning literature on parental and nonparental child care pertaining to socioemotional development during the infancy, preschool, and school-age years are reviewed. The first section deals with the determinants of parenting and considers factors and processes that influence parental behavior and parent-child interaction—specifically, child characteristics, parent characteristics, marital relations, and social support. Second, correlational research linking parent-child interaction and child development is examined, with the focus first upon emotional support, parental responsiveness, and attachment security during the first years of life, then upon the cooperation and compliance during the toddler and preschool years, and finally upon the interrelation of relationships, especially linkages between parent-child and peer relationships. Finally, six waves of research on the effects of nonparental child care are outlined, along with directions for future research. A concluding section highlights points of convergence across these three areas of inquiry.
A model was developed regarding direct and indirect effects of socialization and spousal attitudes upon athe supportive parenting and harsh discipline of husbands and wives. The data used to test the model were collected as part of the first two waves of the Iowa Youth and Families Project, a longitudinal study of 451 two-parent families living in the midwest. As hypothesized, quality of parenting received as a child, satisfaction with the parent-child relationship, education, and various parenting beliefs predicted the parenting practices of both mothers and fathers. Emotional well-being influenced parenting indirectly through its impact upon satisfaction with the parent-child relationship. Also, as expected, wives' parenting beliefs and degree of satisfaction with the child influenced the quality of parenting of their husbands, whereas the reverse was not the case.
This study examines the relationship between two measures of economic stress—welfare status and perceived financial stress—and children's emotional and behavioral problems. Longitudinal data from the National Survey of Children are used to test two hypotheses. The first hypothesis predicts that economic stress will adversely affect children's emotional and behavioral problems. Levels of depressive symptoms, impulsive behavior, and antisocial behavior are found to be higher among children who experienced either form of economic stress at least once between 1976 and 1981 compared to those who were unaffected by economic stress. The second hypothesis predicts that the presence of economic stress at both data collection points will have a more adverse impact than economic stress experienced at only one time point. Results provide only limited support for the persistence hypothesis. Research is needed to identify the specific processes by which economic stress affects children's well-being.
The concurrent validity of the Parenting Inventory was examined using the Developmental Questionnaire, an instrument developed for this study. The potential effect of social desirability on scores on the inventory also was studied. The sample included 42 mothers whose children were between 1 and 4 years of age. Scores on the inventory's Expectations subscale were significantly correlated.86 with those on the developmental questionnaire, an independent measure of parental expectations. Parents' responses on a measure of social desirability were not related to their subscale scotes on the Farenting Inventory
This research focused on the role of the ethnic family background and ethnic socialization in the social cognitive development of ethnic identity in Mexican-American children. Aspects of a theoretical model of the socialization of ethnic identity were tested in forty-five 6- to 10-year-old children and their mothers. Individually administered scales assessed parental generation of migration; parental education; mothers' cultural orientation; mothers' teaching about Mexican culture, ethnic pride, and discrimination; Mexican objects in the home; and children's ethnic identity. As predicted, the socialization indices functioned as a mediator of the influence of ethnic family background on their children's ethnic identity.
The correspondence between degree of acculturation and values was studied in a sample of first generation Mexican Americans, 42 identified as highly acculturated and 42 as low acculturated, by administration of the Rokeach Value Survey in either English or Spanish. The obtained protocols were compared with national norms provided by Rokeach, and with a local group of 62 Anglos. The results show considerable variability across groups for specific values, minimal sex differences, but a greater correspondence of values between high acculturation and comparison groups than between low acculturation and comparison groups. A discriminant function analysis indicated that six of seven factors distinguish high from low acculturation subjects with a hit rate of 78%. The results are discussed in relation to acculturation and assimilation, and the limitations of a cross-cultural cross-sectional approach.
The study examined (a) whether differences exist between Chicano and Anglo-American families in the strategies that mothers use to teach their own children, and (b) whether such differences, if they exist, are likely to persist or disappear as a result of effective social change toward increased educational and occupational equality in the society where the 2 groups coexist. 83 Chicano and Anglo-American mothers were observed in their homes teaching cognitive-perceptual tasks to their own 5-year-old children. Significant differences in maternal teaching strategies were found between the 2 cultural groups. Results also showed that these differences appear to be the result of differences in the average level of formal education attained by the mothers in the 2 cultural populations. These results suggest that the observed differences in maternal teaching strategies may disappear as women in the 2 cultural groups attain similar levels of formal education.
A selective literature review covering the period of 1980 until early 1990 suggests certain changes within the knowledge base about Hispanic families in the continental United States. While the long-standing interest in cultural patterning of gender roles and family process continues, a "social adaptation" approach is evident in the demographic and migration research literature. The focus of this approach is on formative effects of environment on family structure, and the role played by family networks in facilitating international immigration and socioeconomic incorporation. The research of the 1980s also underscores gender role flexibility, which has accompanied the movement of women into the labor force, as well as effects of acculturation in multigenerational Hispanic populations. Despite an increase in empirical research, there remains much conjecture about family socialization patterns and differences in attitudes and values across cultures. The available evidence favors an interpretation that Hispanic families are increasingly vulnerable to marital disruption, but that familism—defined as either face-to-face interaction or supporting behaviors—remains a more typical feature of Hispanic families than of non-Hispanic white families. It is also evident that different Hispanic ethnic groups have had dissimilar experiences in family viability, and comparative research is needed to clarify contributory factors.
This article provides a brief review of empirical studies that have addressed the role of acculturation across a variety of psychosocial variables (ie., family socialization, social-support networks, alcoholism, and psychosocial adjustment). Special attention is given to two methodological weaknesses inherent across studies: the lack of a satisfactory scale to assess the complex construct of acculturation and the excessive reliance on self-reports for information perceived as "personal" to Hispanics. Taking such weaknesses into consideration, recommendations to improve future research are presented.
Parents differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children, and several studies by Kohn and others have demonstrated that these differences in values are related to social class. However, there is relatively little in the literature regarding the extent to which parental values are associated with parenting practices. In this study, data on 65 mother-infant dyads are used to test a hypothesis, proposed by Kohn, regarding the relation between values and parenting behavior. In addition, an extension of Kohn's conceptual model is proposed. Support was found for Kohn's hypothesis and for the extension of Kohn's model.
The Parenting Inventory: Young Children (PI) is a rating scale that measures the developmental expectations and behaviors of parents of children who are between the ages of 1 yr to 4 yrs 11 mo. Using a representative urban sample of 1,056 mothers, all 3 subscales of the PI (especially the Expectations subscale) discriminated successfully between parents with children of different ages and had substantial item-construct correlations (content validity). The PI was not strongly related to the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory, a measure of parenting attitudes (discriminant validity). Reasons for this latter finding are discussed. Potential uses of the PI for practitioners working with parents in the schools are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined sociocultural values and perceptions of attachment behavior (ATB) among 51 middle- and lower-class Anglo-American and lower-class Puerto Rican mothers. Ss offered closed and open-ended assessments of 3 hypothetical 18-mo-old toddlers portrayed as displaying Group A (avoidant), B (secure), or C (resistant patterns of ATB). Anglo Ss placed more emphasis on self-confidence, independence, and the ability to function autonomously. In contrast, Puerto Rican Ss focused more on obedience, the capacity for relatedness, and the maintenance of proper demeanor. In addition, Anglo Ss rated the Group C infant as significantly less desirable than did the Puerto Rican Ss. Findings suggest that mothers' cultural meaning systems affect their vulnerability to attributional bias in judging toddler behavior, their descriptions and assessments of ATB, and their values regarding childhood socialization. These differences emerge beyond differences in socioeconomic status (SES). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Because of their usefulness in a wide variety of research, socioeconomic scores have been revised several times to incorporate changes in the relevant components of the occupational structure and to conform with the changing census occupational classification schemes. The major purpose of this paper is to provide socioeconomic scores for the 1980 census occupational classification scheme. First, however, we review earlier versions of the socioeconomic index (SEI), summarize the relevant disparities between the 1970 and 1980 census occupational classificatory schemes, and then explain in detail the procedures used to reconcile the SEI with 1980 occupational codes. We also show that, although the 1980 occupational classificatory scheme differs radically from the 1970 occupational scheme, the socioconomic scores for 1980 occupational data replicate features found in 1970 data.
The purpose of this article was to specify the relation between parenting stress and the early behavioral organization of 2-year-olds. Twenty-seven families provided assessments of parental stress and child behavior problems. In addition, observations of toddler pretend play and autonomy development were conducted. Mothers who reported higher level of stress within areas of life related to parental adjustment (e.g., relationship with spouse, social isolation, health) had toddlers who exhibited more externalizing and total behavior problems. In addition, mothers who reported higher levels of stress in relation to their toddler (e.g., perceptions of reinforcement from child) were more likely to have toddlers who exhibited behavior problems, less pretend play, and less usage of self-assertion during home observations. Finally, fathers who reported higher levels of stress in relation to their toddler also reported more behavioral problems.
Recently there has been concern over the need for developmental research within ethnic minority populations and interest in family processes within, and variability across, ethnic groups. Unfortunately, most of the research using standard scales of family processes has sampled middle-class Anglo-Americans, and the potential absence of cross-ethnic measurement equivalence threatens the validity of the research using these scales with ethnic minority populations. This study reports confirmatory factor analyses and construct validity coefficients for several parenting and family interaction scales among Anglo-American and Hispanic 8-14-year-old children and mothers. The findings indicate that the Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (except the hostile control subscale), the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (open communication subscale only), and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales II appear to have sufficient cross-ethnic equivalence for English-speaking Hispanic samples. Further, the Family Routines Inventory and the problem communication subscale could benefit from additional scale development.
Designed a study to develop an instrument, the Parenting Inventory: Young Children (PI), to assess the behaviors and developmental
expectations of parents who have a child between 1 and 4 years of age. Item development for the PI occurred within a developmental-environmental
theoretical framework and was based on literature reviews and clinical experience. Experts working with parents and/or children
and parents of young children established the content validity of the items. The PI was tested with a sample of 1,140 mothers.
This sample was representative of the population from which it was drawn, a large urban area, in terms of the sample children's
sex and ethnicity. A diverse range of socioeconomic levels were included. The resulting 100-item PI was found to reliably
measure three aspects of parenting: Expectations, Discipline, and Nurturing. These factors demonstrated good internal consistency
and test-retest reliability. Future research needs relative to the continued development of the PI are addressed.
Disciplinary attitudes and practices of low-income black mothers were examined. Mothers were interviewed about their parenting attitudes and control practices, and their responses were coded in terms of the degree to which they took a parent-versus a child-oriented approach to discipline. Mothers in the sample varied widely in their attitudes toward physical punishment, and mothers who used power-assertive techniques were as likely to take the child's perspective and give input into the socialization process as those who did not. Factors associated with maternal disciplinary styles included: maternal education, father absence, maternal age, and self-reported religious beliefs. Findings are discussed in terms of the variability in disciplinary practices in this population, as well as the factors contributing to these individual differences.
The over-time relation between 3 aspects of authoritative parenting--acceptance, psychological autonomy, and behavioral control--and school achievement was examined in a sample of 120 10-16-year-olds in order to test the hypothesis that authoritative parenting facilitates, rather than simply accompanies, school success. In addition, the mediating role of youngsters' psychosocial maturity was studied. Results indicate that (1) authoritative parenting facilitates adolescents' academic success, (2) each component of authoritativeness studied makes an independent contribution to achievement, and (3) the positive impact of authoritative parenting on achievement is mediated at least in part through the effects of authoritativeness on the development of a healthy sense of autonomy and, more specifically, a healthy psychological orientation toward work. Adolescents who describe their parents as treating them warmly, democratically, and firmly are more likely than their peers to develop positive attitudes toward, and beliefs about, their achievement, and as a consequence, they are more likely to do better in school.
This study compares differences between mothers and fathers in reporting behavior problems in 3-year-olds making up a total population sample of an island community. Separate and independent interviews were conducted according to a standard format with the two parents. Findings support the underreporting of problems by fathers as demonstrated by a lower prevalence figure, less frequent reporting of several individual behavioral symptoms, and an absence of association between familial factors shown to correlate significantly with behavioral problems based on maternal reports. Some exploratory findings on the protective role of fathers and the similarity of working mothers and fathers in reporting young children's behavior problems are also discussed.
The prevalence of behavior problems in three-year-old children in a rural American community was determined from the reports of mothers. A questionnaire based on a "symptom loading" approach to screening was used. This method was previously used in an epidemiological study of behavior problems in 3-year-olds in London. The present study estimated the prevalence of behavior problems to be slightly less compared with the best estimate in the London study. As in the London study, social class and sex differences were not found to relate significantly to the presence of behavior problems. There were also similarities in the prevalence of individual behavioral items on the questionnaire. A simple parent questionnaire worked as well in a population with different demographic features as it did in the population for which it was originally designed.
Parenting practices of a representative sample of 1,056 urban mothers with very young children were studied via the Parent Behavior Checklist (Fox, 1994) and the Behavior Screening Questionnaire (Richman & Graham, 1971). Potential determinants of parenting practices were also addressed, including maternal age, marital status, education level, number of children living at home, and family socioeconomic status. Less positive parenting practices concerning nuturing and discipline were found among mothers who were younger, had more than one child living at home, were single, had a lower income level, and had lower educational attainment. These mothers also tended to perceive their children as demonstrating more difficult behavior problems. However, the negative influence of some determinants of parenting practices, such as low income, was found to be moderated by the presence of other determinants, such as more education. The present results provide evidence that multiple determinants influence parenting practices among parents of young children.