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Ways of Coping with Psychological Distress After Trauma
Abstract
One hundred and eight survivors of trauma attending a stress clinic were assessed on measures of coping, personality, control expectancies and psychological distress. The psychometric characteristics of these questionnaires are discussed, and the relationships between them investigated using correlational and regression techniques. Although cross-sectional studies can only be indicative, it would appear that most coping strategies, and particularly escape-avoidance, are consistently associated with high psychological distress, with the exception of positive reappraisal and distancing, which are the only strategies associated with better psychological outcome. It may be that deeply distressed survivors cannot find effective ways of obtaining relief, and therefore report many ways of trying to cope.
... An example of this is provided by Reidy, Caplan and Shawaryn, (1991), who found that, amongst spinal cord injured patients, depression was strongly positively correlated with the use of escape-avoidance coping strategies, whereas positive mood states were associated with distancing , seeking social support, positive reappraisal and planful problem solving. A further example is provided by Charlton and Thompson (1996), who, when investigating a group of survivors of traumatic life -events attending a stress clinic, demonstrated that the coping strategy most associated with psychological distress was escapeavoidance. On the other hand, those people who were predominantly employing the techniques of positive reappraisal and distancing were more likely to have a good psychological outcome. ...
... These were Escape -Avoidance and Seeking Social Support. This finding echoes the suggestion that a distinction is often found between those who use problem -focused' means of coping and those who use 'emotion -focused' strategies (Charlton and Thompson, 1996) It is not a measure that assesses how well a person copes, but research has indicated that some ways of coping are more useful than others. Escape -Avoidance has been described as a somewhat maladaptive strategy that tends to be adopted by people when they believe a situation is not amenable to change (Carver, et al., 1989). ...
The effects of developing epilepsy in childhood upon later psychological well-being were investigated by comparing a group of 16 people who developed epilepsy as children with a group of 16 people who developed the condition in adulthood. It was hypothesised that adolescence is a crucial period in psychological development and that the effects of developing epilepsy on body image, self-concept and social relationships during adolescence will have long term negative effects on psychological well-being. Self-esteem and self-perception were assessed using repertory grids, an assessment technique developed from personal construct theory. On measures of depression, the adult onset group demonstrated significantly higher scores than the childhood onset group. On measures of self-esteem and self-perception, both groups demonstrated a positive construction of self but some differences between the two groups were observed that appeared to reflect the view that other people construed people with epilepsy negatively. Further differences were observed between men and women, employed and unemployed people and those people who were involved in a significant intimate relationship and those who were not. Overall results were encouraging, indicating that people with epilepsy can demonstrate high levels of psychological well-being, regardless of the age of onset of the condition. The potential clinical and research implications of the results were considered, as well as the limitations of the study.
... However, it is the interaction between stress and coping that is probably most important, and was examined in a more detailed Japanese study by Nakumara and Kanematsu 103 . They found that more stressed adolescents were more likely to cope by using more ventilation, eating, avoiding home and praying. ...
... Severe hypoglycaemia ®ts the diagnostic criteria for a traumatic event as it involves a threat to life in association with feelings of helplessness 102 . Following a traumatic event, strong and often distorted memories are stored which can be very emotionally distressing when recalled 103 . In order to manage this distress, individuals may avoid recalling the event and also avoid potentially similar situations. ...
... The way a person copes with stress can and does influence his or her subsequent emotional states. Emotion-focused and problemfocused coping strategies both affect emotions, but use of emotionfocused coping strategies seems to have a more negative effect on emotions in certain situations (Charlton and Thompson 1996;Folkman and Lazarus 1988a). Aldwin and Revenson (1987) found that participants with poorer mental health and those who were under greater stress depended primarily on emotion-coping strategies such as escape-avoidance to cope. ...
... Such strategies included, for example, "going along with fate," "going on as if nothing had happened," and "trying to forget the whole thing." That using such strategies tends to increase grief confirms what has been shown previously by Aldwin and Revenson (1987), Charlton and Thompson (1996), and others. Ways to help a bereaved mother accept this reality might include encouraging her to hold, name, and baptize her dead newborn and to keep significant mementos associated with her newborn. ...
Existing interventions to assist mothers following newborn death are implemented once manifestations of distress are present. Preventive measures could be instituted if predictors of grief were defined. The objective of this study was to investigate the value of perceived support, relationship satisfaction, emotion-focused coping, problem-focused coping, and mixed coping in predicting maternal grief in the year after a newborn death. The sample consisted of seventy-five bereaved mothers. Measures used included the Perinatal Grief Scale, Short Version; the Ways of Coping Scale, Revised; the Personal Resources Questionnaire 85, Part II; the Relationship Satisfaction Questionnaire; and the Demographic Data Sheet. Perceived support and emotion-focused coping accounted for a significant proportion of variance in total grief (43 percent), demonstrating that these two variables together can predict maternal grief. Programs to help bereaved mothers mobilize perceived support and use different ways of coping could be beneficial following the death of a newborn.
... Les stratégies d'ajustement mettant l'accent sur la résolution de problèmes ainsi que la recherche de soutien social sont, pour leur part, associées à la présence de l'état de stress aigu c'est-à-dire une durée des symptômes inférieure à trois mois (Spurrell et McFarlane, 1993). Bon nombre d'auteurs associent les stratégies de recherche de soutien social, de réévaluation positive et de résolution de problèmes à moins de symptômes de somatisation, de dépression et à plus d'affects positifs (Bjorck et al, 2001 ;Charlton et Thompson, 1996 ;Morgan et al, 1995 ;North et al, 1989 ;Smith, 1996). ...
... ,05 -,05 -,03 i q(2) 1 8^') ,00 -,06 (3) ,09 (2) 04O -14^) de problèmes Discussion Les résultats de la présente étude vont dans le même sens que ceux d'autres chercheurs qui ont démontré que les femmes obtiennent plus d'aide que les victimes de sexe masculin lors de leur évacuation ou pour effectuer les travaux de nettoyage ou de reconstruction de leur domicile (Bolin et Bolton, 1986 ;Drabek et Key, 1976 ;Kaniasty et Norris, 1995a, 1995bKaniasty et al, 1990 ;Norris et Kaniasty, 1996) (2) probablement considérées trop lourdes pour une femme aux prises avec des responsabilités familiales. Les résultats de la présente recherche confirment aussi les informations recueillies auprès de victimes d' événements traumatisants : les femmes et les hommes exposés à un même type d'événement stressant utiliseraient généralement les mêmes types de stratégies d'ajustement et évalueraient que les répercussions de cet événement sur leur vie sont de même amplitude (Charlton et Thompson, 1996 ;Folkman et Lazarus, 1988 ;Hamilton et Fagot, 1988 ;Holahan et Moos, 1985 ;Ptacek et al, 1992 ;Rosario et al, 1988). Toutefois, l'absence de différence significative entre les hommes et les femmes en ce qui concerne leur santé psychologique post-désastre va à l' encontre de plusieurs études dans lesquelles il a été démontré que le sexe est une variable personnelle liée à la détresse émotionnelle post-désastre (Freedy et al, 1994), les femmes obtenant généralement des scores plus élevés aux différentes échelles de détresse psychologique et de dépression (Canino et al, 1990 ;Green et al, 1990 ;Kaltreider et al, 1992) ou plus de symptômes aigus et chroniques de stress post-traumatique que les hommes (Breslau et Davis, 1992 ;Steinglass et Gerrity, 1990). ...
Social support, coping and psychological health after a flood
Two years after serious flooding, a study was conducted involving 177 disaster victims. This article presents the results of analyses aiming to identify the principal factors associated with post-disaster psychological problems by examining mediating or moderating influences of social support and adjustment strategies in the stressor-health link. The results show, within the variables studied, that there are very few significant differences between men and women; however, women did receive more help for evacuation, cleaning, and rebuilding. The results also demonstrate that exposure to the stressor is the greatest contributor in explaining manifestations of post-traumatic stress, while variables like social support and adjustment strategies are more likely to explain the existence of depression symptoms and psychological stress. The analyses also allow conclusions to be drawn about mediating and moderating effects of adjustment strategies in the stressor-health link. In other respects, the observed effects involving social support variables are direct.
... Previous studies show that traumatic events and other stressful experiences may compromise children and adolescents' constructive, active and affiliating coping responses, and lead to a more avoidant or disengaging coping style (Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Montgomery, 2011). In one study, Kurdish children, about 12 years old, who had a history of family trauma, were less inclined to share emotions with others or to find ways of giving meaning or alternative solutions for their painful feelings (Punamäki, Muhammed, & Abdulrahman, 2004). ...
... While engagement coping has mostly been associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety (Tobin et al., 1989;Wadsworth & Compas, 2002), disengagement coping has been associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety and conduct problems (Auerbach, Abela, Zhu, & Yao, 2010;, and lower life satisfaction (Utsey, Ponterotto, Reynolds, & Cancelli, 2000). Furthermore, studies of individuals who have experienced trauma find that an increased tendency to use avoidant coping strategies is negatively associated with their wellbeing many years after (Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Matheson, Jorden, & Anisman, 2008). ...
This study examined daily hassles and coping dispositions in relation to life satisfaction and depressive symptoms among resettled unaccompanied refugees and other youth in the resettlement country. A total of 223 unaccompanied refugees (M = 20 years) was compared with 609 ethnic minority and 427 majority youth in Norway. Unaccompanied refugees reported higher levels of depressive symptoms, daily hassles and engagement and disengagement coping than the other two groups, but equal level of life satisfaction. Daily hassles and disengagement coping predicted lower life satisfaction and more depressive symptoms across groups. Engagement coping predicted higher life satisfaction in all groups, but not less depressive symptoms among unaccompanied refugees. Multiple mediation analyses showed that daily hassles and coping dispositions partly explained group differences in depressive symptoms, and that at the same level of hassles and disengagement coping, unaccompanied refugees would be significantly more satisfied with life. Findings suggest that interventions to promote more effective coping strategies to handle the many hassles in their daily lives may improve unaccompanied refugees’ psychological adjustment and chances to succeed in the resettlement country.
... Williams (1983) was concerned that debriefings could be confronting emotional denial prematurely and could cause to solidify that denial. Other research tends to agree that CISD occurs too early in the adaptation process to be helpful, and in fact, may be harmful (Bisson, Jenkins, Alexander, & Bannister, 1997; Charlton & Thompson, 1996; Gist, Lubin, & Redburn, 1998; Gump & Kulik, 1997). Grollmes (1992) was concerned that the CISD model calls for using minimally trained peer responders that could do more harm than good. ...
... Others have brought up the issue that the CISD process is done too early (24 to 72 hours following the traumatic event) in the healing process, and may be causing harm that otherwise would not occur (Bisson, Jenkins, Alexander, & Bannister, 1997; Charlton & Thompson, 1996; Gist, Lubin, & Redburn, 1998; Gump & Kulik, 1997; Violanti, 2001; Williams, 1983). I tend to agree that the time period needs to be evaluated and possibly expanded. ...
... Zeidner and Hammer, 1992;BenZur, 1993, 1994) and a predictor to receiving treat- ment for post-traumatic stress disorder ( Blake et al., 1991). In particular, escape-avoidance coping (one type of emotion-focused coping) was associated with severe post-traumatic distress (Charlton and Thompson, 1996). On the other hand, problem-focused coping seemed to moderate the detrimental effects of emo- tion-focused coping on mental health (Solomon et al., 1991). ...
... Previous research suggests such a link (e.g. Charlton and Thompson, 1996). On the whole, accepting responsibility as a way of coping was not associated with distress across the groups. ...
Debate persists about whether people of different ages react similarly to traumatic events, and whether elderly people are more vulnerable to such events, or better able to cope with them. The first aim of this paper was to shed light on this debate by comparing the post-traumatic responses of young, middle-aged and elderly community residents who had been exposed to technological disasters. The second aim was to differentiate between these three age groups in terms of coping strategies.
One hundred and forty-eight community residents, who were exposed to two technological disasters, participated in the study. They were assessed using the Impact of Event Scale (IES), the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) and the Ways of Coping Checklists (WOC).
The results showed that in terms of IES, GHQ and WOC scores, no significant differences were found across the three age groups. However, main effects were found according to type of disaster and intensity of exposure to disaster. One significant interaction effect was that residents exposed to the aircraft crash used significantly more confrontive coping than those exposed to the train collision, in all three age groups. Correlation coefficients results showed that for all three age groups, on the whole, the more they experienced intrusive thoughts and avoidance behaviour, the more they experienced general health problems.
Following exposure to technological disasters, young, middle-aged and elderly community residents could display similar post-traumatic responses and employ similar coping strategies, which contradicts the vulnerability hypothesis and the inoculation hypothesis.
... Such pathological avoidance is a key feature of anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and addiction disorders [1]. Differences in how individuals learn and maintain avoidance behaviors may also be an important factor in determining which individuals exposed to trauma or to drugs of abuse go on to develop PTSD [2][3][4][5] or substance use disorders [6][7][8][9]. ...
Recently, there has been a renewed interest in avoidance behavior, and its applicability to clinical conditions such as anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and addiction. In a computer-based avoidance task for humans, participants control an on-screen spaceship, shoot at enemy targets (appetitive cue) to gain points, and learn to respond to an on-screen warning signal (WS) by entering safe “hiding” areas to escape/avoid an aversive event (point loss and on-screen explosion) paired with an on-screen aversive cue (bomb). Prior research on active avoidance in rodents suggests that avoidance learning is facilitated if the response also terminates the WS. Here, we adapted the computer-based task to investigate this idea in healthy humans. Two hundred and twenty-two young adults completed one of three conditions of the task: a non-contingent condition, where hiding caused omission/avoidance of the aversive event but did not terminate the WS; a fully-contingent condition, where hiding also caused omission/termination of all on-screen appetitive and aversive cues as well as terminating the WS; and a partially-contingent condition where hiding caused omission of the appetitive and aversive cues, but did not affect the WS. Both contingency manipulations decreased escape/avoidance behavior, as compared to the non-contingent condition where the WS and other cues are not affected by the avoidance behavior. This study has implications for the basic understanding of the mechanisms that affect avoidance behavior in humans.
... Positive reappraisal and acceptance coping predicted PSOM, but not distress, indicating that these types of coping may be more useful at increasing positive well-being. Prior studies have found mixed results on the efficacy of positive reappraisal and acceptance coping (Kraaij et al., 2002), with some studies reporting results consistent with our findings (e.g., Nowlan et al., 2016), while other studies reporting that acceptance and positive reappraisal were effective at reducing distress (Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Saxon et al., 2017) as well as increasing positive emotion (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). ...
Stress exposure often leads to poor mental health, but whether certain types of stressors predict differential levels of mental health symptoms and whether coping differentially moderates these associations remain untested. This study examined whether COVID-19 stressor types (financial-, activity-, and infection-related) differentially predicted subsequent mental health (general distress, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and positive states of mind [PSOM]) and whether different types of coping moderated these relationships. In April 2020, questionnaires assessing the impact of COVID-19 on daily life were administered to an adult sample across the United States (N = 1,546); 861 (55.7%) of whom completed questionnaires 1 month later. Nearly, all stressor types independently predicted each aspect of mental health. Behavioral disengagement moderated links between both activity- and infection-related stressors and mental health. Seeking emotional social support moderated links between infection-related stressors and both general distress and PSOM as well as activity-related stressors and general distress. Positive reappraisal moderated links between financial-related stressors and PSOM. Acceptance coping predicted better mental health but was not a significant moderator. Stressor types and coping strategies are important determinants of effects of COVID-19 on mental health; our findings suggest possible screening and intervention implications and directions for future research.
... Children with migration experience take time before they open up and they need more attention. They are less willing to help and may alienate themselves from the group or display excessive emotionality (Charlton and Thompson, 1996). ...
Migration puts children in a difficult situation – it takes away their stability and constancy of everyday events and plucks them from a safe environment. The purpose of the article is to present the main assumptions and innovative ideas related to the author’s Positive Early Childhood Education Curriculum, as well as indicating the forms of work with students with migration trauma experience. The applied method was the educational project description. The extraordinary nature of the Curriculum is exhibited in the relocation of metatheoretical assumptions – from pedagogy of “lack” to pedagogy of “growth”. Therefore, it is recommended that the child’s well-being should be nurtured (M. Seligman, A. Antonovsky) alongside the development of intercultural proximity and “soft competences”, which are of importance for students with trauma experiences. The Curriculum allows as well for acquiring teacher’s self-awareness. It has been indicated how to implement the Curriculum assumptions – positivity, optimality, balance, and prospectivity for students with various cultural and biographical backgrounds. Special attention is devoted to strengthening the resilience in students with migration experiences and to the directions of actions to enable them the emotional, socio-cultural, instrumental, material and procedural, systemic, environmental and preventive support.
... The absence of social support may result in an inability to form effective coping and adaptive behaviors. Researchers have already reported that escape-avoidance coping is associated with high psychological distress, while positive appraisal and distancing were associated with better psychological outcomes (Charlton & Thompson (1996). Similarly, Individuals with low level of EI preferred to use negative techniques such as denial and distraction, more than others coping strategies . ...
Individuals with Borderline Personality Disorder struggle with emotion regulation and difficulty in accurately understanding facial expressions of others. This difficulty in regulating emotions can manifest as inappropriate anger, impulsiveness, and frequent mood swings. These behaviors may push others away and make it challenging to maintain loving and lasting relationships. Surprisingly, very little research has been carried out to explore the inter-relationships and interactions of coping and emotional intelligence in patients with borderline personality disorder. Aim: To study coping and emotional intelligence in patients with borderline personality disorder. Material and Methods: Cross sectional hospital based study, fifty patients with borderline personality disorder diagnosed as per DSM-V were selected by purposive sampling. 50 healthy matched subjects constituted the control group. Assessment was done using General Health Questionnaire, Brief COPE Questionnaire and Indian Adaptation of Emotional Intelligence Scale. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize and describe the characteristics of the data, including measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (standard deviation, range). Inferential statistics were used to make inferences about the population based on the sample data, including hypothesis testing (t-tests) and correlation analysis. The results of the analysis were presented in tables to facilitate interpretation and communication of the findings. Results: Significant differences were seen in Coping scores and Emotional Intelligence scores between the patients with borderline personality disorder group and normal control group. The patients with borderline personality disorder groups scored significantly low on coping and emotional intelligence in comparison with control group. Further, relationship between coping and emotional intelligence was found to be positively correlated. Conclusion: These findings suggest an association between low coping, emotional intelligence and borderline personality disorder. Present findings have implications for planning better intervention and prevention in this vulnerable population.
... That is, less rumination GREEN, JOHNCO, AND WUTHRICH 2 about intrusive memories when they occur might relate to lower PTSD symptoms. In contrast, positive reappraisal (focus on the positive meaning of a negative event) has been found to be effective in reducing distress in adults with PTSD (Charlton & Thompson, 1996), and may be a particularly beneficial general emotion regulation skill for older adults (Nowlan et al., 2015). This adaptive emotion regulation skill may be particularly beneficial for older adults when faced with traumatic situations. ...
There is limited research investigating the mechanisms underlying the lower rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in older compared to younger adults. This study examined age differences in peritraumatic and posttraumatic reactions, and the use of two emotion regulation strategies (rumination and positive reappraisal) using a trauma film induction paradigm. Participants (45 older adults and 45 younger adults) watched a trauma film. Eye gaze, Galvanic Skin Response, peritraumatic distress, and emotion regulation were assessed during the film. Participants completed an intrusive memory diary over the next 7 days and follow-up measures of posttraumatic symptoms and emotion regulation. Findings showed no age differences in peritraumatic distress or use of rumination or positive reappraisal during film viewing. Older adults reported lower posttraumatic stress and distress from intrusive memories than younger adults at the 1-week follow-up, despite experiencing a comparable number of intrusions. Rumination was a unique predictor of intrusive and hyperarousal symptoms, after accounting for age. There were no age differences in the use of positive appraisal, and positive reappraisal was not associated with posttraumatic stress. Lower rates of late-life PTSD may relate to decreased use of maladaptive emotion regulation (i.e., rumination), rather than increased use of adaptive emotion regulation strategies (i.e., positive reappraisal).
... Rather than avoidance being simply a symptom of PTSD, avoidance or escape behaviors have also been identified as significant predictors of PTSD (Charlton and Thompson, 1996;Marmar, 1996;North et al., 1999;Chang et al., 2003;Gil and Caspi, 2006). Avoidance has also been put forth a factor that can be used to differentiate those individuals who would develop PTSD or anxiety disorders from those who would develop resilience following a traumatic event (North et al., 1999;Barlow, 2002;Karamustafalioglu et al., 2006;Marshall et al., 2006;O'Donnell et al., 2007). ...
Experiencing a trauma is necessary, but not sufficient, for the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in that most individuals who experience a trauma do not go on to develop PTSD. This suggests that identifiable vulnerabilities (i.e., diatheses) exist that increase the risk for the development of PTSD. One such factor is the personality temperament of behavioral inhibition (BI). Organisms that exhibit BI were studied in the context of avoidance learning and classical eyeblink conditioning. We present a body of evidence supporting a learning diathesis model in which behaviorally inhibited organisms exhibit enhanced acquisition and resistance to extinction in these tasks. Vulnerable individuals show learning-related enhancements when the learning situation involves some degree of uncertainty. We review the known brain circuitry involved in classical eyeblink conditioning in the context of the learning diathesis model. Finally, the data reviewed here demonstrate the value of studying vulnerability factors in humans and a rodent model using cerebellar-dependent learning tasks for understanding the acquisition and endurance of PTSD symptomatology.
... Avoidant tendencies may be particularly important in differentiating individuals likely to develop PTSD following exposure to a traumatic event from those who display resilience in the face of trauma. Avoidance or escape behaviors have been identified as a significant predictor of PTSD (Charlton and Thompson, 1996;Marmar, 1996;Chang et al., 2003;Gil and Caspi, 2006) as well as distinguishing between those at risk and not at risk for development of PTSD or anxiety disorders (North et al., 1999;Barlow, 2002;Karamustafalioglu et al., 2006;Marshall et al., 2006;O'Donnell et al., 2007). Specifically, avoidance only occurs in less than half of trauma-exposed individuals (Maes et al., 1998;Breslau et al., 1999), but individuals who report avoidance symptoms following a trauma have an increased likelihood of developing PTSD (North et al., 1999). ...
Although many individuals who experience a trauma go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the rate of PTSD following trauma is only about 15–24%. There must be some pre-existing conditions that impart increased vulnerability to some individuals and not others. Diathesis models of PTSD theorize that pre-existing vulnerabilities interact with traumatic experiences to produce psychopathology. Recent work has indicated that personality factors such as behavioral inhibition (BI), harm avoidance (HA), and distressed (Type D) personality are vulnerability factors for the development of PTSD and anxiety disorders. These personality temperaments produce enhanced acquisition or maintenance of associations, especially avoidance, which is a criterion symptom of PTSD. In this review, we highlight the evidence for a relationship between these personality types and enhanced avoidance and associative learning, which may increase risk for the development of PTSD. First, we provide the evidence confirming a relationship among BI, HA, distressed (Type D) personality, and PTSD. Second, we present recent findings that BI is associated with enhanced avoidance learning in both humans and animal models. Third, we will review evidence that BI is also associated with enhanced eyeblink conditioning in both humans and animal models. Overall, data from both humans and animals suggest that these personality traits promote enhanced avoidance and associative learning, as well as slowing of extinction in some training protocols, which all support the learning diathesis model. These findings of enhanced learning in vulnerable individuals can be used to develop objective behavioral measures to pre-identify individuals who are more at risk for development of PTSD following traumatic events, allowing for early (possibly preventative) intervention, as well as suggesting possible therapies for PTSD targeted on remediating avoidance or associative learning. Future work should explore the neural substrates of enhanced avoidance and associative learning for behaviorally inhibited individuals in both the animal model and human participants.
... 여러 학자들이 다양한 모델을 사용하여 스트레스 대처방 식 유형을 정의하고 구분하였는데 (Compas et al., 2001;Skinner et al., 2003), 대표적인 구분법으로는 일차적 통제 대처(Primary control coping)와 이차적 통제 대처(Secondary control coping), 관여적 대처(Engagement coping)와 비관여적 대처(Disengagement coping), 문제 중심적 대처(Problem-focused coping)와 정서 중심적 대 처(Emotion-focused coping)가 있다 (Compas et al., 2001 (Lazarus et al., 1984;Compas et al., 2001 (Zeidner et al., 1994;Ben-Zur, 2009 (Silver et al., 2002;Gil, 2005;Vázquez et al., 2008;Gilbar et al., 2010Gilbar et al., & 2012. Kemp et al.(1995) (Beck, 1978;Billings et al., 1984;Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987;Dekker et al., 1999;Piccinelli et al., 2000;Tamres et al., 2002;Lam et al., 2003 (Charlton et al., 1996;Weinstein et al., 2002;Dysvik et al., 2004). 국내에서는 Kim JH et al.(1985) (Lee JS, 2013). ...
... [23] One can assume that a longer duration of illness since diagnosis implies the patients having had more time to deal with the disease and to manage an extremely distressing life event. [26] On the other hand, this result underlines the importance of psycho-oncological support at an early time in disease, that is, at the time of first diagnosis. [20] In agreement with other studies, mainly younger patients suffered from psycho-oncological distress. ...
Despite an increasing number of promising treatment options, only a limited number of studies concerning melanoma patients’ psycho-oncological distress have been carried out. However, multiple screening tools are in use to assess the need for psycho-oncological support. This study aimed first to identify parameters in melanoma patients that are associated with a higher risk for being psycho-oncologically distressed and second to compare patients’ self-evaluation concerning the need for psycho-oncological support with the results of established screening tools.
We performed a cross-sectional study including 254 melanoma patients from the Center for Dermatooncology at the University of Tuebingen. The study was performed between June 2010 and February 2013. Several screening instruments were included: the Distress Thermometer (DT), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and the patients’ subjective evaluation concerning psycho-oncological support. Binary logistic regression was performed to identify factors that indicate the need for psycho-oncological support.
Patients’ subjective evaluation concerning the need for psycho-oncological support, female gender, and psychotherapeutic or psychiatric treatment at present or in the past had the highest impact on values above threshold in the DT. The odds ratio of patients’ self-evaluation (9.89) was even higher than somatic factors like female gender (1.85), duration of illness (0.99), or increasing age (0.97). Patients’ self-evaluation concerning the need for psycho-oncological support indicated a moderate correlation with the results of the screening tools included.
In addition to the results obtained by screening tools like the DT, we could demonstrate that patients’ self-evaluation is an important instrument to identify patients who need psycho-oncological support.
... Finally, avoidance coping is frequently reported in Western and non-Western trauma-exposed individuals (e.g., Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Kraaij & Garnefski, 2006;Schweitzer et al., 2007;Tankink, 2004), including in Afghanistan (e.g., Miller et al., 2009). Although avoidance coping is often considered a symptom rather than an adaptive coping style, others have also posited that avoidance coping is a natural and adaptive response to large-scale traumatic events in which most of the population has been trauma-exposed, such as in war and high-conflict areas (Herman, 1992;Kraaij & Garnefski, 2006). ...
The present study examined the relationship between war trauma and distress and the potential moderating role of emotion and social, avoidant, and religious coping among 81 participants seeking medical services at a primary care clinic in Kabul. Local Afghan researchers administered the Afghan Symptom Checklist, Afghan War Experiences Scale, a brief scale of other non-war-related traumatic experiences, two subscales of the COPE, an Avoidant Coping Scale, and a demographics questionnaire, and conducted a brief semistructured interview. Results revealed a significant contribution of war-related traumatic events (11%) to symptoms of distress and an additional contribution of nonwar-related trauma (7%) to distress (p’s ≤ .01). Emotion and social coping and avoidant coping were positively correlated with distress (r = .23, and .60, respectively) and did not moderate the relationship between war trauma and distress. Qualitative responses were also recorded regarding various coping strategies and shed light on specific ways in which participants dealt with trauma. Demographics revealed that women reported higher symptom levels than men (p
... Walaupun terdapat banyak perdebatan tentang konsep daya tindak, ramai juga pengkaji yang memberi fokus terhadap daya tindak dan kaitannya dengan kesihatan fizikal. Walaupun begitu, secara umumnya jika dilihat pada hari ini, daya tindak telah diterima sebagai salah satu alternatif perubatan yang penting dalam memberikan kesan kepada kesihatan psikologi (Charlton & Thompson, 1996). Namun begitu, Gans (1990) (dlm. ...
The purpose of this paper is to explore the types of coping strategies to overcome daily obstacles and depression which are practicing by secondary school students in Sabah. Specifically, this survey study is conducted to 1) compare the types of coping strategies and depression based on the gender and the educational level of students, 2) the relationship between the types of coping strategies and depression levels. A total of 2746 students ranging from 13 to 19 years old from 18 secondary schools in Sabah had been chosen as respondents. The Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS) (1993) is used to measure the coping strategies of students and the Beck Depression Index-II (BDI-II) (1996) is to measure the students' level of depression. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentage, mean and standard deviation) while the independent sample t-test and Pearson correlation were used to test the inferential statistics. The result indicated that there were differences in types of coping strategies between gender and educational level (i.e. lower secondary and upper secondary). Result also showed that there was a significant relationship between coping strategies with the students' level of depression. Hence, several implications and suggestions are highlighted in this paper.
... Little research has explored the role of safety behaviours in the context of PTSD, however, steps taken to feel safe by assault victims (e.g., sleeping with lights on, carrying a weapon) were associated with greater PTSD severity both in the short (i.e., 6 months post-assault) and long term (i.e., 9 months post-assault) (Dunmore, Clark, & Ehlers, 2001). Safety behaviours can also include complete avoidance of trauma reminders, and the role of avoiding trauma reminders in maintaining PTSD is well documented (Bryant & Harvey, 1995;Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Dunmore et al., 2001). In summary, there is consistent support for the hypothesized role of dysfunctional post-trauma coping strategies in maintaining PTSD. ...
... Though a support network is essential in preventing the development and maintenance of symptoms of PTSD, people often resist social involvement because of fear, shame, and distrust of others (Lipton, 1994;van der Kolk, 1987b). Some victims find that following a traumatic experience a period of respite from talking about the trauma is needed to regain a sense of equilibrium (Charlton & Thompson, 1996). At the same time discomfort with the traumatic experiences of others may weaken social support. ...
... Such a condition persisting over time may result in diagnoses of symptoms that appear to map against posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For example, negative personality traits such as neuroticism, susceptibility to guilt, shame, and fear of death have all been found to correlate with PTSD (Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Chung et al., 2005;Lee et al., 2001). Recent studies have pointed toward the role of negative narratives or the witness of local degradation of the environment as the source of unintended stressors that lead to denial and limit behavior change (Ojala, 2007) or produce an irreconcilable melancholy dubbed ''solastalgia'' (Albrecht et al., 2007). ...
Environmental work is emotionally laden because of the struggle on behalf of ethical positions and the daily experience of loss and frustration. Such ongoing stressful experiences may be understood better within a trauma-based framework that acknowledges their implications, similar to clinical diagnosis and treatment of acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. This paper reports on two studies of the emotional experience of environmentalists, conservationists, and environmental educators working with profound awareness of how current human behavior is degrading the environment, some would say beyond recovery. It explores the question of whether these environmentally aware workers may suffer from a subtype of acute stress disorder and posttraumatic sequelae. The results suggest that there is reason to believe this subtype exists and is mediated by cortical assessments of salience and urgency. This paper suggests results that are ominous for mental health professionals - that indicators of depression, anxiety, and enervation are significantly elevated in those arguably most needed to help society come to terms with the problems we face in a degrading biosphere. We conclude that mental health professionals are urgently needed to help those who are at risk of becoming debilitated by their knowledge of the consequences of human impact on the planet and recommend that these professionals work to develop a new language, context, and treatment for this subtype condition.
... This holds for exposure to combat (Hyer et al., 1994), earthquake (Lewin, Carr, & Webster, 1998), plane crash (Chung, Easthope, Chung, & Carter, 1999), bushfire (McFarlane, 1989), burn injury (Roca, Spence, & Munster, 1992), and traumatic war events experienced by parents (Mook et al., 1997). More specifically, neuroticism has been related to arousal symptoms (Charlton & Thompson, 1996;Ormel & Wohlfarth, 1991), and less to reexperiencing (McFarlane, 1992), or avoidance (Roca et al., 1992) symptoms. ...
Objective:
Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) do not process most information due to inattention and loss of the opportunity to save and retrieve information. Therefore, these children experience memory impairment. Although visual memory has been previously studied in children with ADHD, iconic memory in these children has been less evaluated. We aimed to study the possibility of iconic memory impairment in children with ADHD, and compare the results with that of children without ADHD.
Methods:
The experimental group of this study were 6-9 year-old children who referred to the Imam Hosein Clinic and were diagnosed as having ADHD by a psychiatrist during 2011-2012 (n = 30).The subjects were interviewed clinically by a psychologist; and in order to diagnose ADHD, their parents and teachers were asked to complete the child symptom inventory-4 (CSI-4). The comparison group were 6-9 year-old children without ADHD who studied in 1st and 2nd educational district of Yazd (n = 30). Subjects' iconic memory was assessed using an iconic memory task. Repeated measure ANOVA was used for data analysis.
Results:
Based on the iconic memory test, the mean score of ADHD children was significantly lower than that of children without ADHD (P < 0.001). Moreover, the performance of the experimental group differed significantly when the duration of the presentation differed from 50 ms to 100 ms as compared to the control group (P < 0.001). The number of correct answers increased in the experimental group as the duration of presentation increased. However, children with ADHD scored less than children without ADHD at 50 ms as well as 100 ms. The means of ADHD children increased as the duration of the presentation increased from 50 ms to 100 ms to 300 ms (P < 0.001).
Conclusion:
Visual memory is weaker in children with ADHD, and they have weaker performance than normal children in both visual and auditory symbols at presentation durations of 50 and 100 ms. The performance of ADHD children improves as the stimulation time increases.
La pandemia de Covid-19 modificó el entorno educativo, social y familiar de los estudiantes universitarios, situación que puede llegar a tener consecuencias negativas en su desarrollo y bienestar psicosocial, esto de acuerdo con las capacidades de afrontamiento y factores protectores de su entorno con los que cuenta para disminuir las emociones negativas que emanan del confinamiento. Cuatro elementos hacen pertinente este proyecto. Primero, el confinamiento producto del covid-19 ha trastocado la cotidianidad de las personas en general, y ha afectado su bienestar mental. Segundo, según la oms, la depresión y el suicidio son fenómenos particularmente importantes en la población de entre 15 y 19 años; el suicidio es la tercera causa de muerte para ese grupo de población y 79% de todos los suicidios ocurren en países de ingresos bajos y medios. Tercero, las afectaciones a la salud mental de estudiantes universitarios es muy generalizada y poco estudiada; en un estudio elaborado en universidades estadounidenses se encontró que un tercio de los estudiantes de nivel de licenciatura muestran síntomas como depresión, ansiedad e ideaciones suicidas. Cuarto, la posibilidad de explorar una institución como la uanl, que absorbe casi 50% de la demanda educativa del estado de Nuevo León (206,640 estudiantes), y es una de las tres universidades más grandes e importantes de México, representa sin duda una oportunidad para comparar, pero también para establecer comunalidades que pudiesen aparecer en otras instituciones del país.
Avoidance is a common feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as well as anxiety and depressive disorders. Avoidance can be expressed behaviorally as well as cognitively. Most personality assessments for avoidance involve self-report inventories which are susceptible to biased responding. The avatar task (Myers et al., 2016a) was developed as an objective measure of behavioral inhibition (BI) which is defined as a tendency for avoidance of unfamiliar people and situations. The avatar task has been demonstrated to screen avoidant behaviors related to BI, PTSD, as well as harm avoidance (HA) as measured by the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ). In the current work, the avatar task was tested with cognitive as well as behavioral avoidance as measured by the cognitive-behavioral avoidance scale (CBAS; Ottenbreit & Dobson, 2004). The CBAS includes four subscales which measure behavioral social (BS) avoidance, behavioral non-social (BN) avoidance, cognitive social (CS) avoidance, and cognitive non-social (CN) avoidance. It was hypothesized that avatar scores would be significantly positively related to behavioral, but not cognitive, avoidance. In addition, it was also hypothesized that performance on the avatar task would be more related to social than non-social behavioral avoidance. Participants completed the avatar task, the HA scale of the TPQ and the CBAS. Pearson’s product moment correlations revealed that avatar scores were significantly related to CBAS total scores as well as BS and BN scores, but not CS and CN scores. In addition, BS has a stronger relationship with avatar scores than BN avoidance which fits with the social aspects of the scenarios in the avatar task. A median split of the avatar scores produced a significant difference in scores on the behavioral but not the cognitive subscales. Overall, the current results supported the idea that the avatar task is measuring behavioral avoidance, specifically in social situations, rather than cognitive avoidance. Future work could adapt the avatar task to include scenarios similar to the cognitive items on the CBAS to create an objective measure of cognitive avoidance which may be relevant in measuring avoidance in depression and behavioral avoidance associated with PTSD as well as anxiety disorders.
Bispectral index (BIS®) monitor is an electroencephalographic analog that it is determined by computer and is used to monitor the level of hypnosis patients under sedation or anesthesia. It provides a score from 0 to 100, where 0 represents the absence of brain function level 100 and patient alert complete. The use of this device is described in three military casualties who undergoing regional anesthesia with sedation. From authors point of view, Bispectral monitoring's employ is advisable in casualties attended in deployed medical treatment facilities or in military hospital, because increases the level of the patient's security while performing anesthesiological procedures.
Psychological trauma is a subject of high scientific present, the amount of scientific literature developed in recent years by changes in diagnosis result of research. There is much debate about since the advent of the latest diagnostic manual of mental disorders of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). This article is to give an overview and current information about the trauma. What differences exist in the people who make a more fragile and vulnerable to traumas, while others are more resistant or antifrágiles. Heredity, personality or mental disorders previous type, will mark these differences. This is not the traumatic situation, but how each person lives, what will make the difference in fragility. Everyone once in your life are exposed to traumatic situations. Some of their work are exposed continuously to these situations, sometimes causing what is called a secondary traumatic stress, which affects the individual and the organization undermining the operation of the same, and associated with certain causes, a type staff (neuroticism, extraversion, humor, empathy) and others of the organization (Pride, leadership, team, role stress etc.). It is important to know these frailties for preventive treatment in people affected by a disaster, and professionals in particular in order to identify the most appropriate profile for a profession (military, police, firefighters, doctors ...).
Chronosystem SystemOrganizational Factors Affected by a CrisisTimeline for AssessmentAssessment ProceduresMethods for AssessmentSummary
Introduction: “Atalanta” Operation was authorized by European Union in 2008 in order to get maritime security in Aden Gulf and Somalia. Spain has deployed warships and Airforce contingent in Djibouti with their Medical Echelons. The objective is to analize medical assistance done in six Spanish warships deployed in Operation Area from 2009 to 2015. Material and method: Transversal, descriptive, retrospective study between 2009 and 2015 was carried out including all patients who were taken care in Spanish warships. Results: The total number of first cases was 3280, 49,7% in F-80 frigates. The majority of the patients were in “other illness” (1495 -45,5%-), in second place “other injuries” (1008 -31%-), dermatologist illness (367 -11,%), oral illness (183 -5,9%-), ophthalmologist illness (97 -2,9%-), first and second grad burn injury (51 -1,85%-), deshydratation (32 -0,9%-), gynecologist illness (17 -0,5%-), insolation (16 -0,4%) and toxic inhalation (4 -0,15%). 38 civilians and 51 probable pirates were attendance. Conclusions: The majority of the patients were in “other illness” (mainly otorhinolaryngology and catarrhal pathology). We did not find any illness by vectors. 0,6% crew members have been evacuated to higher medical echelon.
Bispectral Index monitoritation during sedation in regional anesthesia. Three military members experiences. SUMMARY: Bispectral index (BIS®) monitor is an electroencephalographic analog that it is determined by computer and is used to monitor the level of hypnosis patients under sedation or anesthesia. It provides a score from 0 to 100, where 0 represents the absence of brain function level 100 and patient alert complete. The use of this device is described in three military casualties who undergoing regional anesthesia with sedation. From authors point of view, Bispectral monitoring´s employ is advisable in casualties attended in deployed medical treatment facilities or in military hospital, because increases the level of the patient´s security while performing anesthesiological procedures.
Surgical Team onboard, experience from L-51 “Galicia” Landing Plataform Helicopter warship during “Atalanta Operation” from July to October 2015. SUMMARY: Introduction: Support medical capability in a maritime deployment would be according to naval forces, operation area, mission characteristics and type of damage. The objective is to describe personnel, material and drugs in the second naval echelon onboard in “Galicia” warship during “Atalanta Operation” from July to October 2015. Material and methods: Description about personnel, material and drugs. Results: Surgical Team onboard is composed by one general surgeon, one orthopedic surgeon, one anesthesiologist and critical care physician, one laboratory analyst, four nurses. This team helps to Role 1 (general physician, 1 dentist, 2 nurses and 2 medical assistances). The hospital zone in the warship has 1 triage room, 1 presurgical area, 2 operation rooms, 1 intensive care unit with 8 beds, 1 radiology area, 1 laboratory area, 1 sterilization area, 1 medical care room, 1 dental room, infectious area and 2 medicaments stores. Surgical team has material and medical devices. During the period of analysis 27 members were hospitalized, 2 surgical interventions and 8 anesthesia techniques were done. Conclusion: Medical mission can be accomplished with personnel and material onboard.
The contemporary concept of emotional intelligence (EI) as a critical set of management skills is traced through time to its current application for health care administration. EI is defined as proficiencies in intrapersonal and interpersonal skills in the areas of self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, social awareness, and social skills. The contributions of EI to effective management are supported by empirical research in the field. The importance of developing these skills in health care organizations is further clarified with examples familiar to health care administrators. Training suggestions and assessment resources are provided.
The physical and mental demands associated with firefighting and other emergency operations exceed those of virtually any other occupation. When you combine the inherent stresses of handling emergency incidents with the environmental dangers of extreme heat and humidity or extreme cold, you create conditions that can have an adverse impact on the safety and health of the individual emergency responder. When emergency responders become fatigued, their ability to operate safely is impaired. As a result, their reaction time is reduced and their ability to make critical decisions diminishes. This book examines the need for rehab operations at emergency scenes and defines the concept of emergency incident rehabilitation with a review of the historical pattern of firefighter injuries and deaths associated with the stresses of emergency operations.
Objective: Coping can be categorized into active-behavioral coping, active-cognitive coping, and avoidant coping. The psychometric properties of the Japanese version of the Method of Coping Scale supported the three coping categories. The present study reported on the validity and the utility of the Internet format of the Japanese version of the Method of Coping Scale. Methods: The Internet format and paper format of the Japanese version of the Method of Coping Scale were administered to female university students (N = 526). Three months later, participants also responded in a classroom setting to the Japanese version of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist which was measured as a variable of future psychological stress. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the internal structure of method of coping categories: active-behavioral coping, active-cognitive coping, and avoidant coping were replicated for the Internet format. Correlations between the means in the three coping categories and in the 17 items of the Method of Coping Scale obtained with the Internet format and those obtained with the paper format were high and statistically significant. Reliability estimates of internal consistencies of the three coping categories of the Internet format were acceptable. Avoidant coping predicted psychological stress, and active-cognitive coping negatively predicted psychological stress. Conclusions: The implications of the findings on the Internet format of the Method of Coping Scale for an individual-level predictor measure for assessment of psychological stress and its use in the development of more effective stress coping strategies are discussed.
Positive reappraisal is a meaning-based cognitive emotion regulation strategy of identifying positive meaning within negative experiences and is particularly relevant to older adults. There is currently no single accepted self-report measure. We conducted a systematic literature review of existing positive reappraisal self-report measures. Reliability and validity information were reported for all eight measures, with most internal consistency values exceeding .60. However, there were some concerns with factor structure and content validity. After careful review, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, COPE Inventory and Illness Cognition Questionnaire appear to be the most useful and robust measures of positive reappraisal generally, and are also suitable for older adult samples. A more consistent use of measures in the literature will further positive reappraisal research.
Pulmonary tuberculosis (pulmonary TB) is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis in Central Java, Indonesia remains high (74.52%). Smear-positive pulmonary TB cases in Wonogiri district in 2012 have increased (48.4%). Prevention activities is essential to break the chain of transmission of pulmonary TB by knowing the factors that influence it, especially in the sphere nearest the patient's family. The purpose of this study is to analyze the history of household contact with pulmonary TB incidence in Wonogiri district. It is observational analytic study with case-control study design. Sample cases were all patients with smear-positive pulmonary TB who had a history of contact in Wonogiri district. Control samples were all people with smear-negative pulmonary TB who had a history of contact in Wonogiri. The total sample were 136 respondents. Statistical analysis showed that the variables associated with the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis were prolonged contact (OR = 3.975, 95% CI = 1.887 to 8.375), working outside the home (OR = 2.496, 95% CI = 1.243 to 5.001), history of sharing a room (OR = 8.816, 95% CI = 3.767 to 20.681), the closeness of the family relationship status (OR = 2.908, 95% CI = 1.173 to 7.212), preventive behavior (OR = 26.5, 95% CI = 10.412 -67.449). It is important for Tuberculosis Control Programme manager in Wonogiri district to perform case detection rate from household contacts every month. For patients who have a history of TB contact need to improve health behaviors for the prevention of pulmonary TB.
This article reports the qualitative analysis on the coping mechanisms in families’ victims of economic extortive kidnapping. Eighteen families having one of their relatives in captivity and 54 who had their relative released 2 to 15 months prior to the study were interviewed. Each adult family member was evaluated for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) through the CAPS –DX. Coping mechanisms reported by families during the captivity of a family member and after the release are described in detail and those that promoted adaptation in terms of absence of PTSD in any family member were identified.
Background:
There are conflicting results on the role of neuroticism as a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The objectives of this study were to estimate the magnitude and direction of the association between neuroticism and PTSD, and to analyze the influence of different moderator variables on effect size.
Methods:
A systematic review and a meta-analysis were carried out. The search for studies was conducted in Medline, IME, PsycINFO, Trip Database, and Google Scholar, until October 2012. A hand search was also carried out and main researchers were contacted.
Inclusion criteria:
(a) empirical studies of the association between neuroticism and PTSD using validated scales or diagnostic criteria (DSM, ICD), (b) in participants exposed to a traumatic event and (c) written in English or Spanish. Two independent evaluators performed the selection and extracted the data following a previously developed protocol. The random-effects model was applied to obtain the mean effect size and to explore moderators.
Results:
Out of 96 potential articles, 34 fulfilled the inclusion criteria (9,941 participants). The mean effect size was r+ = 0.371 (95%CI: 0.327 and 0.414). Publication bias was discarded as a threat. A predictive model was elaborated with three variables (reporting of ethnicity, age, and type of sample).
Conclusion:
Neuroticism can be considered as a risk factor for PTSD in people who have been exposed to a traumatic event. These findings are relevant for developing preventive interventions and treatments.
Background: There are conflicting results on the role of neuroticism as a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The objectives of this study were to estimate the magnitude and direction of the association between neuroticism and PTSD, and to analyze the influence of different moderator variables on effect size. Methods: A systematic review and a meta-analysis were carried out. The search for studies was conducted in Medline, IME, PsycINFO, Trip Database, and Google Scholar, until October 2012. A hand search was also carried out and main researchers were contacted. Inclusion criteria: (a) empirical studies of the association between neuroticism and PTSD using validated scales or diagnostic criteria (DSM, ICD), (b) in participants exposed to a traumatic event and (c) written in English or Spanish. Two independent evaluators performed the selection and extracted the data following a previously developed protocol. The random-effects model was applied to obtain the mean effect size and to explore moderators. Results: Out of 96 potential articles, 34 fulfilled the inclusion criteria (9,941 participants). The mean effect size was r+ = 0.371 (95%CI: 0.327 and 0.414). Publication bias was discarded as a threat. A predictive model was elaborated with three variables (reporting of ethnicity, age, and type of sample). Conclusion: Neuroticism can be considered as a risk factor for PTSD in people who have been exposed to a traumatic event. These findings are relevant for developing preventive interventions and treatments.
For more than 20 years, the Ways of Coping Scale (WOCS) has been used extensively to measure coping. Yet beyond the original psychometric data, few studies have reexamined its properties utilizing the enormous body of research generated on the WOCS. Reliability has been assumed to be consistent as an attribute of the test. This study used reliability generalization to identify (a) the variability in reliability estimates for the WOCS scores across studies, (b) the typical score reliability for the WOCS, and (c) the salient features across studies that relate to the variability in reliability estimate scores for the WOCS. Typical reliability across subscale scores ranged from .60 to .75 with Positive Reappraisal showing the least variability and Self-Controlling showing the most. Factors related to this variability were age and format of administration.
To assess whether coping styles mediated the relation between inner representations and posttraumatic stress symptomatology, a community sample of self-defined trauma survivors (N = 95) completed the World Assumptions Scale, Ways of Coping Checklist - Revised, and Trauma Symptom Inventory. Regression analyses indicted that individuals with more positive inner representations reported experiencing less symptomatology and tended to use more active and less passive coping strategies. Furthermore, the relation between inner representations and the extent of symptomatology was mediated through the use of passive coping strategies, although the latter 2 variables were likely reciprocally related. The implications of these findings for the well-being of trauma survivors were discussed.
Based on the belief that it is behaviour which constitutes risk rather than procedures, the paper focuses on the awareness of behavioural aspects in risk management techniques and the consequences that arise out of this awareness. It questions the traditional thinking that risk management is predominantly a set of procedures in the control of risk. The paper also considers the part played by public policy in managing risk and changing behaviour. The paper concludes that it is behaviour, and not the set of procedures, which is the risky factor; therefore in risk management there is need to focus on developing human behaviour that is capable of being flexible in an event.
Psychological intervention has grown in little more than a decade from an occasional afterthought in disaster response systems to a thriving enterprise; with that growth, however, have come features that sometimes resemble cottage industries, social movements, or, in extreme cases, evangelical cults. The social history of this evolution is reviewed from the perspective of participant observers, and the issues and implications of recent research are considered in the context of integrated models of theory, research, and application.
This study examined terror-related stress and coping in a sample of Israeli adults exposed to continuous political violence. Data were gathered in the midst of the Al-Aqsa Intifada on a sample of 707 adult participants. Terror-related stress, personal resources, and cognitive appraisals were meaningfully related to coping behaviors and adaptive outcomes. Israeli adults favored problem-focused over emotion-focused coping strategies. The data were discussed and explicated in the context of transactional stress and coping research.
The aims of this paper were to (a) ascertain the extent of psychological distress and (b) identify the association between personality variables and psychological distress among individuals who had been exposed to an aircraft disaster in Coventry, U.K. Hundreds of people escaped death but were exposed to the impact of the disaster when a Boeing 737–2D6C 7T-VEE crashed into a woodland area on the edge of a large housing estate in Coventry, U.K. in 1994. Eighty-two residents were randomly chosen for interviews in which they were assessed using the Impact of Event Scale, the General Health Questionnaire, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-R Short Scale (EPQ-R). The results showed that the Coventry residents' scores reached similar levels of intrusion and avoidance compared with standardized samples and the Lockerbie samples. Fifty-two percent reached the GHQ case level score, which was again similar to the Lockerbie residents. The Coventry residents were significantly less extroverted and neurotic than standardized samples. Stepwise multiple regression showed that there were associations between intrusion and neuroticism and intrusion and extroversion, as well as between avoidance and neuroticism. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 55: 617–629, 1999.
The May 12 Wenchuan Earthquake, which occurred in southwestern China in 2008, was a source of severe psychological distress to adolescents. This study explored the developmental trajectory of posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) symptoms and the longitudinal relationships between neuroticism, avoidant coping, and PTSD symptoms measured at three time points: one year (T1), one-and-a-half years (T2) and two years (T3) after the earthquake. The participants included 636 adolescents who ranged from 13.6- to 16.4-year-old from several high schools located in the areas that were most severely affected by the earthquake. The results of structural equation modeling revealed bidirectional effects between Neuroticism, Avoidant Coping, and PTSD Symptoms. More severe PTSD Symptoms predicted higher levels of avoidant coping at both two time points after the earthquake (T1-T2 & T2-T3) but could only predict higher levels of neuroticism at second time point (T1-T2). Higher levels of neuroticism at T1 predicted more severe PTSD Symptoms at second time point (T1-T2), while higher levels of avoidant coping at T1 predicted more severe PTSD symptoms at third time point (T2-T3).
The current study aimed to predict the effects of counterfactuals, coping strategies, coping resources, and event variables on the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The sample comprised 176 Israelis who were physically injured in terror attacks. Of the sample, 96 (55%) were diagnosed with PTSD and 80 (45%) were not. The main findings indicated that upward counterfactuals play an important role in a diagnosis of PTSD, along with emotion-focused coping, social support, trauma perception, and time since event. Victims who used a high level of upward counterfactual thinking tended to use emotion-focused strategies, had less social support, perceived the trauma as acute, and experienced the event more recently. This may have an impact on a diagnosis of PTSD.
The present study examined four pathways through which locus of control may affect stress including—exposure, reactions, coping choice and coping effectiveness. Eighty-six participants employed in low-level service jobs completed diaries for 14 days reporting on interpersonal stress, coping and distress. Internals and externals did not differ in exposure to interpersonal conflict, but did differ in reactivity, with internals reporting more anger and health symptoms but less depression than externals. Problem solving coping and emotional social support were related to greater anger and physical health symptoms. Internals and externals chose different coping strategies which partially explained differences in reactivity.
Control profiles of three samples of male college students (49 football players, 70 tennis players, and 88 nonathletes) were determined by administering a battery of sphere-specific scales measuring perception of control. Athletes reported greater perception of control than nonathletes in all behavioral spheres. Football players were particularly high in interpersonal control, whereas tennis players rated highest in personal efficacy. Tennis players experienced higher personal efficacy when their sport was in season. Within each sport an athlete's success was related to his belief in Machiavellian tactics.
This study examined the relationships of problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping, on the one hand, and psychopathology profile (SCL-90 subscales) after participation in a war, on the other. The sample consisted of 139 Israeli soldiers who participated in the 1982 Lebanon War and were followed up 3 yr after their participation in combat. Statistical analyses revealed that a pervasive use of emotion-focused coping was generally found to be related with the presence of psychiatric symptoms. In addition, it was found that a high level of problem-focused coping moderated the detrimental effects of emotion-focused coping on mental health. Results were discussed in terms of Lazarus and Folkman's theory of stress and coping.
We compared the coping strategies of 39 short-sleepers and 33 longer-sleepers to the stresses associated with the October 17, 1989 San Francisco Bay Area earthquake using their responses to the eight scales of the Ways of Coping Questionnaire. Over-all, the short-sleepers scored significantly higher on this questionnaire and in general, the pattern of their responses was consistent with inferences that could be drawn from a 1972 paper by Hartmann, Baekeland, and Zwilling.
Forensic experts have focused more on the psychological profile of a serial killer rather than on the pronounced effects on the community at large. Coping with a stressful event is thought to influence emotional states. However, little empirical understanding of this process exists. The present study examined changes in psychological factors 9 days after the occurrence of serial killings in a college community. Multivariate analyses of variance conducted on the variables of stress, anxiety, physical symptoms, and depression revealed a significant difference between the group tested after the murders and a cross-sectional cohort group. Univariate analyses revealed that the study class was significantly more depressed compared with the cohort group. The study class was also significantly more depressed compared with their own responses 1 year before the killings. For both classes, depression was significantly correlated with certain coping styles, including escape-avoidance and accept responsibility. Results have implications for certain coping behaviors (i.e., avoidant behaviors), such as that leaving the community may have been maladaptive and perhaps diverted attention from the more necessary active problem-solving behaviors (e.g., increasing security) in addition to increasing depression.
The first aim of this study was to explore the diagnostic specificity of coping styles by comparing ways of coping in non-anxious major depressed, non-depressed agoraphobic, and both major depressed and agoraphobic (comorbid) in-patients. The second aim was to investigate whether a vulnerability model, a state model, or a combined vulnerability-state model of coping accounted best for the data. On admission and when discharged, 95 patients completed the Way of Coping Checklist and were evaluated on several symptom scales. Self-report symptom scales were completed at one-year follow-up as well. The 'purely' agoraphobic and the comorbid patients showed less seeking of social support and more wishful thinking than the major depressed patients. For the wishful thinking scale, these differences were related to differences in level of global psychopathology. Overall, the results for the seeking social support scale were consistent with a combined vulnerability-state model. The problem-focused coping and wishful thinking scores behaved mostly as state phenomena. The avoidance scores provided ambiguous evidence. In a subsample of 30 agoraphobic patients who received a combination of exposure and psychodynamic treatment, higher pre-treatment levels of seeking social support and lower pre-treatment levels of avoidance as coping both predicted a more favourable course of symptoms pertaining to fear of fear in the one-year follow-up period.