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Differences in the ability to process a visuo-spatial task are reflected in event-related slow cortical potentials of human subjects
Abstract
Recent positron emission tomography (PET) and electroencephalographic (EEG) studies suggest that higher ability in a cognitive task is associated with a more efficient neuronal processing of this task. However, the validity and generalizability of these studies is limited for several reasons. We investigated 20 male and 18 female human subjects with good vs. poor spatial ability performing a visuo-spatial task (cube test). Processing-related slow event-related potentials were recorded via 22 electrodes, evenly distributed over the scalp. Significant differences between good and poor performers were found in both sexes: poor subjects showed higher activity in the parietal region, and their topography was more extended into fronto-central regions. Since the amount and topography of brain activity may vary considerably depending on subjects' ability, we conclude that careful (experimental) control of task-specific ability of subjects is mandatory for cognitive neuroscience studies.
... We did, however, not find any evidence for an effect of visualization profile. This implies that number-space associations in tasks with implicit reference to numerical magnitude (or at least in tasks involving parity judgments) might not rely (or to a lesser extent) on visuospatial processing resources in the right parietal cortex and/or on object processing areas in the lateral occipital complex, shown to be associated with spatial visualization (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999) and object visualization (Motes, Malach, & Kozhevnikov, 2008) respectively. Parity SNAs might thus rather arise from categorical verbal-spatial coding mechanisms not involving these areas (Jager & Postma, 2003). ...
... In contrast to the parity SNAs, number-space associations in the magnitude classification task were significantly predicted only by visualization profile, thereby adding this variable to the list of cognitive factors accounting for the high individual variability of number-space associations. Following the aforementioned line of thought, magnitude SNAs might thus underlie the activation of right parietal and/or lateral occipital areas related to visualization abilities (Lamm et al., 1999;Motes et al., 2008). Especially the activation of parietal regions might play a role in the emergence of number-space associations in the magnitude classification task, considering that greater preferences for the spatial visualization style (i.e., greater reliance on parietal pathways) were associated with stronger magnitude SNAs. ...
Evidence for number-space associations in implicit and explicit magnitude processing tasks comes from the parity and magnitude SNARC effect respectively. Different spatial accounts were suggested to underlie these spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) with some inconsistencies in the literature. To determine whether the parity and magnitude SNAs arise from a single predominant account or task-dependent coding mechanisms, we adopted an individual differences approach to study their correlation and the extent of their association with arithmetic performance, spatial visualization ability and visualization profile. Additionally, we performed moderation analyses to determine whether the relation between these SNAs depended on individual differences in those cognitive factors. The parity and magnitude SNAs did not correlate and were differentially predicted by arithmetic performance and visualization profile respectively. These variables, however, also moderated the relation between the SNAs. While positive correlations were observed in object-visualizers with lower arithmetic performances, correlations were negative in spatial-visualizers with higher arithmetic performances. This suggests the predominance of a single account for both implicit and explicit SNAs in the two types of visualizers. However, the spatial nature of the account differs between object- and spatial-visualizers. No relation occurred in mixed-visualizers, indicating the activation of task-dependent coding mechanisms. Individual differences in arithmetic performance and visualization profile thus determined whether SNAs in implicit and explicit tasks co-varied and supposedly relied on similar or unrelated spatial coding mechanisms. This explains some inconsistencies in the literature regarding SNAs and highlights the usefulness of moderation analyses for understanding how the relation between different numerical concepts varies between individuals.
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al, 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, 1999; Vitouch et al., 1997) are consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al, 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, 1999;Vitouch et al., 1997) are consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
Little of 150 years of research in Cognitive Neurosciences, Human Factors, and the mathematics of Production Management have found their way into educational policy and certainly not into the classroom or in the production of educational materials in any meaningful or practical fashion. Whilst more mundane concepts of timing, sequencing, spatial organisation, and Gestalt principles of perception are well known and applied, the nature of Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) and the responsibility of the sender in that regard, as well as the maintenance of simplistic notions of developmental brain organization and hemisphericity for language rather than the neurophysiology of embodied language as an example, still inform pre-K-3 curriculum. The paper intends to overview the science of human physiologic efficiencies in engineering terms in an attempt to develop novel approaches and thinking to classroom-based practice and subsequently leadership and policy informed by current neuroscientific realities and by production management and optimization principles now applied to schools, and their consumers.
... All subjects were right-handed according to the Marian Annett handedness inventory (Annett, 1985). Ability-dependent differences in cortical activity during cognitive processing have been repeatedly reported , with poor performers showing increased cortical activity during task solving (Haier et al., 1988; Lamm et al., 1999). In order to exclude the confounding effects of such individual differences, potential participants were pretested using a standardized three-dimensional cube comparison test (3DC; Gittler, 1990). ...
... More frequently , P values are corrected for multiple comparisons (either using Bonferroni correction or the framework of random Gaussian fields, as implemented in the SPM software). We had strong hypotheses that there is task-related activity in several regions of the brain (with evidence coming both from previously published fMRI studies, previous SCP experiments— e.g., Lamm et al., 1999 —and the SCP data acquired in this study). In the case of such a priori hypotheses, Bonferroni correction for the whole image volume might have been, 5 s after task presentation (c), and before response execution (d). ...
A strong correspondence has been repeatedly observed between actually performed and mentally imagined object rotation. This suggests an overlap in the brain regions involved in these processes. Functional neuroimaging studies have consistently revealed parietal and occipital cortex activity during dynamic visuospatial imagery. However, results concerning the involvement of higher-order cortical motor areas have been less consistent. We investigated if and when premotor structures are active during processing of a three-dimensional cube comparison task that requires dynamic visuospatial imagery. In order to achieve a good temporal and spatial resolution, single-trial functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and scalp-recorded event-related slow cortical potentials (SCPs) were recorded from the same subjects in two separate measurement sessions. In order to reduce inter-subject variability in brain activity due to individual differences, only male subjects (n = 13) with high task-specific ability were investigated. Functional MRI revealed consistent bilateral activity in the occipital (Brodmann area BA18/19) and parietal cortex (BA7), in lateral and medial premotor areas (BA6), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA9), and the anterior insular cortex. The time-course of SCPs indicated that task-related activity in these areas commenced approximately 550–650 ms after stimulus presentation and persisted until task completion. These results provide strong and consistent evidence that the human premotor cortex is involved in dynamic visuospatial imagery.
... Recently, neuroimaging research has suggested that object and spatial visualization abilities are distinct by showing differential activation of dorsal and ventral pathways, depending on one's spatial or object visualization ability. Whereas high spatial visualization ability was found to be associated with more efficient use of spatial-processing resources in the dorsal pathway, particularly in the right parietal cortex (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999), high object visualization ability was associated with more efficient use of object processing resources in the ventral pathway, particularly in the lateral occipital complex (Motes, Malach, & Kozhevnikov, 2008). In addition, participants with high spatial or object visualization ability demonstrated more efficient use of attentional areas (frontal and prefrontal regions) while solving spatial or object visualization tasks, respectively (Lamm et al., 1999;Motes et al., 2008). ...
... Whereas high spatial visualization ability was found to be associated with more efficient use of spatial-processing resources in the dorsal pathway, particularly in the right parietal cortex (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999), high object visualization ability was associated with more efficient use of object processing resources in the ventral pathway, particularly in the lateral occipital complex (Motes, Malach, & Kozhevnikov, 2008). In addition, participants with high spatial or object visualization ability demonstrated more efficient use of attentional areas (frontal and prefrontal regions) while solving spatial or object visualization tasks, respectively (Lamm et al., 1999;Motes et al., 2008). This suggests that both types of visualization ability, although distinct, might not be entirely independent, since both rely on common attentional resources (see also Miyake, Friedman, Rettinger, Shah, & Hegarty, 2001). ...
Previous research indicates relative independence between the ventral and dorsal visual pathways, associated with object and spatial visual processing, respectively. The present research shows that, at the individual-differences level, there is a trade-off, rather than independence, between object and spatial visualization abilities. Across five different age groups with different professional specializations, participants with above-average object visualization abilities (artists) had below-average spatial visualization abilities, and the inverse was true for those with above-average spatial visualization abilities (scientists). No groups showed both above-average object and above-average spatial visualization abilities. Furthermore, while total object and spatial visualization resources increase with age and experience, the trade-off relationship between object and spatial visualization abilities does not. These results suggest that the trade-off originates through a bottleneck that restricts the development of overall visualization resources, rather than through preferential experience in one type of visualization.
... In measuring EEG, Jaušovec (1996) reports higher alpha power (traditionally interpreted as less mental effort) in gifted individuals during the processing of ill-defined (allowing more creative solutions) and well-defined problems (solved in a step-by-step manner) and during the performance of a verbal and a figural memorization task (similar findings are reported in Jaušovec, 2000). Vitouch et al. (1997) presented three-dimensional cube tasks and observed higher cortical activity (as reflected in higher amplitudes and a more wide-spread pattern of EEG activation in the right hemisphere) in poor as compared to good spatial test performers (for similar evidence see Lamm et al., 1999). Reichle et al. (2000) measured brain activity (by means of functional MRI) during performance of the sentence-picture verification task and found evidence that individuals with better verbal skills exhibited less brain activation in Broca's area when they used a linguistic strategy. ...
... Studies producing mixed evidence.Study Dimensional Cube TestSeeLamm et al. (1999) inTable 1 NE effects disappear underrestricted processing time Leistungsprü fsystem) NEH for females in the verbal matching task and for males in the figural matching task ...
We review research on the neural efficiency hypothesis of intelligence, stating that brighter individuals display lower (more efficient) brain activation while performing cognitive tasks [Haier, R.J., Siegel, B.V., Nuechterlein, K.H., Hazlett, E., Wu, J.C., Paek, J., Browning, H.L., Buchsbaum, M.S., 1988. Cortical glucose metabolic rate correlates of abstract reasoning and attention studied with positron emission tomography. Intelligence 12, 199-217]. While most early studies confirmed this hypothesis later research has revealed contradictory evidence or has identified some moderating variables like sex, task type, task complexity or brain area. Neuroscientific training studies suggest that neural efficiency also seems to be a function of the amount and quality of learning. From integrating this evidence we conclude that neural efficiency might arise when individuals are confronted with tasks of (subjectively) low to moderate task difficulty and it is mainly observable for frontal brain areas. This is true for easier novel cognitive tasks or after sufficient practice allowing participants to develop appropriate (efficient) strategies to deal with the task. In very complex tasks more able individuals seem to invest more cortical resources resulting in positive correlations between brain usage and cognitive ability. Based on the reviewed evidence we propose future empirical approaches in this field.
... Sex differences exist in the performance of spatial tasks as evidenced by behavioral [1,2], functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) [3][4][5][6][7], and event-related potential (ERP) studies [8,9]. In studies of mental rotation and manipulation of shapes, enhanced bloodoxygen level dependent (BOLD) activation was observed in the right parietal lobe, precuneus, and lateral occipital cortex for men; while for women, additional areas of activation were observed in parietal, left temporal-occipital, and frontal cortex [4,5,7]. ...
... Thus, different activation patterns may reflect the initiation of different strategies, and not morphological differences between the sexes. Lamm et al. [8] found differences in the slow cortical ERP potentials between good and poor performers of a visuospatial mental rotation task, independent of sex. Poor performers of both sexes showed more slow potential negativity. ...
Further processing of auditory stimuli in the free field is attenuated when participants are in contact with speakers versus not touching them. Studies in the visual domain have found that men and women use different strategies for processing spatial information. In this study, we examined sex-related differences in event-related potentials while men and women performed an auditory discrimination task in peripersonal space when either holding speakers or resting their hands in their laps. We found that men responded more accurately than women to targets in attended locations, and that the sexes exhibited different event-related potential patterns during task performance. These differences are consistent with existing predictions of female top-down and male bottom-up strategies in spatial processing.
... attention allocation) [8,9]. Furthermore, research on the neural underpinnings of spatial ability has revealed an inverse relationship between spatial task performance and associated neural activity [10][11][12], suggesting that better performance is associated with less neural activity in hypothesized task-relevant regions (i.e. neural efficiency). ...
... Given earlier evidence [10][11][12] that higher spatial ability is associated with less neural activity in spatial areas and our findings that higher object ability is associated with less neural activity in object-processing areas, this study provides evidence that the object-spatial distinction extends to individual differences in visual processing. Thus, important considerations for future neuroimaging studies of 'imagery' are that imagery is not a unified construct and that the degree and localization of brain activity will vary considerably depending on participants' imagery abilities and the type of imagery required for the task. ...
The visual system processes object properties and spatial properties in distinct subsystems, and we hypothesized that this distinction might extend to individual differences in visual processing. We conducted a functional MRI study investigating the neural underpinnings of individual differences in object versus spatial visual processing. Nine participants of high object-processing ability ('object' visualizers) and eight participants of high spatial-processing ability ('spatial' visualizers) were scanned, while they performed an object-processing task. Object visualizers showed lower bilateral neural activity in lateral occipital complex and lower right-lateralized neural activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The data indicate that high object-processing ability is associated with more efficient use of visual-object resources, resulting in less neural activity in the object-processing pathway.
... Few studies using ERPs have been conducted to elucidate the effects of spatial ability in sex differences. Lamm et al. (1999) found that slow cortical negativity varied depending on individual subjects' ability in a similar way in men and women, as poor performers of both sexes showed slower potential negativity than good ones, possibly related to lower neural efficiency. ...
Sex differences in cognition and their underlying brain mechanisms have attracted increasing attention. Brain electrical activity (EEG) represents a reliable, high-temporal resolution approach to assessing the neural correlates of ongoing cognitive activity. The aim of the present work was to provide a comprehensive review of the literature regarding sex differences in brain electrical activity during cognitive processing, and their potential relation to behavioral performance. The cognitive domains addressed are perception, attention, language, visuospatial reasoning, and the executive functions. Overall, the literature reviewed shows sex differences in brain electrical activity during cognitive processing. Differences were observed in such EEG characteristics as hemispheric specialization, scalp topography, amplitudes of event-related potential components, temporal dynamics, and connectivity patterns. While these between-sex differences varied across the cognitive domains analyzed, there were consistent results for visuospatial reasoning and language. Regarding the relationships between behavioral manifestations of cognitive functions and underlying brain dynamics, further research is required to draw reasonable conclusions, since many of the EEG studies reviewed did not assess behavioral differences. Future research must contemplate several confounding factors, such as the precise characteristics of the experimental tasks employed, the phases of the menstrual cycle, individual traits, subjective stimuli saliency, and the interaction of brain development with educational and sociocultural factors. Despite these concerns, the present review contributes to supporting a broad debate that aims to optimize cognitive and behavioral abilities in order to improve teaching strategies and learning skills and thus expand the potentialities of each sex.
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (10), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (11,12) is consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
This book is based on the conference on movement and cognition held in July 2019 that's too love you've University in Israel, where the opportunity was provided for researchers, clinicians and practitioners from various disciplines to share their knowledge and experience in an academic environment. In this book you will find all of the abstracts from this conference gathered in one publication. We believe that movement facilitates cognition throughout the lifespan and hope that this book will be of interest to both researcher, clinicians, practitioners and other people who are interested in the issue of movement and the brain.
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (10), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (11,12) is consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
The brain evolved for the control of action rather than for the development of cognition per se the later being a consequence of agency. Currently employed descriptions of brain–behavior relationships actually limit how we those relationships are both understood and investigated, thereby limiting the both the questions we ask and the value of the “answers”. Many concepts are so broad and too far-reaching rendering them scientifically insignificant. “Executive function” is one such commonly used term. As the construct is increasingly focal in neuroscience research, defining it clearly is critical. A more operational term would allow us to understand the relationship that we human have with our environment better as well as provide a language to share ideas between disciplines (2,18). Such a change in operationalized terminology such as continuous sensorimotor interaction with the environment would yield better results. The chief function of “executive function” is optimized environmental interaction, which would be most effectively seen in our ability to anticipate and control behavior with both implicit and explicit mechanisms. This, in turn, would allow us to understand how to conduct an orchestra or play in a string quartet, dance w tango with partner, play football, “re”-habilitate as well as habilitate or educate. Procedural memory exemplified by motor skill learning contributes to knowledge, thereby grounding that knowledge in sensorimotor anticipation, thereby directly linking movement to thought and “embodied cognition” . This text and the abstracts of the conference that reflects the importance of Movement, Brain and Cognition are to be found in these pages.
... Moreover, Georges et al. (2017) reported a relation between stronger magnitude SNARC effects and greater preferences for spatial as opposed to object visualization. Number-space associations during explicit magnitude classifications thus likely predominantly depend on visuospatial processing resources in the right parietal cortex associated with spatial visualization (Lamm et al., 1999; see Table 4). The absence of a correlation between number-space associations in the magnitude classification task and interference control in the Stroop paradigm might also indicate that the magnitude SNARC effect differs from conflict that originates from a semantic feature intrinsic to the target stimulus (i.e., the central number). ...
Behavioral evidence for the link between numerical and spatial representations comes from the spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect, consisting in faster reaction times to small/large numbers with the left/right hand respectively. The SNARC effect is, however, characterized by considerable intra- and inter-individual variability. It depends not only on the explicit or implicit nature of the numerical task, but also relates to interference control. To determine whether the prevalence of the latter relation in the elderly could be ascribed to younger individuals’ ceiling performances on executive control tasks, we determined whether the SNARC effect related to Stroop and/or Flanker effects in 26 young adults with ADHD. We observed a divergent pattern of correlation depending on the type of numerical task used to assess the SNARC effect and the type of interference control measure involved in number-space associations. Namely, stronger number-space associations during parity judgments involving implicit magnitude processing related to weaker interference control in the Stroop but not Flanker task. Conversely, stronger number-space associations during explicit magnitude classifications tended to be associated with better interference control in the Flanker but not Stroop paradigm. The association of stronger parity and magnitude SNARC effects with weaker and better interference control respectively indicates that different mechanisms underlie these relations. Activation of the magnitude-associated spatial code is irrelevant and potentially interferes with parity judgments, but in contrast assists explicit magnitude classifications. Altogether, the present study confirms the contribution of interference control to number-space associations also in young adults. It suggests that magnitude-associated spatial codes in implicit and explicit tasks are monitored by different interference control mechanisms, thereby explaining task-related intra-individual differences in number-space associations.
... In sum, the execution of various spatial imagery paradigms consistently activates core areas of the dorsal fronto-parietal visual pathway, including bilateral parietal, prefrontal and premotor areas [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]. ...
Spatial cognition is a branch of cognitive psychology that studies how people acquire and use knowledge about their environment
in order to determine where they are, how to obtain resources, and how to find their way to home. Given that researchers from a wide
range of disciplines, such as neuroscience, cognition, and sociology, have already discovered how humans and other animals sense,
interpret, behave in, and communicate in space, the present meta-analysis study focuses on the fact that spatial processing is involved
in many domains and that each domain is supported by several brain structures. However, a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies
help to answer the question if it’s possible to find a common core network of regions intrinsically devoted to spatial processes.
Greater activation was found in dorsal fronto-parietal network that according to literature is responsible for a range of high diverse
functions; from spatial attention to control and working memory. All these functions are important to process and manipulate spatial
representations.
Keywords: Spatial Processing; Cognition; Neural Networks; Frontal; Parietal; fMRI; PET
... This has been reported in the context of processing of syntactic and lexical information (Friederici, Meyer, & von Cramon, 2000), the acquisition of a multifrequency bimanual task (Puttemans, Wenderoth, & Swinnen, 2005), mental strategy (Peres et al., 2000), sequence learning (Gobel, Parrish, & Reber, 2011), category learning (Milton & Pothos, 2011), learning more generally (Chein & Schneider, 2005) and motor imagery (Guillot, Collet, Nguyen, Malouin, Richards, & Doyon, 2008) (discussed more fully below). Some previous evidence has pointed specifically to a similar relationship between performance and brain activation during imagery tasks, with more restricted or less intense c o r t e x x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 5 activation in higher performing participants, in keeping with the neural efficiency hypothesis (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gst€ attner, 1999;Motes et al., 2008;Reichle, Carpenter, & Just, 2000;Vitouch, Bauer, Gittler, Leodolter, & Leodolter, 1997). It is also possible, however, that the differences seen between the two groups reflect a more fundamental difference in strategy rather than a simple unidimensional difference in skill (Belardinelli et al., 2009;Logie et al., 2011): thus, for example, in comparison to high imagers, low imagers may draw on different, non-visual, sources of knowledge when asked to visualise. ...
Using the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire we selected 14 high-scoring and 15 low-scoring healthy participants from an initial sample of 111 undergraduates. The two groups were matched on measures of age, IQ, memory and mood but differed significantly in imagery vividness. We used fMRI to examine brain activation while participants looked at, or later imagined, famous faces and famous buildings. Group comparison revealed that the low-vividness group activated a more widespread set of brain regions while visualising than the high-vividness group. Parametric analysis of brain activation in relation to imagery vividness across the entire group of participants revealed distinct patterns of positive and negative correlation. In particular, several posterior cortical regions show a positive correlation with imagery vividness: regions of the fusiform gyrus, posterior cingulate and parahippocampal gyri (BAs 19, 29, 31 and 36) displayed exclusively positive correlations. By contrast several frontal regions including parts of anterior cingulate cortex (BA 24) and inferior frontal gyrus (BAs 44 and 47), as well as the insula (BA 13), auditory cortex (BA 41) and early visual cortices (BAs 17 and 18) displayed exclusively negative correlations. We discuss these results in relation to a previous, functional imaging study of a clinical case of 'blind imagination', and to the existing literature on the functional imaging correlates of imagery vividness and related phenomena in visual and other domains.
... Intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal [56] numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning [57,58] is consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
The historical development of the thinking in
various approaches to a fundamental
understanding of impairments in the
developmental process is presented with the
aim being to provide a comprehensive
rationale for the treatment of children with
developmental disabilities in the context of the
integrative function of the nervous system.
Applications in sensory integration and
language acquisition are presented in the
context of a functional neurological approach
to developmental aspects of rehabilitation.
... Interestingly, such strategic variations in the resolution of tasks assessing 3D geometrical thinking were shown to depend on individual differences in cognitive preferences (Pitta-Pantazi, Sophocleous, & Christou, 2014). Whereas spatial visualizers, featuring more efficient use of spatial processing resources in the right parietal cortex (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999), mainly adopted analytical processing strategies, object visualizers, generally relying to a greater extent on object processing resources in the lateral occipital complex (Motes, Malach, & Kozhevnikov, 2008), largely depended on holistic processing. Thus, qualitative interindividual differences in problem-solving strategies, not necessarily depending on the parietal cortex, might explain the lack of correlation between the parity SNARC effect and the visuospatial ability subscale of the HRT math test. ...
Considering the importance of mathematics in Western societies, it is crucial to understand the cognitive processes involved in the acquisition of more complex mathematical skills. The current study, therefore, investigated how the quality of number-space mappings on the mental number line, as indexed by the parity SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effect, relates to mathematical performances in third- and fourth-grade elementary school children. Mathematical competencies were determined using the "Heidelberger Rechentest," a standardized German math test assessing both arithmetical and visuospatial math components. Stronger parity SNARC effects significantly related to better arithmetical but not visuospatial math abilities, albeit only in the relatively younger children. These findings highlight the importance of spatial-numerical interactions for arithmetical (as opposed to visuospatial) math skills at the fairly early stages of mathematical development. Differential relations might be explained by the reliance on problem-solving strategies involving number-space mappings only for arithmetic tasks mainly in younger children.
... 想象未来(imagining the future)是一个关注个体内心世界的过程，特别强调对未来可能发生的事件或 场景的 " 模拟 " 。与其概念相近的术语还有未来事件的情景模拟(episodic simulation of future events)、心 理模拟(mental simulation)、未来情景思考(episodic future thinking)、情景预见(episodic foresight)、预先体 验(pre-experiencing)等。鉴于其研究主题的多样性，厘清想象未来能力的信息表征形式及生理基础就显得 很有意义。 Pylyshyn, 1973Pylyshyn, , 1979)和表象表征(Kosslyn, 1980Kosslyn, , 1981Pearson & Kosslyn, 2015Harrison & Tong, 2009; Naselaris, Olman, Stansbury, Ugurbil, & Gallant, 2015)。因此，来自行为和神经映像学的研究结果基本确认，视觉表 象是人类重要的一种信息表征方式。而且相对于命题表征，视觉表象在视觉信息的表征上具有功能上的 优越性。 , Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999)，而高客体视觉加工能力则 与有效地使用腹侧通路的客体加工资源相联系，尤其是侧枕叶复合区域(Motes, Malach, & Kozhevnikov, 2008)。Farah 等人通过对两位脑损伤患者的调查，发现涉及空间位置判断的想象任务由大脑皮质的顶叶 区来执行，而涉及视觉细节的想象任务则由大脑皮质的颞叶区来执行(Farah, Hammond, Lewvine, & Cal vanio, 1988Smallwood, & Spreng, 2014)。无论是想象新异场景、回忆已构建的场景还是回忆过去真实的情景记忆， 海马、海马旁回等区域有一致的激活(Hassabis & Maguire, 2007(Collins & Kimura, 1997)，而女性在表象生动性问卷上的得分则要比男性高(Campos & Suerio, 1993 ...
想象未来对个体的生存具有重要的适应性价值，它是如何在大脑中表征的呢？本文首先介绍了人类大脑信息表征的两种编码系统，然后介绍了为情景想象和表象编码的生理基础，最后以该领域的研究进行了展望。 Imagining the future has important adaptive value to individual’s survival, but how does it represent in the brain? The paper first introduces the human brain information representation of the two coding systems first, and then argues the neural basis of the scene image and the image coding. Finally, the paper also expounds the problems to be studied in the future.
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al, 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, 1999;Vitouch et al., 1997) are consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
An overview is resented of the some of the significant collaborative projects that have occurred since 2008 between The National Institute for Brain and Rehabilitation Sciences in Nazareth Israel and the Institute for Brain and Rehabilitation Sciences in the United States. The focus has been on developing the scientific basis of functional or restorative neurology. The work has had implication s for the better understanding and treatment of developmental disorders including autism, motor-cognitive interactions in neurodegenerative conditions, aging, and clinical applications of understanding the nature of consciousness and its disorders.
... Object visualization enables perceptions about properties such as shape, color, and texture, and is useful in tasks such as classifi cation , identifi cation, and remembering what things look like. A second dorsal pathway extends from the occipital lobe to the posterior right parietal lobe, and it processes spatial attributes (Lamm et al., 1999;Kozhevnikov et al., 2010); this pathway facilitates the ability to mentally manipulate objects in space. Spatial visualization enables perceptions about position and orientation. ...
... Whereas intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al, 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, 1999;Vitouch et al., 1997) are consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
Recent spectacular advances in neurosciences have stimulated the hope that the application of our understanding that it is no longer about cerebral asymmetries and simplistic left-right differences but more complex applications of networks, and communication system principles that have led to newly developed concepts and findings that have not, as yet, found there way into the classroom. We are at the cusp of developing breakthrough concepts in the understanding of how children learn in the formal setting of the classroom in the context of brain function and how that function can be modified. We believe that the techniques and knowledge of neuroscience as well as Human Factors and Industrial Engineering notions of efficiency and production management can provide a service to education at all stages throughout life.
Although the human brain - the most crucial part of the anatomy - is the most complex mechanism known to man, it is now being analyzed in ways that are clearly significant for education. Recent research on the human brain has provided data relevant to understanding the processes of human learning and therefore to improving methods of teaching. Most currently prevailing patterns of education are heavily biased to wards left cerebral functioning and are antithetical to right cerebral functioning. Reading, writing and arithmetic are all logical linear processes, and for most of us are fed into the brain through our right hand. Most educational policies have tended to aggravate and prolong this one-sidedness. There is a kind of damping down of fantasy, imagination, clever guessing, and visualization in the interests of rote-learning, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Great emphasis is placed upon being able to say what one has on one's mind clearly and precisely the first time. The atmosphere emphasizes intra-verbal skills, ”Using words to talk about words that refer to still other words"
What emerges as the central proposition of this paper is that (A) the examination and study of regional cerebral differences in brain function as a way of explaining and evaluating the learning process within the educational system is a non-starter. (B) The evaluation of students by standardized aptitude and achievement tests is not sufficient although probably still necessary and (C) the educational systems would be better to examine student performance and teach towards “cognitive efficiency” rather than simply mastery v. non-mastery with methods that employ both psychophysics that examine person-environment interaction and mathematical means of examining optimization and the strategy used to get there as well as how far or close a student is functioning from a mathematically derived optimization regression line or, in fact, how quickly the learner is progressing in that direction. Educators, although perhaps not palatable to conceive of early childhood education as such, are producing a product and production management techniques should be useful for evaluating not just the product but the process or “manufacture” of that product as well.
... Intuitively, we would expect higher performance to correlate with more activity, for the cerebral cortex the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal [54], numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning [55,56] is consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. ...
Little difference exists between the development of cognitive and motor function in childhood and the relearning of cognitive and motor function post-trauma in adulthood. “Rehabilitation recapitulates phylogeny.” In all cases, function must either be learned or re-learned. That learning developmentally is associated with the formation and integration of motor and cognitive milestones. It has been known that individuals who are markedly late in achieving developmental milestones are at high risk for subsequent cognitive impairment . The mechanisms underlying infant and adult motor and cognitive associations remain poorly characterized. The paper attempts to redress that problem.
... For the cerebral cortex, however, the contrary is the case. Higher performance in several tasks, including verbal [12], numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning [13,14] is consistent with the reduced consumption of energy in several cortical areas. This phenomenon has also been studied with EEG techniques in different frequency bands. ...
The paper overviews physiologic efficiencies to provide justification for moving away from a medical model of
rehabilitation using a binary conceptualization of impairment and moving towards a linear model of optimization and human efficiencies. While the clinical and neuropathological evaluation of neurological compromise has traditionally concentrated upon the focal distribution of brain disease, ignored have been the changes in the complex connections linking brain areas crucial for cognition and optimized human performance. The paper reviews the nature of nervous system plasticity, from a systems standpoint using language development and bilingualism as well as music and the brain as examples of optimized network functioning.
... The cognitive operations in the computer game must be very closely related to the cognitive operations used in pre and post tests to demonstrate improvements (Smith, 2005). In fact, there is some evidence that high versus low spatial achievers actually use slightly different neurological processes when performing spatial tasks (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstattner, 1999), and that the organization of white matter in posterior parietal cortex is different for people who are high versus low achievers in spatial visualization (SV) (Wolbers, Schoell, & Buchel, 2006). This may explain some of the inertness of spatial skills and spatial abilities. ...
... Extent of the increase in RT with increasing stimulus rotation angle represents an index of individual rotation ability, which is free of mental rotation-unspecific factors, such as basic psychomotor speed. The negative relationship between the increases in RT and the RRN indicates that brain processing re- lated to mental rotation is more efficient in subjects with high rotation skill (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999;Rösler et al., 1995, for a general review see Neubauer & Fink, 2009). This association was a little stronger over the right than the left parietal cortex, which fits with evidence that mental rotation shows right hemispheric dominance (for a review see Corballis, 1997). ...
... The concept of cortical efficiency implies that higher ability in a cognitive task is associated with more efficient neural processing. Using electroencephalography (EEG), it has been shown that higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al., 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstattner, 1999), correlates with reduced consumption of energy in several brain regions. ...
Early acquisition of a second language influences the development of language abilities and cognitive functions. In the present study, we used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to investigate the impact of early bilingualism on the organization of the cortical language network during sentence production. Two groups of adult multilinguals, proficient in three languages, were tested on a narrative task; early multilinguals acquired the second language before the age of three years, late multilinguals after the age of nine. All participants learned a third language after nine years of age. Comparison of the two groups revealed substantial differences in language-related brain activity for early as well as late acquired languages. Most importantly, early multilinguals preferentially activated a fronto-striatal network in the left hemisphere, whereas the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG) was activated to a lesser degree than in late multilinguals. The same brain regions were highlighted in previous studies when a non-target language had to be controlled. Hence the engagement of language control in adult early multilinguals appears to be influenced by the specific learning and acquisition conditions during early childhood. Remarkably, our results reveal that the functional control of early and subsequently later acquired languages is similarly affected, suggesting that language experience has a pervasive influence into adulthood. As such, our findings extend the current understanding of control functions in multilinguals.
... The concept of cortical efficiency implies that higher ability in a cognitive task is associated with more efficient neural processing. Using electroencephalography (EEG), it has been shown that higher performance in several tasks, including verbal (Parks et al., 1988), numeric, figural, and spatial reasoning (Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstattner, 1999), correlates with reduced consumption of energy in several brain regions. ...
Is it the age of second language acquisition (AoA) that primarily determines the manner of cerebral representation of multiple languages in the brain, or is it proficiency? Here, we review recent neuroimaging studies that aimed at investigating AoA effects by comparing early with late (usually with L2 acquisition onset after 6 years of age) bilinguals during a variety of language tasks on a number of languages. Most studies did indeed report AoA effects. Of particular interest is that the region mainly found to functionally differ between early and late bilinguals is the left inferior frontal gyrus, which was modulated during syntactic processing, word generation, and sentence generation. Additionally, differences were observed in gray-matter density of the posterior parietal cortex as well as in right-hemisphere involvement. Interestingly, despite some convergence of findings from a localizational point of view, underlying causes of organizational and functional differences for the effect of AoA on bilingual language processing still remain to be uncovered. Hypotheses currently used for explaining activation differences are described (notably cortical efficiency, executive control, neuroanatomical changes, and right-hemisphere involvement) in relation to AoA and language proficiency.
... In spatial orientation tests, we transform and update our own egocentric reference frame with respect to stable environmental and object-centered frames of reference. We know that these tasks involve the same brain region that integrates spatial information from different reference frames -posterior parietal cortex (Carpenter, Just, Keller, Eddy, & Thulborn, 1999;Harris et al., 2000; Running Head: SPATIAL COGNITION THROUGH THE KEYHOLE 21 Keehner, Guerin, Turk, Miller, & Hegarty, 2006;Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstättner, 1999;Podzebenko, Egan, & Watson, 2002;Zacks, Vettel, & Michelon, 2003). ...
This paper discusses spatial cognition in the domain of minimally invasive surgery. It draws on studies from this domain to shed light on a range of spatial cognitive processes and to consider individual differences in performance. In relation to modeling, the aim is to identify potential opportunities for characterizing the complex interplay between perception, action, and cognition, and to consider how theoretical models of the relevant processes might prove valuable for addressing applied questions about surgical performance and training.
... Other studies, however, have examined differences in g among subjects as they relate to brain function during the performance of tests with high g-loadings. These studies commonly show inverse correlations between some frontal lobe activity and task performance (Ghatan et al., 1995;Haier, 1993;Haier, Siegel, MacLachlan, et al., 1992;Haier et al., 1988;Haier, Siegel, Tang, Abel, & Buchsbaum, 1992;Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstattner, 1999;Neubauer, Freudenthaler, & Pfurtsceller, 1995;Neubauer, Fink, & Schrausser, 2002;Parks et al., 1988;Seidman et al., 1998;Van Rooy, Stough, Pipingas, Hocking, & Silberstein, 2001) or correlations with task performance in areas other than frontal lobes (Haier & Benbow, 1995;Larson, Haier, Lacasse, & Hazen, 1995) or an increase in cortical activity in low g groups . Typically, all neuroimaging studies of either complex task performance or of comparisons between high and low g groups show the involvement of multiple areas, consistent with the view that higher-order cognition involves circuits throughout the brain rather than only those localized in the frontal lobes , although a case can be made for primary frontal lobe involvement (Duncan et al., 2000). ...
Brain imaging can help identify the functional neuroanatomy of general intelligence (i.e., “g”) and indicate how brain areas salient to g relate to information processing. An important question is whether individual differences in g among subjects are related to brain function even when nonreasoning tasks are studied. If so, this would imply that individuals with high g scores may process information differently even when no reasoning or problem solving is required. To further investigate this, we administered the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM) test, a strong correlate of g, to 22 normal subjects and then measured cerebral glucose metabolic activity with PET while the subjects viewed videos on two occasions, tasks with no inherent reasoning or problem solving. Individual RAPM scores were correlated with regional brain activity using statistical parametric mapping (SPM99) conjunction analysis to combine both video conditions. Results showed greater activation in specific posterior brain areas (left BA37/19) in high RAPM scorers (P=.02, corrected for multiple comparisons). Subsequent analyses revealed a high/low RAPM group difference in functional connectivity between left BA37/19 activity and the left anterior cingulate/medial frontal gyrus. These data provide evidence that individual differences in intelligence correlate to brain function even when the brain is engaged in nonreasoning tasks and suggest that high and low g subjects may preferentially activate different neural circuits, especially nonfrontal areas involved in information processing.
... Spatial information from many different sensory sources are integrated in posterior parietal cortex into a coherent whole [15,16]. It has also been shown that spatial transformation tasks such as mental rotation involve these same parietal regions [24][25][26][27][28], and moreover, individual differences in parietal activation have been shown to correlate with individual differences in spatial abilities [29]. Thus, it may be that an essential function of this region is to encode, represent, manipulate, and reconcile different spatial frames of reference. ...
In “hand assisted” minimally invasive surgery, the surgeon inserts one hand into the operative site. Despite anecdotal claims
that seeing their own hand via the laparoscopic camera enhances spatial understanding, a previous study using a maze-drawing
task in indirect viewing conditions found that seeing one’s own hand sometimes helped and sometimes hurt performance (Keehner
et al., 2004). Here I present a new analysis exploring the mismatch between kinesthetic cues (knowing where the hand is) and
visual cues (seeing the hand in an orientation that is incongruent with this). Seeing one’s left hand as if from the right
side of egocentric space (palm view) impaired performance, and this depended on spatial ability (r=-.54). Conversely, there was no relationship with spatial ability when viewing the left hand from the left side of egocentric
space (back view). The view-specific nature of the confusion raises a possible role for spatial abilities in reconciling spatial
frames of reference.
... Moreover, studies that employed other types of stimuli and electrophysiological measures provided only limited or no evidence in favor of a direct relationship between an individual's rotation performance and brain activity. In related studies, Vitouch, Lamm and co-workers reported differences in the amplitude and topography of slow cortical potentials between groups of good and poor performers on a three-dimensional mental rotation task (Vitouch, Bauer, Gittler, Leodolter, & Leodolter, 1997;Lamm, Bauer, Vitouch, & Gstattner, 1999). In a later replication study, however, Lamm, Fischmeister, and Bauer (2005) failed to confirm their previous findings and attributed them to different strategies, visuo-perceptual vs. visuo-motor, employed by good and poor performers, respectively. ...
It has been suggested that the amplitude of parietal event-related potentials (ERPs) provides a neural signature of imaginary object rotation. Here, we evaluated the relationship between the so-called rotation-related negativity and individual performance in the mental rotation of alphanumeric characters. The signals were averaged with respect to two time events, stimulus onset (ERP(ONSET)) and response time (ERP(RT)) indexing, respectively, an early and a late phase of the mental rotation. The amplitude of a slow parietal negativity varied with the rotation angle in both ERP(ONSET) and ERP(RT). The amplitude of this potential correlated negatively with task performance, indexed by response time. This was the case in ERP(RT) but not in ERP(ONSET). We further show that variations of the ERP(ONSET) amplitude with the rotation angle might at least partially result from increased duration/latency jitter among single trials. These results suggest that late rather than early processing supports task solution in mental rotation.
... Alternatively, frontal ERD could reflect recruitment of motor processes [39] [40], which were repeatedly reported to be engaged in mental rotation [23] [24] [30] [45] [48] [49], especially in difficult task conditions [16] [17]. Lamm et al. provided evidence that low-ability subjects increasingly rely on a motor task processing strategy [21] [22]. Future studies employing high-density EEG montages and source localization techniques could shed more light on the neurocognitive correlates of alpha/beta ERD over the frontal cortex. ...
People with better skills in mental rotation require less time to decide about the identity of rotated images. In the present study, alphanumeric characters rotated in the frontal plane were employed to assess the relationship between rotation ability and EEG oscillatory activity. Response latency, a single valid index of performance in this task, was significantly associated with the amplitude of induced oscillations in the alpha (8-13 Hz) and the low beta band (14-20 Hz). In accordance with the neural efficiency hypothesis, less event-related desynchronization (ERD) was related to better (i.e. faster) task performance. The association between response time and ERD was observed earlier (approximately 600-400 ms before the response) over the parietal cortex and later (approximately 400-200 ms before the response) over the frontal cortex. Linear mixed-effect regression analysis confirmed that both early parietal and late frontal alpha/beta power provided significant contribution to prediction of response latency. The result indicates that two distinct serially engaged neurocognitive processes comparably contribute to mental rotation ability. In addition, we found that mental rotation-related negativity, a slow event-related potential recorded over the posterior cortex, was unrelated to the asymmetry of alpha amplitude modulation.
The spatial‐numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect, in which people respond to small numbers faster with the left hand and to large numbers faster with the right hand, is a popular topic in cognitive psychology. Some well‐known theoretical accounts explaining this effect include the mental number line model, polarity correspondence principle, dual‐route model, and working memory account. However, these fail to explain the finding that the size of the SNARC effect is modulated by cognitive control. Here, we propose a new account—a cognitive control‐based view of the SNARC effect. This view argues that the SNARC effect is fundamentally determined by cognitive control in resolving conflicts during stimulus–response mapping. Several subcomponents of cognitive control, such as working memory, mental or task set shifting, inhibition control, and conflict adaptation, can easily modulate the SNARC effect. The cognitive control‐based view can account for the flexible SNARC effect observed in diverse task situations while providing new insight into its mechanism.
The current research addresses the question of the multidimensional relationship between visual abilities, visual cognitive style, and creativity (artistic and scientific) in Singaporean students of 13–14 years old. Three hundred seventy students (100 students in Study 1 and 270 students in Study 2) from two typical secondary schools in Singapore were administered 10 tasks assessing their visual abilities, visual cognitive style and domain‐specific, artistic, and scientific, creativities. Consistent with the results of recent research challenging the foundation of the current assessments of creativity as a general ability, the results of principal component analysis (PCA) (Study 1) and path analysis (Study 2) provided evidence that artistic and scientific types of creativities are clearly dissociable in students of 13–14 years old. Furthermore, the results of both studies demonstrated that although both visual abilities and corresponding cognitive style (object and spatial) reliably predicted artistic and scientific creativity respectively, cognitive style was a reliable predictor of corresponding creativity beyond visual ability. The findings suggest that domain‐specific visual creativity begins developing concurrently with corresponding types of visual abilities and cognitive style, and that socio‐cultural influences, as reflected by cognitive style, also affect the development of creative performance in a specific domain, beyond abilities.
Introduction
The Object Spatial Imagery and Verbal Questionnaire (OSIVQ) measures individual differences in Visual-Verbal cognitive style and distinguishes between spatial and object visual imagery.
Objective
The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of a French version of the OSIVQ.
Method
Seven hundred fifty-two participants completed the French OSIVQ and 144 of them also completed a paper-and-pencil assessment to evaluate spatial imagery, object imagery and verbal abilities.
Results
Principal component analyses of the OSIVQ showed good internal construct validity. Results also revealed pronounced individual differences and a significant gender effect. Confirmatory factorial analyses gave support to a three-dimensional model of cognitive style. Furthermore, correlations were observed across the different dimensions of the questionnaire and specific paper-and-pencil tasks.
Conclusion
Our results highlight the good psychometric properties of the French version of the OSIVQ.
Exposure to musical training in childhood has been studied extensively as models of neuroplasticity. The long-term training and continued practice of complex bi-manual motor sequences are highly associated with changes in brain structure and cortical motor maps compared with individuals without such training. We know that the anterior corpus callosum, with fibers connecting frontal motor regions and pre-frontal areas coordinating bimanual activity is larger in musicians who started training prior to age seven than in either controls. Additionally, auditory experiences during early postnatal development shape the functional neurology of auditory cortical representation resulting in increased functional areas of the auditory cortex. The developing brain is far more plastic than the adult brain explaining the results that we see in recovery of function after brain damage in childhood, neuronal connections are being continuously remodeled by experience, enrichment, and by performance on specific and complex movements during motor and cognitive learning. New skill acquisition, present to a much greater degree in childhood is highly associated with structural changes in the intracortical and subcortical networks in motor skill training. The relationship between music, visual, and spatial training on brain organization and plasticity are discussed with applications for solutions to the rehabilitation of the brain impaired.
The need for effective clinical interventions in chronic neurological diseases such as TBI and other variants of chronic neurological conditions have been called for in the literature. The cellular and neurochemical mechanisms addressed in recent literature have focused around three common themes that traverse all of these condition classes: immune and autoimmune mechanisms, inflammatory pathways and oxidative phosphorylation or other energy production damage. Limits to the effectiveness of pharmaceutical and surgical approaches are apparent, and complicated by the physiological interconnectedness of such pathways. A growing call for non-drug, non-surgical options has evolved due to the dangers of poly-pharmacy, the lifestyle illnesses, and emerging evidence pointing to functional measures and methods. This paper surveys and links selected studies of specific, measurable effects of brain injury on several body systems, and it indicates an emerging path toward outcome-based multifactorial functional neurological assessment and treatment of some of the sequelae of chronic TBI and mTBI) (mild traumatic brain injury).
Little of the 150 years of research in Cognitive Neurosciences, Human Factors, and the mathematics of Production Management have found their way into educational policy and certainly not into the classroom or in the production of educational materials in any meaningful or practical fashion. While more mundane concepts of timing, sequencing, spatial organization, and Gestalt principles of perception are well known and applied, as well as the maintenance of simplistic notions of developmental brain organization and hemisphericity for language rather than the neurophysiology of embodied language, these concepts still inform pre-K-3 curriculum and clinical neurological practice in both the diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. The paper overviews the science of human physiologic efficiencies to develop a fundamental understanding that the concept of localization of function in the brain is a just reflection of plasticity and required for optimized function, but understanding brain function by that alone would obscure the understanding of the education and rehabilitation process from early childhood through the older years. Diagnostic and therapeutic systems need to address pathways in the brain and their changes as a result of intervention rather than examine more static notions of localized function.
While the clinical and neuropathological evaluation of neurological compromise has traditionally concentrated upon the focal distribution of brain disease, ignored have been the changes in the complex connections that link brain areas that are crucial for cognition and optimized human performance. An overview of some recent developments in the field of Rehabilitation Engineering will be provided that will indicate why successful solutions to fundamental human function deficits in the disabled result from attempts to find solutions to these difficulties by optimizing human performance and by asking the right questions. We will examine the nature of nervous system plasticity, man-machine interactions, the nature of functional connectivities in the nervous system, and the application of systems theory to highlight potential solutions to intractable problems such as persistent vegetative and minimally conscious states, Parkinson’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome, Major Depression and motor function and dysfunction in general from a systems standpoint informing the nature of R&D in applications that include deep brain stimulation, prosthetic limb and orthotics development to better understand the concept of functional neurology both developmentally and in adult populations.
A neuroanatomical conceptualization is a non-starter for rehabilitation practice. It is important to understand that what we are really attempting to achieve both in rehabilitation as well as in understanding the neurological basis of cognitive and motor improvement after trauma or stroke is not which brain area controls a given cognitive function, but how efficiently brain regions cooperate with each other and how novel connectivities may develop.
This chapter focuses on individual differences in object and spatial-visual imagery both from theoretical and applied perspectives. While object imagery refers to representations of the literal appearances of individual objects and scenes in terms of their shape, color, and texture, spatial imagery refers to representations of the spatial relations among objects, locations of objects in space, movements of objects and their parts, and other complex spatial transformations. First, we review cognitive neuroscience and psychology research regarding the dissociation between object and spatial-visual imagery. Next, we discuss evidence on how this dissociation extends to individual differences in object and spatial imagery, followed by a discussion showing that individual differences in object and spatial imagery follow different developmental courses. After that we focus on cognitive and educational research that provides ecological validation of the object-spatial distinction in individual differences-in particular, on the relationship of object and spatial-visual abilities to mathematics and science problem solving and then to object-spatial imagery differences between members of different professions. Finally, we discuss applications of the object-spatial dissociation in imagery for applied fields, such as personnel selection, training, and education. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. All rights reserved.
Despite the recent evidence for a multi-component nature of both visual imagery and creativity, there have been no systematic studies on how the different dimensions of creativity and imagery might interrelate.
The main goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between different dimensions of creativity (artistic and scientific) and dimensions of visualization abilities and styles (object and spatial). In addition, we compared the contributions of object and spatial visualization abilities versus corresponding styles to scientific and artistic dimensions of creativity.
Twenty-four undergraduate students (12 females) were recruited for the first study, and 75 additional participants (36 females) were recruited for an additional experiment.
Participants were administered a number of object and spatial visualization abilities and style assessments as well as a number of artistic and scientific creativity tests.
The results show that object visualization relates to artistic creativity and spatial visualization relates to scientific creativity, while both are distinct from verbal creativity. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate that style predicts corresponding dimension of creativity even after removing shared variance between style and visualization ability. The results suggest that styles might be a more ecologically valid construct in predicting real-life creative behaviour, such as performance in different professional domains.
Reaction of Mo(N2)2L2 [L = (Ph2PCH2)2] with Me3SiN3 gave MoN(N3)L2 which was converted by HX (X = Cl, Br) to the imido complexes Mo(NH)X2L2 (I). Treatment of I with base, e.g. Et3N, gave MoNXL2 which reverted to I on treatment with acid. I with NaBPh4 gave [MoX(NH)L2][BPh4]. [on SciFinder(R)]
On the basis of the neural efficiency concept of human intelligence—which suggests a more efficient use of the cortex (or even the brain) in brighter individuals—we analyzed the role of sex and task complexity as possible moderating variables in the relationship between cortical activation and psychometric intelligence. In 28 males and 30 females we measured cortical activation in the EEG during performance of a modified variant of Stankov's Triplet Numbers test—a test consisting of five increasingly complex conditions. Preliminary analyses showed that both sex- and intelligence-related effects on cortical activation became more evident when we focused on participants’ fluid intelligence scores instead of just using scores of general mental ability. As expected, we observed an increase of cortical activation with increasing task complexity, but no moderating influence of task complexity on the intelligence-activation relationship was found. Moreover, our data suggest that the males were more likely to produce cortical activation patterns in line with the neural efficiency hypothesis (i.e. less activation in brighter individuals), whereas in females no significant differences were found.
As is known from psychometrics, restriction of task processing time by the instruction to respond as quickly and accurately as possible leads to task-unspecific cognitive processing. Since this task processing mode is used in most functional neuroimaging studies of human cognition, this may evoke cortical activity that is functionally not essential for the particular task under investigation. Using topographic recordings of event-related slow cortical potentials, two experiments have been performed to investigate whether cortical activity during processing of a visuo-spatial imagery task is substantially influenced by the time provided to process the task. Furthermore, it was investigated whether this effect is additionally modulated by a subject’s task-specific ability. The instruction to respond as quickly and accurately as possible led to increased negative slow cortical potential amplitudes over parietal and frontal regions and significantly interacted with task-specific ability. While cortical activity recorded over parietal and frontal regions was different between subjects with low and high spatial ability when processing time was unrestricted, no such differences were found between ability groups when subjects were instructed to answer both quickly and accurately. These results suggest that restricting processing time has considerable effects on the amount and the pattern of brain activity during cognitive processing and should be taken into account more explicitly in the experimental design and interpretation of neuroimaging studies of cognition.
Both behavioral and neurophysiological evidence shows the advantage of object visualizers in object-related tasks relative to spatial visualizers. It is still unclear, in which stage the advantage appears. In this study, a behavioral experiment revealed that spatial visualizers' performance decreased evidently from short delay to long delay in a high-load condition, but object visualizers performed stably. In addition, an event-related potential experiment found the slow cortical potentials for the spatial visualizer to be more negative in relation to object visualizers in the 1800-3800 ms stage, although spatial visualizers performed worse than the object visualizers. Therefore, the processing advantage of object visualizers, which is caused by the higher neural efficiency of object visualizers than spatial visualizers in object tasks, seems to be at the retention stage rather than the encoding stage.
The goal of the current research was to introduce a new component of intelligence: visual-object intelligence, that reflects one's ability to process information about visual appearances of objects and their pictorial properties (e.g., shape, color and texture) as well as to demonstrate that it is distinct from visual-spatial intelligence, which reflects one's ability to process information about spatial relations and manipulate objects in space. Study 1 investigated the relationship between performance on various measures of visual-object and visual-spatial abilities, and areas of specialization (visual art, science and humanities). Study 2 examined qualitative differences in approaches to interpreting visual abstract information between visual artists, scientists and humanities/social science professionals. Study 3 investigated qualitative differences in visual-object versus visual-spatial processing by examining how members of different professions generate, transform, inspect, and manipulate visual images. The results of the three studies demonstrated that visual-object ability satisfies the requirements of an independent component of intelligence: (1) it uniquely relates to specialization in visual art; (2) it supports processing of abstract visual-object information; and (3) it has unique quantitative and qualitative characteristics, distinct from those of visual-spatial processing.
Recently, the technique of single-trial fMRI was introduced, which allows the assessment of hemodynamic responses to single task executions (e.g. sensory, motor, or cognitive). In this study, single-trial fMRI was used to examine regional differences in the inter-trial consistency (ITC) of brain activity related to the processing of a dynamic visuo-spatial imagery task. For every single trial, a t-statistic assessing task-related activation was calculated and thresholded at a p-value of P < or =l0.05 (uncorrected). The percentage of trials with t-values above the threshold was used to assess differences in the consistency of brain activity in occipital, parietal, premotor and prefrontal regions of interest. While most of these regions showed activation which was highly consistent across trials, the consistency of activation was significantly reduced in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. We hypothesize that the consistency of activation across trials may be interpreted as an indicator of the functional relevance of a brain region for processing and solving a cognitive task. Thus, the analysis concept presented here has the potential to provide new insights into the neuro-cognitive mechanisms of human information processing. In addition, the results of this study confirm that averaging across trials might result in a significant loss of information about functional neuroanatomy. Regions which are active in some trials only, which show only weak activity increases, or whose activity is not constant and time-locked, might not show up in averaged activation maps and could thus erroneously be interpreted as irrelevant for task processing.
Several studies analyzing slow and long-lasting changes in scalp-recorded brain potentials have recently been published (e.g.,
Vitouch, Bauer, Gittler, M. Leodolter, & U. Leodolter, 1997). Such long-lasting changes turned out to be applicable as a fairly
direct measure of cortical activity. Combined with multichannel recording, slow potential recording can serve as a data source
for a noninvasive functional topography in cognitive psychophysiology. This paper describes methodological aspects crucial
for true DC recording. Special properties of this brain activity signal will be addressed in the light of its complex origin.
Since DC-EEG topography appears to be very promising for future research, specific aspects of multichannel DC-EEG handling,
data processing, imaging, and analysis are specifically discussed. Finally, the advantages that cognitive psychophysiology
may gain from DC-EEG topography are addressed.
Whether essential processing of spatial information is lateralized asymmetrically in the human cortex is still a matter of debate. In this study, items of an Item Response Theory calibrated test for spatial ability were used to ensure stimulus homogeneity and validity. Subjects were preselected as extreme groups of good and poor spatializers. Mapping of true DC-recorded slow potential shifts (SPSs) resulted in distinctly discriminable topographies with spatial and verbal-analytic material as well as with spatial performance groups within the spatial block. Left fronto-central negativity maxima in the verbal condition clearly contrasted with occipito-parietal peak activity in the spatial condition. Poor spatializers showed higher amplitudes as well as a tendency to asymmetric activity in right parietal (parieto-temporal) areas, whereas in good spatializers the activity was localized symmetrically in occipital and occipito-parietal regions. The findings emphasize the importance of the right posterior cortex for spatial processing (negativity maxima at occipital and right parietal sites) and suggest a task-specific lower cortical efficiency or, seen from a processing perspective, a higher Investment of Cortical Effort (ICE) on the part of poor spatializers.
The validity conditions for univariate repeated measures designs are described. Attention is focused on the sphericity requirement. For av degree of freedom family of comparisons among the repeated measures, sphericity exists when all contrasts contained in thev dimensional space have equal variances. Under nonsphericity, upper and lower bounds on test size and power of a priori, repeated measures,F tests are derived. The effects of nonsphericity are illustrated by means of a set of charts. The charts reveal that small departures from sphericity (.97
In recent years, the magnitude, consistency, and stability across time of cognitive sex differences have been questioned. The present study examined these issues in the context of spatial abilities. A meta-analysis of 286 effect sizes from a variety of spatial ability measures was conducted. Effect sizes were partitioned by the specific test used and by a number of variables related to the experimental procedure in order to achieve homogeneity. Results showed that sex differences are significant in several tests but that some intertest differences exist. Partial support was found for the notion that the magnitude of sex differences has decreased in recent years. Finally, it was found that the age of emergence of sex differences depends on the test used. Results are discussed with regard to their implications for the study of sex differences in spatial abilities.
Positron Emission Tomography with [F]deoxyglucose was used to compare brain activation in men and women while they performed mathematical reasoning. Right greater than left‐hemisphere activation was predicted, especially in temporal lobes. Forty‐four participants were selected and matched for high or average Scholastic Aptitude Test‐Math scores. There were no sex differences in cortical glucose metabolic rate (GMR). However, GMR in temporal lobe regions was positively correlated with math reasoning score in men but not in women. The temporal lobes, bilaterally, are implicated in math reasoning ability for men; no specific cortical areas were related to math reasoning performance in women.
Three groups of young, healthy males underwent positron emission tomography of the head, using 18fluoro-2-deoxyglucose as the uptake tracer. During the uptake, one group (n = 8) did an abstract reasoning test (Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices [RAPM]); another (n = 13) performed a visual vigilance task (Continuous Performance Test [CPT] task); and the other (n = 9) simply watched flashing visual stimuli (CPT no task). ANOVA revealed that both the RAPM and the CPT groups activated the right hemisphere. A priori and exploratory t-tests indicated some left-hemisphere areas of activation for the RAPM, especially posterior cortex. Performance on the RAPM showed significant negative correlations with cortical metabolic rates. CPT performace showed few significant correlations with cortical metabolic rate. Although this study does not strongly implicate any one brain region in performance of the RAPM or CPT task, the inverse glucose/RAPM performance correlations suggest that some individual differences in cognitive ability may be related to efficiency or density of neutral circuits.
Recently, several studies have reported negative associations between brain activity under cognitive load and psychometric intelligence. The position emission tomography (PET) used in these studies allows a high spatial resolution, but it does not permit an assessment of the temporal course of cerebral activation. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between psychometric intelligence (determined by Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices) and spatiotemporal patterns of cortical activation. Seventeen university students performed an elementary cognitive task, the Sentence Verification Test (SVT), during which the electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. In the EEG, the event-related desynchronization (ERD) was quantified, which can be interpreted as a correlate of cortical activation. Lower IQ participants displayed a comparatively unspecific cortical activation increasing with time, whereas higher IQ participants were characterized by a temporal development of activation in those cortical regions that are required for task performance, resulting in less overall activation as compared to the lower IQ participants. These findings support the hypothesis of a more efficient use of the brain in higher IQ individuals.
Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate (GMR) quantified with positron emission tomography (PET) with 18-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) was measured twice in 8 young men performing a complex visuospatial/motor task (the computer game Tetris), before and after practice. After 4-8 weeks of daily practice on Tetris, GMR in cortical surface regions decreased despite a more than 7-fold increase in performance. Subjects who improved their Tetris performance the most after practice showed the largest glucose metabolic decreases after practice in several areas. These results suggest that learning may result in decreased use of extraneous or inefficient brain areas. Changes in regional subcortical glucose metabolic rate with practice may reflect changes in cognitive strategy that are a part of the learning process.
Description of mapping methods using spherical splines, both to interpolate scalp potentials (SPs), and to approximate scalp current densities (SCDs). Compared to a previously published method using thin plate splines, the advantages are a very simple derivation of the SCD approximation, faster computing times, and greater accuracy in areas with few electrodes.
Sixteen normal volunteers were studied with [F-18] fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography scans during behavioral activation with a verbal fluency test, and 35 age-matched controls were studied with resting-state scans. There was an overall increase of the cerebral glucose metabolic rate of 23.3% during verbal fluency activation, compared to the resting state, with the greatest activation in bilateral temporal and frontal lobes. A negative correlation between test performance scores and indices of metabolism was found in frontal, temporal, and parietal regions. Damage to the left frontal lobe maximally affects scores on verbal fluency tests, but performing the test activates a network of regions, of which the left frontal lobe is only one. Proficient performance in verbal fluency seems to require less metabolic activation than poor performance, perhaps because of the efficiency of cognitive strategies employed.
PREVIOUS attempts to correlate electrophysiological variables with behavioural indices of intelligence have been inconclusive1. Recent findings suggest that the average evoked potential (AEP) recorded from the human scalp may reflect the neural correlates of higher mental activity or information processing by the brain2. The speed of this process, measured by the latency of sequential AEP components, could be the biological substrate of individual differences in behavioural intelligence. AEP latency data from cretinized rats3, hypothyroid patients4, aribo-flavinotic children5 and humans with differential intelligence6 provide preliminary support for this hypothesis.
Event-related brain potentials were recorded while subjects performed either a rotation or a size scaling transformation of a mental image. Images had to be rotated 0 degrees, 60 degrees, or 120 degrees or their size had to be enlarged by factors of 1:1, 1:3, or 1:5. Both tasks were accompanied by pronounced negative slow potentials, which extended over several seconds. The relative maximum of these shifts emerged at central to occipital leads. Over the occipital cortex, the negative potential had a similar amplitude level in all conditions and both tasks. However, at parietal and central areas, the negative slow wave changed in relation to the difficulty of the task. The amplitude increased with increasing rotation demands and if the scaling operation required an exact computation of the coordinates of the image. None of these effects could be attributed to an inverse change of P300.
We dispute McCarthy and Wood's (1985) claim that some form of scaling should be applied routinely to ERP data before determining differences in scalp distributions between conditions (or groups). Their simulation study involved assumptions about the nature of the variability within each condition, most significantly that the standard deviations are identical at all electrodes, irrespective of the means. Alternative plausible assumptions may be proposed for which scaling is unnecessary. Furthermore, we show that the two main forms of scaling they proposed may distort or even completely eliminate real differences in scalp topography reflecting genuinely different underlying sources.
Dreidimensionaler Wu È rfeltest (3DW): Ein Rasch-skalierter Test zur Messung des ra È umlichen Vorstellungs-vermo È gens
- G Gittler
Gittler, G., Dreidimensionaler Wu È rfeltest (3DW): Ein Rasch-skalierter Test zur Messung des ra È umlichen Vorstellungs-vermo È gens, Theoretische Grundlagen und Manual, Beltz Test, Weinheim, 1990.
Spherical splines for scalp potential and current source density mapping
- Perrin