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Aspergillus and other moulds in the air of Kuwait
Abstract
A one-year survey was carried out to study the aerial prevalence of Aspergillus species and other moulds in the outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait. Petri plates containing rose-Bengal medium were exposed for 20 minutes twice a month using a six-stage Andersen air sampler at the pre-determined sites. The exposed plates were incubated at 28 degrees C +/- 1 degree C up to 5 days and colonies were enumerated and identified by colonial and microscopic morphology. The data revealed that Aspergillus species were the predominant component (27.7%) of the outdoor aerospora of Kuwait and A. fumigatus alone accounted for 21.3% of the total aspergilli. In contrast, Cladosporium species formed the major component of the indoor aerospora (22.8%), followed by Aspergillus species (20.9%), Penicillium species (14.6%), and Bipolaris species (10.6%). A comparison of the fungi recorded in the outdoor and in the indoor air revealed that Aspergillus, Alternaria and Fusarium were significantly higher in the outdoor environment, whereas Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Bipolaris were significantly higher in the indoor environment. The relative prevalence of Aspergillus species and other moulds in the outdoor and indoor air of Kuwait was as follows: A. fumigatus 5.9 and 9.8%, A. flavus 4.9 and 3.9%, other aspergilli 16.8 and 7.0%, Alternaria species 19.8 and 7.9%, Cladosporium species 13.7 and 22.8%, Penicillium species 7.6 and 14.6%, and other moulds 31.2 and 34.1%, respectively. During the study, 25 different genera were identified, indicating a wide diversity in the spectrum of local fungal aerospora. The study provides useful information on the prevalence of allergenic fungi in the outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait.
... Penicilluim sp. are the predominant species (Khan et al. 1999, Afzal and Mehdi 2002) while in temperate climates, Cladosporium was found to be the most prevailing airborne fungal genus (Sakiyan and Inceoglu 2003, Kasprzyk and Worek 2006, O'Gorman and Fuller 2008, Sabariego et al. 2000, Sousa et al. 2008 and Oliveira et al. 2009). ...
... The values of CFU m -3 exceeded the EC and the WHO (World Health Organizaton, which is over 500 CFU m -3 ) guidelines at eight sampling places, around one fourth of the analyzed homes. In contrast to Khan et al. 1999 ...
... Curvularia (9.8%), Cladosporium (6.8%), Mycelia sterilia (6.0%), Fusarium (3.5%), Rhizopus (3.1%), Drechslera (2.6%), Alternaria (2.4%) and Absidia (2.2%). In other subtropical countries like Kuwait (Khan et al. 1999 ...
The aim of this study was to estimate the indoor and outdoor concentrations of fungal spores in the Metropolitan Area of Sao Paulo (MASP), collected at different sites in winter/spring and summer seasons. The techniques adopted included cultivation (samples collected with impactors) and microscopic enumeration (samples collected with impingers). The overall results showed total concentrations of fungal spores as high as 36,000 per cubic meter, with a large proportion of non culturable spores (around 91% of the total). Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. were the dominant species both indoors and outdoors, in all seasons tested, occurring in more than 30% of homes at very high concentrations of culturable airborne fungi [colony forming units(CFU) m(-3)]. There was no significant difference between indoor and outdoor concentrations. The total fungal spore concentration found in winter was 19% higher than that in summer. Heat and humidity were the main factors affecting fungal growth; however, a non-linear response to these factors was found. Thus, temperatures below 16 degrees C and above 25 degrees C caused a reduction in the concentration (CFU m(-3)) of airborne fungi, which fits with MASP climatalogy. The same pattern was observed for humidity, although not as clearly as with temperature given the usual high relative humidity (above 70%) in the study area. These results are relevant for public health interventions that aim to reduce respiratory morbidity among susceptible populations.
... Since airborne fungal spores have distinct seasonality and year-to-year variations, studies for less than 1 year may not be able to yield meaningful information for the studied area. Khan et al. (1999) collected air samples on rose-bengal medium for 20 minutes by using a six-stage Andersen sampler. Aspergillus spp. ...
... Aspergillus spp. were the predominant component (27.7%) of the outdoor aerospora of Kuwait, and A. fumigatus alone accounted for 21.3% of the total aspergilli (Khan et al., 1999). Cladosporium spp. ...
... (14.6%), and Bipolaris spp. (10.6%) (Khan et al., 1999). Ismail et al. (1999) used the settle plate method with Czapek-Dox agar in Uganda from March through June 1998. ...
This chapter reviews the available literature on fungal contamination as a major contributor to sick building syndrome (SBS). A large number of fungi are saprophytes or decomposers, which mainly occur in natural environments such as soil and plant debris. Some of these fungi can be found in indoor environments. Certain indoor fungal contaminants pose a potential health risk to building occupants and may lead to SBS. Fungal spores are a well-known cause of allergic diseases and are identified as one of the major indoor allergens. All fungi may be allergenic, depending on the individual, the exposure situation, and the dose. This chapter provides a list of genera of fungi that have been reported to be allergenic. Some of these are Aspergillus, Amanita, Boletus, Cladosporium, and Claviceps. Synergistic inhalation effects of fungal byproducts—such as mycotoxins, β-glucans, or perhaps fungal VOCs—are potentially irritating, toxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, and immune-suppressive. Risk assessment for human exposure to fungi and their byproducts is complicated because it involves multiple agents, hypersensitivity reactions, and different disease consequences.
... Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 182 2 of 21 these comprise Israel [13], Jordan [14,15], Egypt [16], Turkey [17], Iran [18], Saudi Arabia [19,20] and Kuwait [21,22]. Although the impact of meteorological factors on air quality is considerable and well established, studies concerning the relationship between fungal counts and air pollutants are still few [23]. ...
... Aspergillus presented a seasonal pattern: the highest deposition density was in August and the lowest in January. Aspergillus sp. was the predominant taxa in many countries' outdoor environments, like Kuwait [22] and Saudi Arabia [19,49]. ...
This research was conducted to investigate the dynamics of airborne fungi using viable culture collection and in respect to different abiotic variables, including seasonal and intra-diurnal variations. A gravimetric method was used to sample airborne fungal deposition on potato dextrose agar plates on alternate days, for a year between April 2015 to March 2016. From 176 settle plate exposures, a total of 1197 mould and 283 yeast colony-forming units (CFU), 21 genera and 62 species were retrieved. The highest fungal spore count was recorded in February 2016, whereas the lowest count occurred in August 2015. The main constituents of the fungal airspora were attributed to Cladosporium (60.2%), Aspergillus (10.4%), Fusarium (9.4%), Alternaria (8.5%), and Ganoderma spp. (2.3%). Temperature was negatively correlated with total colony count (r = −0.231, p ≤ 0.05) or species richness (r = −0.267, p ≤ 0.001), while wind speed was positively correlated with total colony count (r = 0.484, p ≤ 0.001) or species richness (r = 0.257, p ≤ −0.001). The highest dispersal of fungal spores was obtained at 18:00, whereas the lowest fungal spores release was recorded at 00:00 (midnight). There were no significant differences in species composition and richness of the airborne fungal population between two study sites, the Industrial area and Qatar University Campus. The count of Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. were significantly higher at the Industrial area site, which corresponds to a higher CO2 level than the Qatar University site. This study lays the foundation for future work to assess the implications of such aeromycological data on public health.
... A similar result was also found by Singh et al.29 and Pandit et al.12 in Delhi, India. Khan et al.,30 from Kuwait have also found Aspergillus species to be the predominant component of the aerospora. Fungal genera other than four fungi were Fusarium, Curvularia, Drechslera, Mucor, and Rhizopus. ...
... Nonsporing isolates and yeast were also frequently isolated but they were grouped into “others.” Some of these fungi have been reported as the most common airborne fungi in different environments in other studies also12,23,26–30 and have been considered to be the potent allergens in aerospora of many indoor and outdoor environments contributing to the increase in respiratory diseases in children as well as adults.31–33 Aspergillus was the most diverse genera in terms of number of species identified in the present study. ...
Allergy to fungi has been linked to a wide range of illnesses, including rhinitis and asthma. Therefore, exposure to fungi in home environment is an important factor for fungal allergy. The present study was aimed to investigate types of airborne fungi inside and outside the homes of asthmatic children and control subjects (nonasthmatic children). The dominant fungi were evaluated for their quantitative distribution and seasonal variation. The air samples were collected from indoors and immediate outdoors of 77 selected homes of children suffering from bronchial asthma/allergic rhinitis using Andersen volumetric air sampler. The isolated fungal genera/species were identified using reference literature, and statistical analysis of the dominant fungi was performed to study the difference in fungal concentration between indoor and immediate outdoor sites as well as in between different seasons. A total of 4423 air samples were collected from two indoor and immediate outdoor sites in a 1-year survey of 77 homes. This resulted in the isolation of an average of 110,091 and 107,070 fungal colonies per metric cube of air from indoor and outdoor sites, respectively. A total of 68 different molds were identified. Different species of Aspergillus, Alternaria, Cladosporium, and Penicillium were found to be the most prevalent fungi in Delhi homes, which constituted 88.6% of the total colonies indoors. Highest concentration was registered in autumn and winter months. Total as well as dominant fungi displayed statistically significant differences among the four seasons (p < 0.001). The largest number of isolations were the species of Aspergillus (>40% to total colony-forming units in indoors as well as outdoors) followed by Cladosporium spp. Annual concentration of Aspergillus spp. was significantly higher (p < 0.05) inside the homes when compared with outdoors. Most of the fungi also occurred at a significantly higher (p < 0.001) rate inside the homes when compared with immediate outdoors. Asthmatic children in Delhi are exposed to a substantial concentration of mold inside their homes as well as immediate outdoor air. The considerable seasonal distributions of fungi provide valuable data for investigation of the role of fungal exposure as a risk for respiratory disorders among patients suffering from allergy or asthma in Delhi.
... Although the Middle East is generally regarded as a desert environment, there are significant seasonal aeroallergens. [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] These aeroallergens may result in symptom worsening, use of medical resources, and even reduced combat effectiveness. Here, a review was conducted using a Medline search with the keywords "allergic rhinitis," "aeroallergen," and "pollen" for the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). ...
... Indoor and outdoor molds, predominantly Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and Penicillium, primarily occur during November to January and July. 8 Mold sensitization may have a greater impact for individuals with asthma, rather than allergic rhinitis alone. 3,5 ...
Current military operations in the Middle East involve active duty, National Guard, and reserve troops from all services. Despite common misconceptions, the desert environment in this region has significant aeroallergen seasons that may exacerbate allergic rhinitis.
To review perennial and seasonal aeroallergen trends in the Middle East.
Most countries have significant grass and weed pollen seasons during April to May and September to October, respectively. Indigenous trees such as date palm, acacia, and mesquite have specific pollen seasons from March to May. Mold allergens are perennial with seasonal peaks, whereas house dust mite is common in humid coastal regions.
Seasonal and perennial allergens observed in the United States are also found in the Middle East. Furthermore, the prevalence of allergic rhinitis in these countries suggests that local aeroallergens exacerbate symptoms. Health care providers should counsel deploying soldiers with allergic rhinitis regarding relevant allergen trends, ensuring that these individuals have appropriate medications.
... Fluctuations of airborne mycoflora using volumetric methods have been previously conducted in several cities of Saudi Arabia (Hasnain et al., 1998(Hasnain et al., , 2005, Kuwait (Davies, 1969;Halwagy 1994;Khan et al., 1999), Palestine (Waisel et al., 1997), and Jordan (Abu-Dieyeh et al. 2010;Abu-Dieyeh and Barham, 2014), where Cladosporium and Alternaria were cited among the commonest and most abundant fungal spores outdoors. In Qatar, two aeromycological studies have been previously conducted, from March 1997to March 1998(Al-Subai, 2002, and from April 2015 to March 2016 (Fayad, 2016) using gravimetric methodology and agar Petri dishes and both showed the predominance of Cladosporium and Alternaria in Doha city. ...
Because no consistent previous aerobiological studies exist from Qatar, the aim of this study is to define the seasonality and intradiurnal behaviour of two airborne fungal spores (Alternaria and Cladosporium) and the role that, in such arid scene, the meteorological parameters play on the spore concentrations.
... Fluctuations of airborne mycoflora using volumetric methods have been previously conducted in several cities of Saudi Arabia (Hasnain et al., 1998(Hasnain et al., , 2005, Kuwait (Davies, 1969;Halwagy 1994;Khan et al., 1999), Palestine (Waisel et al., 1997), and Jordan (Abu-Dieyeh et al. 2010;Abu-Dieyeh and Barham, 2014), where Cladosporium and Alternaria were cited among the commonest and most abundant fungal spores outdoors. In Qatar, two aeromycological studies have been previously conducted, from March 1997to March 1998(Al-Subai, 2002, and from April 2015 to March 2016 (Fayad, 2016) using gravimetric methodology and agar Petri dishes and both showed the predominance of Cladosporium and Alternaria in Doha city. ...
Daily monitoring of airborne fungal spores was carried out for the first time in Al Khor city, Qatar, using a Hirst type 7-day recording volumetric spore trap, from May 2017 to May 2019. During the sampling period, the annual and monthly fluctuations, as well as intradiurnal variations of airborne fungal spore concentrations, were evaluated. Cladosporium, followed by Alternaria, were the spore types most abundant in the atmosphere of the city, with a strong interannual variability in the atmospheric concentrations being observed. The Annual Spore Integrals (ASIns) were 3334 and 1172 spore * day/m3 (2017–2018), and 6796 and 1538 spore * day/m3 (2018–2019) for Cladosporium and Alternaria, respectively. Total daily spore concentrations showed significantly positive correlations with mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures but significantly negative correlations with relative humidity. However, due to the scarce rainfalls’ days, we did not find a statistically significant correlations between Cladosporium and Alternaria spore concentrations and this parameter. Despite this, the spore peaks were strongly related to precipitations that occurred during the previous month. In general, no significant correlations were found with wind speed but, regarding wind direction, the higher percentage of spores were collected when wind blows from the 4th quadrant (NW). According to the intradiurnal pattern, Cladosporium fungal spores displayed their maximum daily concentration during 8:00–10:00 h in the morning, with a second peak in the afternoon, while for Alternaria, the maximum peaks were observed between 08:00 and 14:00 h. Because no consistent previous aerobiological studies exist from Qatar, the aim of this study is to define the seasonality and intradiurnal behaviour of these two airborne fungal spore and the role that, in such arid scene, the meteorological parameters play on the spore concentrations.
... The present work shows high incidences of Aspergillus and Penicillium in the atmosphere of Havana over the five years studied. Both genera are among the most frequent and abundant in the outdoor air in various parts of the world (Afzal & Mehdi, 2002;Herrera et al., 2003;Khan et al., 1999). Studies carried out in India, Brazil, Colombia and Israel have found that they predominate over other genera (Bezerra et al., 2014;Grishkan et al., 2012;Mandloi et al., 2012). ...
Aspergillus and Penicillium spores occur with considerable frequency in the outdoor air, and their presence is important due to implications in health, agriculture and biodeterioration of cultural heritage. The objective of this research was to study their abundance in the atmosphere of Havana from 2013 to 2017. Two study methods were used, viable method monitoring of the spores with Chirana Aeroscope equipment and the other a non-viable method Lanzoni VPPS 2000. The Aspergillus/Penicillium spores were found to occur with high frequency, their atmospheric concentration varied statistically between climatic seasons, the highest incidence was detected during 2013 and 2015. Aspergillus was more abundant (69%) than Penicillium (31%), with a predominance of the Flavi and Nigri sections, and for Penicillium predominated Penicillium and Furcatum. The viable method, 23 species of Aspergillus and 22 of Penicillium were identified, of which A. flavus, A. niger, P. aurantiogriseum and P. citrinum predominated. A greater degree of similarity was observed in the composition of Aspergillus species, with higher indices (Di,j 0.40-0.73) compared to Penicillium (Di,j 0.30-0.55). The principal component analysis (PCA) showed a high degree of positive association between Aspergillus/Penicillium and relative humidity (non-viable method) and between Aspergillus and Penicillium and maximum and average temperatures (viable method).
... These pollens appear to be the dominant aeroallergens because they are commonly identified during allergy skin testing and pollen surveys [19]. House dust mite, cat, and cockroach allergens are found in public places (e.g., mosques, restaurants, nurseries, hospitals, cinemas, and schools) but do not reach levels that are typically associated with exacerbation of symptoms [20]. ...
A worldwide increase in prevalence of allergic diseases have led to adaptations in national and international health care systems. ARIA initiative (Allergic Rhinitis and Its Impact on Asthma) develops internationally applicable guidelines for allergic respiratory diseases. In collaboration with international initiatives, ARIA offers updates of real life integrated care pathways (ICP) for digitally assisted, integrative, individualized treatment of allergic rhinitis (AR). This article presents the specificity of heath care system in Kuwait in regards to management of AR, with the intention to introduce proposed ICP and adopt latest ARIA recommendations. Guidelines for ICP includes views of patients and healthcare providers and covers key areas of allergic rhinitis management. This model of guidelines support real life health care better than traditional mod-els. Aiming at improving both pharmacotherapy and allergy immunotherapy (AIT), ARIA recommendations will be locally integrated in the health care system.
... The increase in air pollution in Turkey and abroad in recent years and resulting increase in respiratory system diseases especially in humans led to an increasing number of studies on the topic. Khan et al. (1999) conducted a year-long study to investigate the aerial distribution of Aspergillus and other molds in domestic and outdoors air environment. They utilized Andersen sampler and Rose-Bengal Agar. ...
Microbial fauna of the outdoor ambient air of Istanbul has been determined in European side of Istanbul province at four different districts (Bakirkoy, Fatih, Basaksehir and Esenler) by active and passive sedimentation sampling methods. In addition to meteorological factors, the effect of urbanization and traffic density for the air microbial load is also determined. Outdoor air sampling was performed between April 2014 and November 2015. The sedimentation method was done by standart plate count agar (PCA) opening the cover of the petri dishes containing a prepared medium. Standart plate count agar (PCA) medium was used for the determination of total bacteria while malt extract agar (MEA) was used for fungi. The colonies formed at the end of this period were counted and total number of bacteria and fungi per unit volume and area were determined. Air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction were also recorded. As a result of the active sampling method, the most counted units of bacteria was determined at 350C in Basaksehir station as 222 CFU(Colony forming unit)/m 3 , maximum fungal was determined as 286 CFU/m 3 at 20 0 C incubation temperature. The maximum amount of bacteria in the passive sampling method results at 35 0 C was in Bakirkoy station as 9250 CFU/m 3 .
... The greatest concentration of Alternaria spores was noted at the harvesting time (5)(6)(7) . Surveys on these aspects have been made in different countries of the world following impaction or sedimentation method (8)(9)(10)(11) . The sedimentation method is still quite popular in India and some other countries. ...
In an average, 6648 fungal colony forming units were settled within five minutes on one square meter area at morning and evening from the air of Dhaka Metropolitan city during February, 2013 to January, 2014. Among the identified fungi, Aspergillus was one of the most dominating genera in all the stations during the above mentioned period. The second was Cladosporium followed by Penicillium, Alternaria, Curvularia, Fusarium, Pestalotia, Colletotrichum, Tricho‐derma, Rhizopus, Nigrospora, Chaetomium, Syncephalastrum, Arthrinium and Bipolaris. In the dry winter (December‐February), Alternaria, Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Drechslera showed its peak. In the rainy monsoon (June ‐ September), Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Pestalotia and Trichoderma showed their peak. Dhaka Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 24(1): 25-33, 2015 (January)
... The increase in air pollution in Turkey and abroad in recent years and resulting increase in respiratory system diseases especially in humans led to an increasing number of studies on the topic. Khan et al. (1999) conducted a year-long study to investigate the aerial distribution of Aspergillus and other molds in domestic and outdoors air environment. They utilized Andersen sampler and Rose-Bengal Agar. ...
... spores were noted at the harvesting seasons (10,11). Surveys on these aspects have been made in different countries of the world following impaction or sedimentation method (12)(13)(14)(15). The sedimentation method is still quite popular in India and some other countries as it is cheap, simple and recommended by Polish Standards (15)(16)(17). ...
The indoor and outdoor air is an important source of aeroallergens and pathogens. Monthly samplings were recorded during September to November 2018 to investigate the airborne mycoflora concentration in Curzon hall campus, University of Dhaka. The fungal colonies developed in Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) media were isolated from four different locations in the morning, noon and evening in monthly intervals. A total number of counted fungal colonies were 2,681 in which 924, 928 and 829 colonies were found in the morning, noon and evening time, respectively. Among the identified fungi, Aspergillus spp. was one of the most predominant genera in all the stations over the study period followed by Penicillium spp. Alternaria spp., Curvularia spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizopus spp. and Trichoderma. The identified fungi belonged to eight genera under the class Ascomycetes, Zygomycetes and Deuteromycetes. Among the fungal isolates, Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Curvularia spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus spp. were previously reported as pathogenic to plants and/or humans and strongly allergenic to human being. Stamford Journal of Microbiology, Vol.9(1) 2019: 32-35
... 31 In one study that provided useful information on the prevam m lence of allergic fungi in the outdoor and indoor envim m ronments of Kuwait, important fungal species such as Aspergillus (A. fumigatus, A. flavus), Alternaria, Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Pencillium and other aspergilli were investigated and identified in outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait in year 1999, over a 12mmonth study period. 32 During our 12mmonth study, December showed the greatest differences in meteorological data such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, wind direcm m tion and precipitation. The monthly total fungal spore and pollen count was high (196.03 ...
BACKGROUND
The increasing prevalence of asthma in many countries has been related to weather factors and aeroallergen concentrations, but this has not been studied in Kuwait. We evaluated the effect of meteorological factors and the occurrence of aerobiologicals on the number of asthma cases in Kuwait.
METHODS
The number of daily asthma visits to the allergy center and emergency department at Al-Sabha Hospital for 1 year were examined on a monthly basis for correlation with major metereological factors (temperature, relative humidity, rain, wind speed and direction). Spore and pollen counts were collected hourly.
RESULTS
A total of 4353 patients received asthma treatment during the year. The highest pollen count was in the month of September with a maximum relative humidity of 47% and no precipitation, but with a high mean temperature of 39.7ºC. Pollen counts were higher in the late summer (September) and occurred with a high patient visit to the allergy center. Fungal spore counts were significantly higher in early winter (December). The high fungal spore count seemed related to with high relative humidity and high precipitation with a low mean average temperature of 19.7ºC. The increase number of patients with bronchial asthma visiting an emergency clinic during December was significantly associated with high aerial counts for fungal spores (P<.03), and the months of September and October were more significant for pollen.
CONCLUSION
This study indicates that meteorological factors, aeroallergen concentrations and asthma-related visits are interrelated. The results may prove useful in the generation of hypotheses and development of designs for more comprehensive, individual-based epidemiological studies.
... formed the major component of the indoor airspora followed by Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Bipolaris spp [49]. ...
The prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases are on the rise globally. Despite advances in the diagnostic tools
and treatment modalities, control of such diseases has not been possible. The etiological or allergenic factors
responsible for inducing asthma and allergy in genetically predisposed or susceptible individuals are present in
outdoor and indoor environment. In this review, published data for aeroallergens from countries in the Middle
East and some neighboring countries are presented. The data indicated their qualitative and quantitative
variations in the region. Some plant species were found to be different from those prevalent in western part
of the world. In Saudi Arabia, weed pollen, including Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium murale and
Salsola imbricata, were amongst the most common outdoor allergens. As regards to indoor allergens, House
Dust Mites, cat, American cockroach, German cockroach and Oriental cockroach as well as fungal spores such
as Alternaria alternata, Ulocladium atrium and Cladosporium sphaerospermum were found in the region.
However, not all the countries in the region have reported detailed information on aeroallergens. Therefore,
there is still a lack of information from most of the countries in the region.
Further studies are required from most countries in the region in order to ascertain etiological factors and their
prevalence in the region. The data presented in this review can thus be improved by further investigations and
evaluating the clinical impact of dominating factors in both outdoor and indoor environment. The information
can also be utilized for the implementation of environmental control in the respective region.
... Surveys on these aspects have been made in different countries of the world following impaction or sedimentation method (Li and Kendrick 1995, Khan et. al. 1999, Sharma 2011. The sedimentation method is still quite popular in India and some other countries. The method is cheap and simple and is also recommended by Polish Standards (Fleischer et al. 2006, Sekulska et al. 2007, Sharma 2011. ...
In an average, 2106 fungal colony forming units were settled within ten minutes on one square meter area at noon from the air of Dhaka University campus during February 2011 to January 2012. Among the identified fungi, Aspergillus was one of the most dominating genus in all the stations over the study period. The second was Penicillium followed by Cladopsorium, Curvularia, Alternaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Pestalotia, Rhizopus and Colletotrichum. In the dry winter (December-February), Alternaria, Cladosporium, Curvularia and Rhizopus showed its peak. Hot humid summer (April) is the most favourable season for the occurrence of Colletotrichum. Similarity has been found in fungal biodiversity in the indoor and outdoor air. However, higher number of colony was recorded from indoor (57.23%) than that of outdoor air.
... The most genera of cultivated plants suffer from diseases caused by Fusarium species [14]. In literature, the genus Fusarium has been reported 4.8 % from Kuwait [15], 0.55 -1.7 % from Croatia, the same authors reported about 0.15 -3.1 % range of occurrence from other literature sources [8]. ...
The investigation of airborne fungal spore concentration was carried out in the atmosphere of Bratislava. The spores belonging to seven fungal genera were identified (Cladosporium, Alter-naria, Fusarium, Puccinia, Epicoccum, Helminthosporium, Stemphylium). The study provides useful information on the prevalence of the allergic fungi in outdoor environments of the town.
... Its generic differentiation is very difficult by non-viable methods (Pyrri & Kapsanaki-Gotsi, 2007;Oliveira et al., 2009) and therefore, the combination with cultivation-based methods is important. The presence of Aspergillus/Penicilliumtype has been previously reported from Cuba and in the atmosphere of other tropical countries (Khan et al., 1999;Afzal & Mehdi, 2002;Herrera et al., 2003). We identified 11 Aspergillus and ten Penicillium species. ...
The Havana aeromycobiota diversity was studied from November 2010 to October 2011 using two complementary volumetric methods. A total of 35 fungal genera were characterised, 26 of them were recognised only by non-viable methods, six with viable methodology and the other three with both sampling methods. Furthermore, 47 species were identified by cultivation and the spores collected with the non-viable methodology. These could not be included in a specific genus, and thus, were categorised into five fungal types. In general, the main, spread worldwide, mitosporic fungi also predominated the Havana atmosphere. The predominant species were Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium citrinum. Moreover, several Zygomycetes (Syncephalastrum racemosum, Rhizopus stolonifer and Rhizopus oryzae), Ascomycetes (Chaetomium globosum) and Basidiomycetes such as Coprinus or Ganoderma were isolated. In the present paper, the review of the airborne fungi conducted in previous studies in Cuba was completed by the detection of two new genera and the first isolation of ten new records in the Cuban atmosphere. Most of the fungi detected showed a diurnal pattern with high spore peak at 11.00–12.00.
... In this study, Cladosporium was found to be the most predominant fungus with the highest isolation frequency and is followed by Alternaria. Cladosporium was detected to be predominant also in studies carried out in different periods, regions and locations in the world (Khan et al., 1999; Ren et al., 1999; Takahashi, 1997; Waisel et al., 1997). These 2 dominant fungi were followed by M. sterilia, Phoma, Penicillium, Aspergillus and others. ...
In this study, the variability of airborne fungal flora and their monthly distribution in the atmosphere in 5 different locations of Çanakkale Province (Turkey) were investigated by means of the petri plate gravitational method from April 1, 2000 to March 31, 2001. Samples were taken from air by exposing petri dishes with malt extract agar (MEA) and rose bengal chloramphenicol (RBCA) media for 15 min. Then growing colonies were enumerated. Fungi were isolated in 360 petri dishes used and 4105 colonies were counted. By identification of these isolations, 19 genera (Cladosporium, Alternaria, Penicillium, Phoma, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Chaetomium, Chrysosporium, Didymocladium, Doratomyces, Drechslera, Fusarium, Humicola, Mucor, Rhizoctonia, Rhizopus, Sporotricum, Trichoderma, Ulocladium), 21 species blonging to 10 genera and Mycellia sterilia were determined. The most predominants were Cladosporium (27.5%), Alternaria (18.5%), M. sterilia (13.5%), Phoma (7.9%), Penicillium (6.7%) and Aspergillus (5.9%). In addition most of fungi isolated were important aeroallergens and phythopathogens.
... Different species of Penicillium and Aspergillus genera were determined in this study (table 2). Cladosporium genus was the most frequent and predominant genus detected in our study (this genus has been determined to be predominant in many studies such as Khan et al. [36], Hu et al. [5]), followed by the Penicillium, Alternaria and Aspergillus genera (table 2). The TUH is not situated in a residential district. ...
The aim of this investigation was to monitor monthly the densities and distribution of indoor airborne fungi and bacteria in 6 different areas of Trakya University Hospital (Edirne, Turkey). Areas monitored were an operating theatre, birthing-room, emergency department, service area for infectious diseases, intensive care unit and the canteen. Our method was to expose Petri dishes which contained rose-bengal streptomycin agar and 5% sheep-blood agar media to room air for 10-min periods. Samples were collected at 1-month intervals from September 2000 to February 2001. A total of 156 microfungal and 535 bacterial colonies were counted on 144 plates. During a 6-month period, 10 bacterial genera (Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Listeria, Micrococcus, Propionibacteria, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) 7 fungal genera (Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Scopulariopsis and Trichothecium) and 33 fungal species were isolated from the hospital air. Penicillium loliense, P. melinii and P.phoeniceum were newly recognised species for Turkey. Some bacterial species such as coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, Micrococcus and Corynebacterium spp. were predominant (percentages of colonies counted were 72.2, 10.7 and 8.8%, respectively). Cladosporium and Penicillium were the most prevalent fungal genera. Cladosporium was predominant in September, November and February, Alternaria in October and December and Penicillium in January. Staphylococcus spp. was the most common bacterial species in all months. Statistical analyses (regression with optimal scaling test) were applied to the data.
... Abdel Hameed (2005) found airborne fungi at mean values of 71, 64, and 175 CFU/p/h in urban and vegetable and chamomile growing areas, respectively. Cladosporium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, and Penicillium are the dominant fungal genera in the air environment (Khan et al. 1999). ...
The objective of this research was to investigate the prevalence and distribution of airborne and waterborne fungi and actinomycetes
along the main stream of the Nile river during April to July, 2005. Air and water samples were collected at eight sites within
a ~50km stretch of the river. The distribution and prevalence of air and water microorganisms varied with location. The highest
counts of airborne fungi (516CFU/p/h) and actinomycetes (222CFU/p/h) were detected at suburban sites near cultivated areas.
However, the highest counts of waterborne fungi (56.4CFU/ml) and actinomycetes (15.4CFU/ml) were detected at Al-Galaa (city
centre) and Kafr-El-elwe (south Cairo), respectively. A total of 1,816 fungal colonies (943 isolates from air and 873 from
water samples) belonging to 27 genera were identified. Aspergillus, Alternaria, Cladosporium, and yeasts were the predominant fungal types in both air and water environments. Dreschlera, Emericella, Nigrospora, Spicaria, Stachybotrys, and Verticillium were only detected in the air, and Epicoccum, Philaphora,
Phoma and Ulocladium were only detected in the water. Mycotoxin-producing fungi represented by Aspergillusflavus, Aspergillusparasiticus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Trichoderma were found in the air and water environments. Significant differences (P≤0.05) were found between fungal populations in air and water at different sampling sites. No significant differences (P≥0.05) were found between waterborne actinomycetes. Sampling location, human activity, and pollution load are the main factors
affecting the variability and biodiversity of microorganisms in different microenvironments.
... Fungal propagules can serve as infective agents of plant diseases and, moreover, airborne fungi cause spoilage of foods and are responsible for many adverse health effects; the mycotoxins which they produce may affect humans and animals. Aeromycological research from the Middle East area is limited and scattered; in Egypt (Saad 1958; Zaky 1960; Moustafa 1971; Moubasher and Moustafa 1974; Abdel-Hafez et al. 1986; Abdul Wahid et al. 1996; Ismail et al. 2002), in Israel (Ben-Meir-Gleuck 1952; Barkai-Golan 1959, 1961 ; Golan and Clazer 1962; Bashan et al. 1991), in Kuwait (Moustafa 1975; Moustafa and Al-Musallam 1976; Khan et al. 1999), in Qatar (Al-Subai 2002), in Saudi Arabia (Abdel-Hafez 1984; Abdel-Hafez and Shoreit 1985; Hasnain et al. 2005), in Yemen (El-Essawy et al. 1992), in Turkey (Colakoglu 1996; Sarica et al. 2002; Sakiyan and Inceoglu 2003; Asan et al. 2004; O ¨ zkara et al. 2007) and in Iran (Hedayati et al. 2005; Nourian et al. 2007). In Jordan, aerobiological studies are scarce (Eisawi and Dajani 1987, 1988; Al-Qura'n 2008) with only a single article published about aeromycology of the Amman area (Shaheen 1992 ). ...
Fungi are among the most important aeroallergens. The aim of this study was to provide aeromycological baseline information
about Zarqa area, Jordan, for the first time. During the entire survey and from 170 settle plate exposures, a total of 735
mould- and 274 yeast colony-forming units (CFU) were collected. mould colonies were assigned to 35 genera and 59 species.
The highest abundance was attributed to Cladosporium with a percentage of 29.1% of the total colony count followed by Fusarium 20%, Alternaria 7.7%, Ulocladium 6.5% Penicillium 4.2% and then Aspergillus 3.6%. Cladosporium showed one peak in October while Aspergillus and Penicillium peaked in September. Fusarium peaked in May and August and Alternaria in March and July. However, Ulocladium showed almost the same abundance from March to June and then in September and December. A double peak in total colony count
and fungal diversity was found, the first was in March and the second in November–December. Significant differences of total
fungal colony counts favouring the 1500hours collection time over that at 1000hours were found between November and January
while no such significant differences were obtained between February and April. Our results also indicated differences in
species composition between the two periods in different months. Spores of the three abundant species, Cladosporium, Fusarium and Alternaria, might favour high release in the 1500hours period during winter while having a similar incidence during the two periods
in the spring months.
KeywordsFungal spores-Aeromycology-Airborne-Aerobiology-Jordan
... Shared and specific allergens among these species have also been reported (Aggarwal et al. 2000;Shen et al. 1999Shen et al. , 2007Aalberse 2007). Aspergillus tamarii has also been identified as an important source of allergens Aggarwal et al., 2000;Shivpuri and Agarwal 1969;Khan et al. 1999). However, to the best of our knowledge, a detailed analysis of its allergens has not been reported. ...
Aspergillus-derived inhalant allergens play an important role in the etiology of allergic respiratory diseases. In the present study, we investigated the allergenic potential of Aspergillus tamarii, quantified its airborne content, identified its major/minor allergens, evaluated heterogeneity of patients' IgE response to its allergens and cross-reactivity of its allergens with other Aspergillus allergens. Skin prick tests with A tamarii extract were performed on 300 patients of bronchial asthma/allergic rhinitis and 20 healthy volunteers. Sixty-six patients (22%) elicited positive cutaneous reactions to A tamarii extract. Only one of the 20 non-allergic healthy volunteer showed a mild positive cutaneous reaction. Allergen-specific IgE levels increased with increase in patients' cutaneous response (0% in negative to 100% in 3+/4+). The skin positivity and allergen-specific IgE levels were significantly higher in patients compared to healthy volunteers (P>0.05). However, no differences were found for these two parameters among patients of bronchial asthma, allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma with allergic rhinitis. The airborne A tamarii allergen content was highest in February and October. A tamarii extract revealed at least 22 proteins (13.3-120 kDa). Seventeen of these proteins bound patients' IgE with six being major allergens (13.3, 23, 25, 34, 39.5, 43 kDa). Three major allergens (13.3, 34, 43 kDa) were found to cross-react with A flavus and one (34 kDa) with A niger. Our results revealed that A tamarii allergen(s) are present in the air, which might serve as important inhalant allergens in IgE-mediated allergic respiratory diseases.
... 31 In one study that provided useful information on the prevam m lence of allergic fungi in the outdoor and indoor envim m ronments of Kuwait, important fungal species such as Aspergillus (A. fumigatus, A. flavus), Alternaria, Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Pencillium and other aspergilli were investigated and identified in outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait in year 1999, over a 12mmonth study period. 32 During our 12mmonth study, December showed the greatest differences in meteorological data such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, wind direcm m tion and precipitation. The monthly total fungal spore and pollen count was high (196.03 ...
The increasing prevalence of asthma in many countries has been related to weather factors and aeroallergen concentrations, but this has not been studied in Kuwait. We evaluated the effect of meteorological factors and the occurrence of aerobiologicals on the number of asthma cases in Kuwait.
The number of daily asthma visits to the allergy center and emergency department at Al-Sabha Hospital for 1 year were examined on a monthly basis for correlation with major metereological factors (temperature, relative humidity, rain, wind speed and direction). Spore and pollen counts were collected hourly.
A total of 4353 patients received asthma treatment during the year. The highest pollen count was in the month of September with a maximum relative humidity of 47% and no precipitation, but with a high mean temperature of 39.7 degrees C. Pollen counts were higher in the late summer (September) and occurred with a high patient visit to the allergy center. Fungal spore counts were significantly higher in early winter (December). The high fungal spore count seemed related to with high relative humidity and high precipitation with a low mean average temperature of 19.7 degrees C. The increase number of patients with bronchial asthma visiting an emergency clinic during December was significantly associated with high aerial counts for fungal spores (P<.03), and the months of September and October were more significant for pollen.
This study indicates that meteorological factors, aeroallergen concentrations and asthma-related visits are interrelated. The results may prove useful in the generation of hypotheses and development of designs for more comprehensive, individual-based epidemiological studies.
... This observation is probably related to the bioaerosol properties of S. chartarum spores, which are large, sticky, and require mechanical disturbance for dispersion (Burge, 2001). Stachybotrys spores have been detected as a minor component of indoor and outdoor air throughout the world, ranging from temperate to arid and desert climates (Shelton et al., 2002; Al Suwaine et al., 1999; Khan et al., 1999). ...
Trichothecenes are agriculturally important mycotoxins of relevance to human health. Fungi capable of producing trichothecenes can be found throughout the world, and include certain species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, and Stachybotrys. The production of mycotoxins by these toxigenic species is determined by genetic factors and the environmental conditions of their growth. The environmental fate of trichothecenes may be affected by other microorganisms that can detoxify them. Deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin are examples of trichothecenes that are detectable as natural and unavoidable contaminants of certain agricultural commodities as well as commercial foods. Current estimates of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin are below thresholds for adverse effects that have been reported in experimental animal studies, although historical epidemics of human illness have rarely been described in association with consumption of food derived from heavily contaminated grains. The toxicodynamic properties of trichothecenes include inhibition of protein synthesis and immunomodulatory effects. Very little information is available relating to their toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics in humans. While there is general agreement that the diet represents an important source of human exposure to trichothecenes, risk assessment from non-dietary routes of exposure is complicated by the limited epidemiological data that are currently available.
... Plates were firstly inspected after 4 days of incubation and it continued up to 14 days. 18,19 Mould colonies were transported to tubes containing MEA and PDA. Fungi were identified to genus level using the set of dichotomous keys and a set of picture keys. ...
Airborne fungal pathogens such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Trichophyton, and Alternaria may cause health problems. In this research, the fungal flora at different bakeries and their potential allergenic effects on the workers were investigated. We investigated 148 workers at 17 industrial type bakeries and 62 workers at 17 home type bakeries in Afyon. Our study was performed in two different seasons and climates, between January 2004 and June 2004. Fungal flora was detected by using Petri-dish method. In the winter, Penicillium was the dominant genus, while Cladosporium was the dominant genus during the summer, in both types of bakeries. The allergenic properties of dominant culturable fungi on workers involved in the bakeries were determined with the skin-prick test. It was found that with workers in the industrial type bakeries, the most common skin test positivity was caused by Penicillium. In the other hand, the skin test positivity, performed on workers in the home type bakeries, was equally caused by Penicillium, Trichophyton and Aspergillus.
... The vast majority of toxicological literature on mycotoxins has focused on dietary exposure, as mycotoxins are natural and unavoidable contaminants of food and animal feed (29). There is also considerable data demonstrating that fungal spores, including potentially toxigenic species, are commonly found in outdoor air environments ranging from deserts to arctic climates (30)(31)(32)(33)(34). There is a relative paucity of data, however, on the prevalence and risk of exposure to toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins from solid matrices other than food and agricultural commodities. ...
Some epidemiological studies of damp buildings have focused on health risks from indoor exposure to toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins. Most of these studies have not considered assessment of these hazards in outdoor environments. The purpose of this investigation was to assess for toxigenic fungal species in outdoor recreational environments through the microbial analysis of locations representing opportunities for human exposure. A screening assessment was also conducted using commercially available ELISA kits to assess for trichothecene mycotoxins in outdoor samples.
Ten swab and tape-lift samples were obtained from a city park. Swabs were cultured and identified by a trained mycologist. Bulk samples of grasses were screened for deoxynivalenol using a commercial ELISA assay. A pilot study of 6 bulk samples was screened for macrocyclic trichothecenes using a commercial ELISA assay.
Tape-lift samples contained trace to moderate spores. Penicillium and Aspergillus-like spores were identified in 50% of tape-lift samples. 50% of swab samples contained potentially toxigenic species of Penicillium (P. citrinum, P. brevicompactum, P. chrysogenum). None of the bulk samples tested positive for deoxynivalenol. 3 of 6 (50%) bulk samples were positive for macrocyclic trichothecenes (> 0.2 ppb), however both negative control samples also tested positive.
Potentially toxigenic fungi were commonly encountered in an outdoor, recreational environment. Future epidemiological studies need to consider outdoor activities in hazard and exposure assessment. Further work is needed to define the accuracy of commercially developed ELISA kits that are being used for the detection of mycotoxins in environmental samples.
In aquaculture, biological hazards can be exposed to workers in the form of bioaerosols. This study is to evaluate the level of biological hazard exposure and to provide fundamental data for the health management of aquaculture workers in Korea. A field survey was conducted to measure bioaerosol exposure at ten aquaculture farms in areas where Korean aquaculture is concentrated. Airborne bacteria and fungi with size distribution and identification were measured by simultaneously monitoring temperature and relative humidity. Particularly, high concentrations of airborne bacteria and fungi were observed in farms G and H. Compared to the standards set by the Korean Ministry of Environment, both total airborne bacteria and fungi concentrations exceeded the limit in farms G and H, with the airborne fungi concentration showing four times higher than the standard. As a cause, it is believed to be the quantity and form of work. In size distribution, it was similar to previous study. However, the respirable size range accounted for more than 50% of total concentration, so extra caution should be needed. Staphylococcus spp., Micrococcus spp., Corynebacterium spp., and Bacillus spp. are dominant species for airborne bacteria whereas Cladosporium spp., Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Alternaria spp. are dominant species for airborne fungi. Most farms had concentrations below the standard, but two farms exceeded the standard, likely due to work type. And some caution is needed for respirable size bioaerosol. Further research is needed, considering additional factors such as tank type, fish species, and type of works.
The epidemiology of ringworm in two cattle herds in Baghdad area was studied during the period from
September 2001 to August 2002.Two hundred skin scraping were collected from the infected area. The
prevalence of infection was 68%. In males it was lower (37.5%) than females (62.5%) and higher in less than
one year old animals. The prevalence was highest in January (16.5%). Eleven species of fungi were diagnosed,
these include; Trichophyton verrucosum, T. rubrum,T.metagrophytes, Aspergillus fumigatus , A. flavus , A.
Niger , A.terru , Mucor spp. , Altenaria alternata , Rhizopus and Fusarium spp. , one species of yeast Candida
albicans.
Increased urbanization and industrialization in recent time has made a significant impact on air quality of the area. The atmosphere is rich in propagule of different fungal species. The investigation on airborne Aspergillus contribution was conducted in Periphery of Raipur city from February, 2018 to March, 2019 with the help of gravity petriplate containing PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) medium. In this study, total 11 species of Aspergillus were recorded. The percentage frequency and percentage contribution of different Aspergillus species were different in different seasons. Aspergillus niger was most frequent throughout the year followed by Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus, and A. nidulans etc. While Aspergillus clavatus, and A. versicolor, A. aculeatus were the least frequent species. The result indicated the highest percentage contribution of Aspergillus niger (43.29 percent) followed by A. fumigatus (9.02percent), A. flavus (8.42 percent) while A. clavatus (0.21 percent). The objective of the studies was to determine a seasonal variation in concentrations of Aspergillus on the basis of meteorological parameters.
Indoor health risks including allergies, infections and toxicity. The conjunction of several factors Physical (temperature, light, humidity), chemical (breathing, acidity, oxidation of cellulose) and biological (mites, fungi, bacteria and viruses) influences the ability causing damage to library collections. The adoption of conservation measures, such as hygiene, it is essential to prevent contamination by harmful agents to health. The objective of this study was to investigate the presence of fungi in indoor environments in seven public and private libraries in Cuiabá and Várzea Grande-MT and its impact on occupational health. 332 dust samples collected by three techniques: impactor/air sampler (2,229/12.3%), exposure plating (6,578/25.1%) and sterile swab (16,387/62.6%) were isolated 26,194 UFC's and identified 183 fungal species. Of these, 157 were micelianas and 26 yeast, totaling 53 rates, and (43/81.1%) and mycelial genres (10/18.9%) yeast. The genus Aspergillus (10,628/40.6%) was one of the main fungi present in indoor air. Aspergillus niger (3,219/12.3%) was identified as the most prevalent species in literary environments, followed by Cryptococcus spp. (1,865/7.1%) and Cladosporium cladosporioides (1,825/7.0%). In regard to seasonal distribution, fungal propagules were more frequently isolated in the dry season/drought (14 132/54%) compared to the wet season/rainy (12,062/46%). In regard to seasonal distribution, fungal propagules were more frequently isolated in the dry season/drought (14,132/54%) compared to the wet season/rainy (12,062/46%). Of the two climatic periods predominated of the following genera: Aspergillus spp, Rhodotorula spp, Cladosporium spp, Cryptococcus, Fusarium spp, Penicillium spp, Paecilomyces spp, Curvularia spp, Alternaria spp, Trichoderma spp, Rhizopus, Aureobasidium spp, Chrysonilia sitophila, Mucor spp, Candida spp. The temperature was considered an aggravating factor in fungal proliferation in these establishments. The evaluated environments suitable substrates presented in the form of books and documents associated with dust and moisture from the air conditioners. Diversity and high frequency of airborne fungi was observed. This fact is relevant because of these environments shelter staff constantly exposed to microrganism identified. These findings shed light on the issue of minimizing the risk of exposure to pathogenic and toxigenic microfocus fungal agents in library collections.
Today, buildings still account for almost half of the global energy consumption and carbon emission. This highlights the necessity to increase energy efficiency requirements worldwide in a common effort to reduce the construction sector's impacts on the environment. The current energy policies are driving toward a design that relies on airtight and highly insulated envelopes. As a consequence, energy efficient houses are found to have insufficient indoor air change rates, impacting on the indoor air quality and resulting in higher latent loads. The increased indoor humidity, coupled with the rising trend to use bio-based construction materials, can easily support mould growth and facilitate indoor organic proliferation. It has been estimated that the proportion of buildings damaged by mould is 45% in Europe, 40% in the USA, 30% in Canada and 50% in Australia, highlighting the extent of this issue. Beyond the economic loss due to the remediation works needed to rectify a buildings degradation due to fungi, mould also has significant adverse health effects on the building occupants. Data show that the occurrence of asthmatic symptoms is higher in new energy efficient buildings with low ventilation rate. This paper investigates the effects of building sustainably on the indoor environment in relation to the risk of mould growth. Favourable conditions for growth, causes of growth, effects on health as well as possible solutions are addressed. The conclusions are a step forward toward a more precise and detailed comprehension of mould growth to support policymakers and promote sustainable housing standards.
The corrosion morphology of Aermet100 steel, 300M steel and ultra high strength stainless steel was observed in the Penicillium funiculosum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus versicolor environments by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) equiped with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). The results showed that corrosions occur on the surface of all the three steel specimens after mold tests for 84 days, but the corrosion is serious in the Aspergillus versicolor environment. The corrosion behavior of three ultra high strength steels in the Aspergillus versicolor environment was investigated by Scanning Kelvin Probe (SKP) measurement. The results showed that the corrosion behavior of the Aermet100 and 300M steels is promoted in the Aspergillus versicolor environment, but the corrosion behavior of the ultra high strength stainless steel is inhibited due to forming the biofilm on the surface.
1848 air samples from 227 dwellings of allergic patients sensitive to moulds and non-allergic people were examined from November 1997 to October 2002. Samples were collected by the open Petri dish method. Aeromycota of Moscow dwellings is represented by at least 92 species and 32 genera of microfungi, mostly xerophilic and xerotolerant. About 80% of all found species were xerophilic and xerotolerant. Allergenic species comprised about 29%, and opportunistic ones - about 46%. The airborne fungal concentrations varied from singular propagules to 7.5 × 103 CFU/m3 and was 1.6 × 102 CFU/m3 in average. The most frequently isolated and abundant fungal genera were Penicillium (89.4 and 39.9% respectively) and Aspergillus (81.7 and 36.7% respectively) followed in frequency by Cladosporium (58.9%), Wallemia (21.1%), hyaline sterile mycelia (17.7%), Botrytis (12.8%), Alternaria (11.1%).The other genera frequency did not exceed 6%. P. verrucosum var. cyclopium, P. frequentans, A. repens, C. cladosporioides, P. chrysogenum, A. versicolor, P. brevi-compactum, W. sebi have been dominant species. Airborne and dustborne fungi of dwellings had been found to be similar in species composition and dominance structure. They represent specific united indoor mycocoenosis.
The microfungi complexes were isolated from air of the urban outdoor environment and from dwellings in St. Petersburg. Most of them are typical saprophyte fungi, someones are active biodestructors of different materials. Some micromycetes are known as potential allergic species. Microfungi are represented by 76 species and 23 genera, from Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina. The most frequently isolated species were Alternaria alternata, Aureobasidium pullulons, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Ulocladium botrytis, U. chartarum, Mycelia sterilia (Dematiaceae). The micro fungal communities included 24 % of allergic species.
An investigation of the quantity of dustborne microbes in 5 different locations of El-Beida City, Libya was carried out to assess the level of dustborne pathogens in different locations and studied the monthly and seasonal distribution for dustborne fungi. A total of 719 mould colony were collected. Mould colonies were assigned to 10 genera and 13 species. The highest abundance was attributed to P. chrysosgenium with a percentage of 29.1% of the total colony count followed by P. digitatum 20.2%, R. nigricans 16.4%, F. solani 10.7%, T. roseum, 9.9%, A. alternata 3.8% and A niger 3.6%. P. chrysosgenium showed one peak in June while A. alternata and P. digitatum peaked in June. R. nigicans peaked in April and June and F. solani in April. However, T. roseum showed almost the same abundance from January to May and then in August to November. With respect to seasons it was found that in Summer, A. alternata, P. digitatum and R. nigicans, in Autumn P. chrysogenum and T. roseum. In Spring, A. niger and F. solani. Winter had the least number of total colony. P. chrysogenum were the most prevalent fungal genera. In addition most of fungi isolated were important aeroallergens and phytopathogen.
The concentrations of airborne fungal spores were recorded and analyzed in natural and anthropogenic habitats (little settlements and houses) on the territory of Arctic Ocean (near White, Barents and Kara Seas). It is shown that the species composition is limited (39 species), and number of airborne fungi in natural landscape consistently changed with width. The lowest CFU number of airborne fungi was observed on islands of Arctic Ocean, where the average number of airborne fungi was below 1 CFU/m3. At the island territories CFU numbers usually lower, than in continental territories at the same width. Anthropogenic influence leads to some increase in CFU/m3 number. The most common were species of the genus Cladosporium, with a frequency range of 12-80%. At the territories cf the Arctic stations the airborne fungal communities are formed both by airborne fungi derived from natural landscapes and by the anthropogenically introduced species. Adaptation of some part of airborne strains to dwelling in natural landscapes is limited by the temperature factor. The structure of airborne fungal complexes in the territory of settlements depends on the anthropogenic factor and can serve as an indicator of environmental status. Indoor communities of airborne fungi include anthropogenic species, some of them are opportunistic human pathogens.
Indoor environments play important roles in human health. The health hazards posed by polluted indoor environments include allergy, infections and toxicity. Life style changes have resulted in a shift from open air environments to air tight, energy efficient, environments, in which people spend a substantial portion of their time. Most indoor air pollution comes from the hazardous non biological agents and biological agents. Fungi are ubiquitous in distribution and are a serious threat to public health in indoor environments. In this communication, we have reviewed the current status on biotic indoor air pollution, role of fungi as biological contaminants and their impact on human health.
Indoor fungi are potential sensitizing agents in children and their detection and quantification in indoor air are important
in the diagnosis and environmental management of fungal allergies. The objective of this investigation was to assess the prevalence
of fungal allergies in children in Delhi and to study the association between mold counts in the homes of children and their
sensitization to respective fungal extracts. Fungal concentrations and seasonality were studied at two-week intervals for
one year using Andersen Volumetric and Burkard Slide samplers. Sensitization to fungi frequently encountered in patients'
homes was assessed by Skin Prick Tests (SPTs). Total fungal specific IgE was measured by ELISA in the sera of patients positive
to fungal extracts. Skin Prick Tests revealed that 39.3% (33/84) of patients were markedly positive (2 + and above) to one
or the other fungal allergens. Raised serum IgE to predominant indoor fungal species was observed in patients with marked
SPT results. Highest marked skin reactivity (2 + and above) was obtained with Alternaria alternata allergens in 17.9% of the children, which was followed by the response to fungal antigens of Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium citrinum (15.5%). Exposure to high fungal counts of some dominant fungi (Penicillium, A. nidulans and A. fumigatus) was found associated with increased fungal sensitization in the patients. Total serum IgE level was revealed to be significantly
linked with the intensity of skin reactions, as well as with skin index (r2 = 0.052; P < 0.05). We concluded that children in Delhi are exposed to high concentrations of fungi in the indoor environment and that
respiratory allergies were connected with higher prevalence of skin sensitization.
A case of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus terreus is described. The diagnosis was based on demonstration of branched septate hyphae in a sputum specimen and isolation of the fungus in culture. The diagnosis was further supported by detection of A. terreus-specific DNA, galactomannan (GM) and (1→3)-β-D-glucan (BDG) in consecutive serum specimens. The patient was treated for about 10 weeks with voriconazole. The decreasing levels of GM and BDG in serum samples were accompanied by symptomatic and radiological improvement. The report highlights the value of surrogate markers in the diagnosis and for monitoring the course of invasive aspergillosis during therapy.
This review summarizes the health aspects of the medically important fungal genus Aspergillus. The morphology and systematics of the genus are explained as well as its biogeography. Major mycotoxins, the aspergilli that produce them, affected crops, and symptoms of the toxicoses are summarized, as are the major mycoses caused by aspergilli. The current status of the relationship between Aspergillus in the indoor environment and health issues are discussed.
Sick Building Syndrome remains a prevalent problem with patient complaints similar to typical allergy symptoms. Unlike household allergens typically found in domestic reservoirs, the allergen from a common fungus like Aspergillus fumigatus (i.e., Asp f 1) is conceivably widespread in the work environment. This project surveyed airborne levels of the Asp f 1 allergen in office and non-industrial occupational environments, as well as the dust reservoirs of A. fumigatus believed to be responsible for those levels. Airborne and bulk dust samples were collected, extracted, and assayed for Asp f 1. Concurrently, bulk dusts collected from the same locations were selectively cultured for A. fumigatus, and mesophilic fungi and bacteria. Samples were collected during both wet and dry climatological conditions from paired wet and dry building locations to examine the possibility of Asp f 1 increases due to fungal growth blooms. Very low levels of Asp f 1 were detected but only in the airborne samples (2/120 positive samples, with 3.6 ng/m3 and 1.8 ng/m3; LOD < 1.2 ng/m3). No dust samples showed even detectable traces of the allergen (LOD = 5 ng/g dust). Although A. fumigatus counts from dusts fluctuated significantly with exterior moisture events, analysis of wet versus dry period samples showed no differences in Asp f 1 levels. These results indicate that even in the presence of measurable fungal concentrations, background levels of Asp f 1 are low. Nonindustrial office buildings devoid of indoor air quality issues were not observed to have significant levels of the Asp f 1 allergen in the geographical region studied.
In this report we describe a case of cerebral phaeohyphomycosis involving a 56-year-old Egyptian male who worked as a mason in Kuwait for 6 years. Computerized tomography scan of the brain revealed presence of a large abscess in the left occipital lobe. Aspirated pus from the abscess showed branched, septate, hyphae with light brown pigmentation. Cultured pus grew the fungus Ramichloridium mackenziei. Despite amphotericin B (1 mg kg(-1) per day) therapy for 2 weeks, the patient expired. The isolate was later found to be resistant to amphotericin B ( > 32 microg ml(-1)). Antifungal susceptibility testing to other agents was also performed.
Changes in climate are altering pollen distribution. Predictive modeling can be used to forecast long- and short-term changes in pollen concentrations. Increasing evidence confirms the presence of pollen allergens on small, respirable particles in the air, explaining the occurrence of pollen-season increases in asthma. Like pollens, aboveground indoor fungal aerosols primarily reflect outdoor concentrations. Basement spore concentrations might be higher and reflective of local sources. Fungal presence in the indoor or outdoor air can be monitored on an area basis or with personal monitors. The samples can be analyzed by means of microscopy, culture, DNA probes, HPLC, or immunodetection. Total fungal biomass can be estimated on the basis of measurements of ergosterol or glucan in environmental samples. Unfortunately, there are no generally accepted standards for interpretation of fungal levels in indoor or outdoor air. At present, the best approach to indoor fungal control is moisture control in the indoor environment. This will essentially prevent fungal growth, except from extraordinary events.
This paper focuses on isolation and identification of airborne and waterborne fungi from different parts of Terkos Lake located in Istanbul (Turkey). The quantitative and qualitative fungal composition of the air and water of the Lake was surveyed monthly for a year (August 2000-July 2001). Water samples were taken at five different stations at Terkos Lake. Airborne fungal spore levels were estimated by exposing a petri dish containing Rose-Bengal streptomycin agar medium to air for 15 minutes. A total of 2372 fungal colonies (1032 from air and 1340 water) was counted on 216 petri plates. We isolated twenty mould species belonging to 9 genera. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Penicillium expansum and Cladosporium herbarum were the most abundant species (22.0%, 13.4% and 12.9%, respectively). Cladosporium herbarum and sphaerospermum are very common in air samples (29.7% and 27.0%, respectively). Many of the species isolated are rarely in the atmospheric and water environment such as Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium variabile. Statistical analysis revealed a positive correlation between total CFUs and a number of environmental factors.
The fungi Trichoderma harzianum, T. polysporum, T. viride, Paeciliomyces fumosoroseus, P. lilacinus, Verticillium/lecanicillium lecanii, Ulocladium oudemansii, U. atrum and Beauveria bassiana are used or considered to be used for biocontrol of pests and plant diseases. Human exposure to these fungi in environments where they may naturally occur or are used as biocontrol agents has not been directly investigated to date. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge of human exposure to fungi from the relevant genera. The subject of fungal taxonomy due to the rapid development of this issue is also discussed. B. bassiana, V. lecanii, T. harzianum, T. polysporum, P. lilacinus and U. oudemansii were infrequently present in the air and thus people in general seem to be seldom exposed to these fungi. However, when V. lecanii was present, high concentrations were measured. Fungi from the genera Trichoderma, Paecilomyces and Ulocladium were rarely identified to the species level and sometimes high concentrations were reported. T. viride and U. atrum were detected frequently in different environments and sometimes with a high frequency of presence in samples. Thus, people seem to be frequently exposed to these fungi. Sequence data have led to recent revisions of fungal taxonomy, and in future studies it is important to specify the taxonomy used for identification, thus making comparisons possible.
Respiratory allergies are common in Kuwait, and the role of certain allergens has been previously documented.
To evaluate the results of skin prick tests to a range of allergens that were considered relevant to the vegetation surveys and aerobiological studies performed in Kuwait.
New patients attending our center during August 2002 to February 2003 with asthma or allergic rhinitis underwent skin prick tests to a battery of allergens.
A total of 451 patients aged 5 to 60 years (mean age, 29.5 years) were tested. Of these patients, 403 (89.4%) had a positive test result to at least one allergen and were considered allergic. A total of 76.7% of the allergic patients had a positive reaction to Salsola pollen, with a mean wheal diameter of 8.25 mm (median, 8 mm). Chenopodium album was positive in 57.6% and Bermuda grass was positive in 38.2% of the allergic cases. Indoor allergens seemed to play a lesser role than pollens: Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus was positive in only 37.5%, and American and German cockroaches were positive in 33.2% and 22.3%, respectively. All the allergens other than Salsola elicited a mean wheal diameter of less than 6.25 mm (median, < or = 6 mm).
Indoor allergens seem to play a lesser role in respiratory allergies in Kuwait. Most allergic patients become sensitized to pollens; the strongest and most frequent reaction is from Salsola pollen. Salsola imbricata is found growing extensively in most areas of the country, flowering mainly in autumn, when the most common pollen is of the Chenopod-Amaranth type and when most patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis become symptomatic.
Few cases of allergic fungal sinusitis have been systematically evaluated to conclusively confirm working clinical, histopathologic, and serologic diagnostic criteria.
The objective of this study was to describe 67 consecutive cases of allergic fungal sinusitis, the largest number of cases yet published.
Cases from 1 practice over 8 years were evaluated with a consistent protocol, including skin testing, serum chemistries and serologies, and surgical specimen analysis.
All patients were atopic (100 %) and had nasal polyposis (100%). They tended to be young (33.3+/-13.1 years, mean +/-SEM), immunocompetent (92 %; remaining 8 % with low quantitative immunoglobulin but normal function), have slight female preponderance (58%), have a history of hypertrophic rhinosinusitis (100%), report nasal cast production (75%), and have developed their disease in the southwestern United States. Bipolaris spicifera was the most prevalent fungus involved (67%). Total serum IgE (mean 668 IU/mL) and fungal-specific IgG were generally elevated, whereas fungal-specific precipitins and specific IgE were generally negative despite positive fungal-specific immediate hypersensitivity skin tests.
Patients with allergic fungal sinusitis tend to have elevated total serum IgE and fungal-specific IgG at diagnosis but not fungal-specific IgE or precipitins. Histopathologic criteria for allergic fungal sinusitis diagnosis are discussed. The southwestern United States appears to be a "hot spot" for the disease, particularly caused by B spicifera.
Thermotolerant aspergilli were studied in Kuwait air between May–June 1983 and July–November 1985 with 115 one-hour exposures. The most common species found were A. fumigatus (20%), A. nidulans (20%), A. fischeri (18%), A. flavus (16%), A. niger (13%), and A terreus (10%), with the highest concentrations in September. Comparison with available data from other arid and subtropical areas revealed similarities, but no unique pattern could be established. The incidence of some aspergilli, such as A. flavus (16%) and to some extent A. niger (11–17%), were quite consistent, with A. fumigatus the most variable (2-73%).Copyright © 1989 S. Karger AG, Basel
The prevalence of yeast spores in the atmosphere of Cairo as determined by the Andersen air sampler, was investigated at four sites over a period of one year. The average total count showed seasonal periodicity. The maximum count was recorded in autumn and the minimum in summer. Eighteen species of yeasts belonging to 9 genera were recovered and identified. The opportunistic genera of yeasts represented by seven genera showed high percentage of the total count. The most prevalent genera Cryptococcus, Candida and Rhodotorula constituting, 26.6%, 19.9% and 17.9% respectively. Other genera of low count were Kluyveromyces (7.4%). Debaryomyces (4.3%) and Trichosporon (3.2%).
Eighty-two species and forty-four genera were isolated from forty composite soil samples representing salt marshes, salt depressions, and coastal sands. In general the fungal population of saline soils was rather poor with a narrow spectrum of genera and species. The most frequent fungi were Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Coniothyrium, Stachybotrys, Fusarium, Cephalosporium, Ulocladium, Myrothecium, and Drechslera.Osmophilic and osmotolerant fungi were isolated on Czapek's agar containing 40% sucrose. Only three species were found to be highly osmophilic while the rest showed various degrees of osmotolerance.
Airborne fungal spores were collected continuously (1977–1982) using volumetric samplers at three sites in Kuwait. Two periods of higher concentrations (spring and autumn) and two troughs (summer and winter) were recognized at each site. Yearly variation in spore counts were observed with the highest counts occurring in 1978 which experienced above average rainfall and relatively luxuriant vegetation growth.Highest counts were recorded at Rawdhatain followed by Ahmadi and Kuwait city.Thirty-seven spore types were identified from the catches, of which five genera contributed to 80·3% of the total count. Cladosporium spores were the most abundant and accounted for 59·9% of the total followed by Ustilago (9·3%) Alternaria (6·0%), Drechslera (2·8%) and Chaetomium (2·3%).
A one-year study of airborne fungi in Ahwaz, Iran, indicated that opportunistic fungi of clinical significance varied in response to environmental conditions. Saprophytic strains did not vary significantly. The most prevalent airbone fungi were Penicillium, Alternaria, Aspergillus and Cladosporium. This information can be useful in the study of clinically important fungal diseases in Ahwaz and other areas.
Specific surveys of the air for Aspergillus fumigatus were carried out in rural and urban situations over a 2-year period. Overall, low concentrations of spores were recorded with a higher incidence during the "winter" months. Counts in the open air and in a hospital ward showed similar fluctuations, the indoor counts being consistently lower. Plant debris in the form of compost heaps and stacks of hay and straw baled with a high moisture content in which self-heating occurs, produces large numbers of spores which may be liberated into the air causing high but localized counts if disturbed. The widespread distribution of decaying leaves following leaf fall represents a potential source of smaller concentrations of spores but over a much larger area. This availability of decaying plant debris with high water content fulfils the growth requirements of Aspergillus fumigatus and is the probable explanation of its winter seasonality.
A study of 46 cases of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis has been presented with special reference to laboratory aspects. Episodic airways obstruction and dual skin reaction to aspergillin were present in all the cases. Furthermore, there were pulmonary infiltrations in 91.1%, blood eosinophilia in 80.4%, precipitins in 91.3%, and sputum cultures repeatedly positive for A. fumigatus in 82.6% of the patients. It was observed that the multiplicity of precipitin bands corresponded to the higher recovery of A. fumigatus in culture. A. flavus and A. niger were recovered from 58.7 and 80.4% cases of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis respectively but dual skin reactions to these species occurred only in 47.6 and 26.2% and precipitins in 21.7 and 4.3% of cases, respectively. The findings are compatible with the poor allergenic and antigenic properties attributed to these two species in comparison with A. fumigatus. It is suggested that allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis may not be too uncommon in India and it deserves greater attention in the differential diagnosis of chest diseases.
The fungal air-spora of Kuwait was investigated using the Petri-dish trapping technique. During the period from 1st April, 1974 to 30th June, 1975, a total of 3685 colonies were recorded from 2% malt agar plates. Fifty-five genera and 116 species were identifed. Alternaria occupied the first place in the order of percentage incidence. being represented by 18.3% of the entire catch, followed by Aspergillus (17.1%), Penicillium (14%), Cladosporium (13.6%), Drechslera (13.3%), and Ulocladium (7.1%). The widest spectrum of species was displaced by Aspergillus (possessed 19 species) followed by Penicillium (17 species), Alternaria (6 species), Drechslera (5 species), and Ulocladium (4 species). The monthly total number of fungi showed marked seasonal periodicity with the greatest number of colonies occurring in March-April and November. The lowest counts were recorded in mid-summer (July) and mid-winter (January). Only 220 colonies and 17 species of thermophilous fungi were reported from plates incubated at 45 degrees C. The most common species were Aspergillus fumigatus and A. terreus.
During an investigation of the mycoflora inhabiting saline soils in Kuwait, special attention was focused on osmophilous fungi. A total of 101 species belonging to 46 genera were encountered from 40 soil samples collected from salt marshes using Czapek's agar supplemented with 40% sucrose. Soil samples were collected from different habitats at different distances from the water edge. Soils near to the water edge were poor in their fungal content, while those taken from areas covered by Juncus arabicus contained highest fungal populations. The recorded genera were classified as follows: 7 were of high frequency of occurrence, 8 moderate, 17 low, and 13 were rare. The order of dominance was Aspergillus, Alternaria, Penicillium, Cephalosporium, Fusarium, Stachybotrys, and Drechslera. Comparison between our results and those in other studies showed that there is no fungal flora characteristic of saline soils.
Monitoring for allergens can provide some information on the kinds and levels of exposure experienced by local patient populations, providing volumetric methods are used for sample collection and analysis is accurate and consistent. Such data can also be used to develop standards for the specific environment and to begin to develop predictive models. Comparing outdoor allergen aerosols between different monitoring sites requires identical collection and analysis methods and some kind of rational standard, whether arbitrary, or based on recognized health effects.
A 3 year-study of emergency room visits (total 50,300) to the paediatric clinic of the main teaching hospital in Kuwait revealed that the rates of bronchial asthmatic attacks increased significantly from 8.8% of all visits during the 1st year to 14.9% during the 3rd year. The seasonal distribution of asthmatic attacks showed maximum rates during the winter and minimum values in the summer, giving a very close inverse correlation to temperature and direct correlation to relative humidity. A similar, excellent correlation was seen between asthmatic attacks and upper respiratory infections. Occurrence of atmospheric pollen, which characteristically shows a bi-annual pattern i Kuwait, was not found to correlate with asthma attack rates. Neither was there any demonstrable effect of dust storms on the frequency of asthmatic attacks in the children. Independent of season, the boy to girl ratio among the asthma cases was remarkably constant, around 2:1.
Die allergische Aspergillus-Sinusitis ist gekennzeichnet durch die Ansammlung von kondensiertem Schleim im Nasennebenhöhlensystem, in dem sich in typischer Weise neben Charcot-Leyden-Kristallen vereinzelte Pilzhyphen finden. Die Schleimhaut selbst zeigt eine typische allergische Reaktionsform mit ausgeprägter Eosinophilie und zusätzlichen entzündlichen Veränderungen. Das Krankheitsbild weist deutliche Analogien zur allergischen bronchopulmonalen Aspergillose auf. Es ist noch ungeklärt, aufgrund welcher Umstände bei einer Aspergillus-Allergie eine entsprechende Erkrankung des Nasennebenhöhlensystems allein oder in Kombination mit einer allergischen bronchopulmonalen Aspergillose eintritt. Neben einer operativen Sanierung des Nasennebenhöhlensystems ist bei der allergischen Aspergillus-Sinusitis in der Regel eine Langzeitbehandlung mit Kortikosteroiden erforderlich.
Summary
The leading symptom of the allergic aspergillus sinusitis is the accumulation of mucoid material in the paranasal sinuses. In this mueoid material, Charcot-Leyden crystals and scattered aspergillus hyphae can usually be found. The mucosa itself shows a typically allergic reaction with distinct eosinophilia and additional inflammatory infiltrates. The histological and serological appearance of the allergic aspergillus sinusitis resembles that of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. The relation between these syndrome, as well as the treatment of allergic aspergillus sinusitis, are discussed.
A case of allergic bronchopulmonary disease caused by the fungus Penicillium with intermittent airways obstruction, transient pulmonary infiltrate, blood and sputum eosinophilia, positive dual skin tests (type I and III) and precipitating antibodies in the serum is described. An Arthus skin reaction was elicited and supported by histologic and immunofluorescence studies. Bronchial hygiene alone was effective in treatment. The possibility of other airborne fungal spores causing a similar disease is emphasized.
The fungal air spora and the microfungi in house dust are described. Pollens from indigenous weeds of the Chenopodiaceae which were deliberately planted in the area were most numerous, that from the introduced trees of Prosopis spicigera (an important allergen) was trapped only sporadically at roof-top level, but found in high concentration beneath the trees. Low Cladosporium counts in the hot season are related to degree-days above 290. The origins of the spora and the possibility of dust being colonized by fungi in air-cooled houses is discussed. Since inhalant allergy is likely to increase among the population as planting programmes extend the areas of vegetative cover in this hot arid region, future surveys on the air spora are desirable.
Kuwait, situated in the north-west corner of the Arabian Gulf, has an arid climate with very hot dry summers and mild winters. Sandstorms are a regular climatic feature, occurring most frequently in summer. Before the mid-1950s allergy was not considered to be a problem. Since then it has become a major cause of morbidity; 18% of the population are reported to suffer from its manifestations. Over the past 3 years 1000 asthmatic patients attending a central clinic have been carefully studied. The present paper analyses various aspects of the asthmatic condition in this desert country.
Fifty-eight species and one variety belonging to 25 genera were collected from the atmosphere of Taif from August 1981 to July 1982 (12 exposures for each type of media) on glucose- and cellulose-Czapek's agar plates at 28 °C.
The total counts of sugar and cellulose-decomposing airborne fungi showed seasonal fluctuations; the maxima were recorded in winter, and the minima in summer months.
Aspergillus (16.23% and 13.22% of total fungi on glucose and cellulose media, respectively), Alternaria (11.52% and 15.7%), Cladosporium (18.59% and 9.5%), Drechslera (4.7% and 10.74%), Scopulariopsis (7.33% and 6.6%) and phoma (8.12% and 11.98%) were recovered in high seasonal occurrence on the two media. Also, Penicillium (on glucose) and Ulocladium (on cellulose) were common in the air accounting for 10.73% and 7.44% of total fungi, respectively.
73 species which belong to 24 genera were collected in 200 and 35 esposures made during the period May 1976–October 1977 at each of two levels (2 m and 20 m).
The air‐borne fungi showed seasonal periodicities and the highest incidence was recovered in spring and autumn and the least in summer.
Aspergillus was the dominating genus. 17 species were collected at the two levels of which A. niger and A. flavus were the most common.
Other common genera were Cladosporium which was represented by C. herbarum, C. cladosporioides, C. sphaerospermum , and C. macrocarpum. 7 species of Curvularia were identified of which C. pallescens was the most frequent at the low and C. spicifera at the high level. Drechslera was represented by 6 species of which D. halodes was the most common at the two levels. Only one Alternaria species, A. alternata was isolated at both levels. 10 Penicillium were recovered, P. notatum was the most frequently one isolated at the two levels.
Many fungal spore showers of Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Curvularia , and Alternaria were recorded during the experimental period.
Fungi inhabiting household environments in the West, East and Central localities of Riyadh city were screened. The screened area included bedrooms, drawing rooms, living rooms, kitchens and bathrooms. The common genera of fungi isolated were Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cercospora, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera, Embellisia, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Scytalidium, Trichoderma, Torula and Ulocladium. Two uncommon genera Nodulosporium and Oidiodendron for Saudi Arabian mycoflora were also isolated. In all the localities, the highest number of fungal colonies per plate or per gram were found in the living rooms, followed by bedrooms. The number of colonies per plate or per gram was in general higher in densely populated than in less populated areas.
We describe, to our knowledge, the first case of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis (ABPM) caused by the basidiomycetous fungus
Schizophyllum commune in an otherwise healthy woman. Bronchoscopic analysis repeatedly disclosed S. commune hyphae in the bronchi of the lingular lobe; these hyphae were originally misidentified as Aspergillus because the presence of clamp connections was overlooked. A lingular infiltrate with ectatic proximal bronchi, eosinophilia,
an elevated serum level of IgE, and antibodies to S. commune supported the diagnosis. It is sometimes difficult to isolate and identify S. commune in clinical specimens, and hence only a limited number of cases of ABPM might have been correctly diagnosed in the past.
We suspect, therefore, that some cases of ABPM caused by an allergic reaction to 5. commune may be misdiagnosed as allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis or eosinophilic pneumonia of unknown origin. The significance
of S. commune in allergic bronchopulmonary diseases is discussed.
Professor of Medical Mycology
- Address
- Z U Offprints
- Khan
Address for Offprints: Z.U. Khan, Professor of Medical Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kuwait Univer-sity, Kuwait Phone: 965-531-2300;
The genus Aspergillus
- Kb Raper
- Di Fennell
Reconnaissance soil survey
- U Ergun
Fungal aerospora of Kuwait city
- Mh Halwagy
Aspergillus: an overview Advances in Penicillium and Aspergillus systematics
- M Christensen
- De Tuthill