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Gender differences in acculturation and aggression as predictors of drug use in minorities
Abstract
High acculturation and aggression may signal increased risk of drug use among different ethnic groups. Drug use histories were compared with the degree of acculturation in 18 African-Americans and ten Hispanics. Aggressive responding was measured using The Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (PSAP) developed by Cherek, D.R., 1981, Psychopharmacology, 75, 339-345. Males were more acculturated and used more drugs than females. In PSAP responding, each gender responded more aggressively towards the ethnic group in which they identified with the most. Ethnic Identification and gender were associated with increased drug use. Acculturation and drug studies must consider the importance of gender within and across ethnic sub-populations.
... Age and income were the only components of the demographic information that were included in the data analysis for this paper as control variables. These were selected because these have emerged consistently in the literature as predictors of substance abuse (Grzywacz, Quandt, Isom, & Arcury, 2007;Orozco & Lukas, 2000). Age was measured in years. ...
... Although previous studies with Hispanic men have suggested that both low and high levels of acculturation may be a protection factor against substance abuse (Caetano et al., 2008;Lee, Lopez, Cobly, Tejada, Garcia-Coll & Smith, 2006), no effect was found in this study. It may be that other sources of stress that are associated with the acculturation process, such as ethnic and gender identification (Orozco & Lukas, 2000), changes in the family and cultural systems, employment (Cervantes et al., 1991), or low socioeconomic status may place these men at risk for substance abuse (Williams, 2003). Additionally, acculturation may not have played an important role in influencing substance abuse behaviors among this sample because South Florida has a large Hispanic population and Spanish is commonplace. ...
The demographics of the United States are rapidly changing as a result of immigration from Latin America. Predictions indicate that by the year 2050, one of every four persons in the United States will be of Hispanic ethnicity. If health disparities relating to substance abuse and related mental health conditions among Hispanics are not fully understood and addressed, these will continue to grow along with this population. The purpose of this pilot study was to describe the relationships among acculturation, depression, self-esteem, and substance abuse among a community sample of Hispanic men in South Florida (N = 164, 82 heterosexual men and 82 men who have sex with men). Standardized instruments measuring acculturation, depression, self-esteem, and substance abuse were administered in English or Spanish in a face-to-face interview format. Descriptive statistics and multiple logistic regression were used to illustrate participant characteristics and test relationships among the variables. Despite the fact that the majority of participants were more acculturated to the Hispanic culture than US culture, reported low levels of education and income, were depressed, and used substances, this group of men reported high levels of self-esteem. However, age and depression were the only predictors of substance abuse. Acculturation and self-esteem were not predictors of substance abuse. Clinicians need to be aware of the high rates of depression and substance abuse in this population and screen frequently for signs and symptoms of depression and substance abuse during health care encounters.
... Machismo is characterized by expectations for males to be courageous, strong and virile; to be loyal to the family, serve as its primary or sole provider and protector, and be the family's dominant decision-maker ( Gutmann, 2003;RochaSanchez & Diaz-Loving, 2005). Behavioral traits often associated with machismo include an exaggerated sense of manliness that is expressed through aggression, risk taking, violence, and excessive alcohol and drug use ( Felix-Ortiz & Newcomb 1995;Goldwert 1983;Gutmann, 1996;Kulis, Marsiglia & Hurdle, 2003;Orozco & Lukas 2000;Unger et al., 2006). Marianismo describes female social roles conforming to traditional gender norms that socialize women to be spiritually strong, responsible, dedicated and nurturing on behalf of the family, as well as behavioral traits such as passivity and resignation, dependence and submissiveness to men, and self-sacrifice and endurance of suffering on behalf of children, spouse and extended family ( Castillo, Perez, Castillo, & Ghosheh, 2010;Piña-Watson, Castillo, Jung, Ojeda, & Castillo-Reyes, 2014;Rocha-Sanchez & Diaz-Loving, 2005). ...
To address increases in substance use among Mexican adolescents, particularly females, US prevention programs are being adapted to the Mexican cultural context. Understanding how responses to substance offers by Mexican adolescents are shaped by gender and relationships to those making offers is an important step in the adaptation process. Using data from Guadalajara, Mexico middle schools (N = 431), this pilot study tested for gender differences in the use of several drug resistance strategies commonly taught in US substance abuse prevention interventions. Results indicated that the drug-resistance strategies of Mexican early adolescents differ by gender, type of substance offered, and the youth's relationship to the offeror. Contrary to previous research on older Mexican adolescents, in this sample, females received more substance offers from age peers than males did, and employed a wider repertoire of drug-resistance strategies, including active strategies such as direct refusals. Gender differences in use of the strategies persisted after controlling for number of offers received. There were gender differences in the conditional effects of greater exposure to offers. A larger volume of alcohol and cigarette offers predicted females' use of direct strategies more strongly than for males, but less strongly than males for marijuana offers. Females' use of drug resistance strategies was more strongly associated with offers from family adults, siblings, and cousins, while males' use of strategies was predicted more strongly by offers from nonfamily adults. Interpretations and prevention implications are discussed in light of changing gender norms in Mexico and gendered patterns of substance use.
... Fig. 1 The four acculturation strategies of Berry (10) As no substantial differences were found between the South Asian Surinamese origin and the African Surinamese origin, the data of the two groups were combined. It has been observed that dietary patterns and acculturation vary on the basis of sex (42,43) . Therefore, we also tested for interaction between acculturation and sex and found this to be present, thus analysis was stratified on the basis of sex. ...
Insight into the role of acculturation in dietary patterns is important to inform the development of nutrition programmes that target ethnic minority groups. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate how the adherence to dietary patterns within an ethnic minority population in the Netherlands varies by acculturation level compared with the host population.
Cross-sectional study using data of the HELIUS study. Dietary patterns were assessed with an ethnic-specific FFQ. Acculturation was operationalized using unidimensional proxies (residence duration, age at migration and generation status) as well as on the basis of the bidimensional perspective, defined by four distinct acculturation strategies: assimilation, integration, separation and marginalization.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Participants of Dutch (n 1370) and Surinamese (n 1727) origin.
Three dietary patterns were identified: (i) 'noodle/rice dishes and white meat' (traditional Surinamese pattern); (ii) 'red meat, snacks and sweets'; and (iii) 'vegetables, fruit and nuts'. Surinamese-origin respondents adhered more to the traditional Surinamese pattern than the other dietary patterns. Neither the unidimensional proxies nor the bidimensional acculturation strategies demonstrated consistent associations with dietary patterns.
The lack of consistent association between acculturation and dietary patterns in the present study indicates that dietary patterns are quite robust. Understanding the continued adherence to traditional dietary patterns when developing dietary interventions in ethnic minority groups is warranted.
... Indeed, Oppedal and colleagues (2004) found no gender differences in host culture competence, and in another study reported that boys scored higher on ethnic culture competence and family values compared to girls, in both first and second generation immigrant youth (Oppedal et al., 2005). Other researchers have reported gender differences in for instance school adjustment, behaviour problems (e.g., Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006b), mental health problems (e.g., Liebkind, 1993), ethnic identity crisis, discrimination (Oppedal, Røysamb, & Sam, 2004), and level of acculturation (Orozco & Lukas, 2000), whereas others have not reported such gender differences (e.g., Nesdale, Rooney, & Smith, 1997, as cited in Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001Neto, 2002b). ...
... Group differences were also found by gender in that men were more likely to be classified as assimilated than as separated as compared to women. This is consistent with prior research demonstrating that men may be more likely to acculturate toward a dominant society than women (Farver, Bhadha, & Narang, 2002;Orozco & Lukas, 2000), and that women may be more likely to experience negative acculturation-related outcomes than men (Berry, 1997). ...
This study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify acculturation profiles. A three-profile solution fit the data best, and comparisons on demographic and psychosocial outcomes as a function of profile yielded expected results. The findings support using LPA as a parsimonious way to model acculturation without anticipating profiles in advance.
... Moreover, Phinney, Cantu, and Kurtz (1997) found that for African American adolescents, being oriented towards their own ethnic group rather than toward mainstream European identity indicators was associated with higher self-esteem, a pattern also reported by Martinez and Dukes (1997). Additionally, a study by Orozco and Lukas (2000) examined gender differences in acculturation and aggression as predictors of substance. Acculturation emerged as a better predictor of drug use than gender. ...
... These roles have been traditionally supported by the ascribed archetype of machismo that includes both undesirable and desirable traits. The negative aspect of machismo is usually described as a form of hypermasculinity: encouraging risk taking, aggression, and violence toward women (Goldwert 1983; Gutmann 1996; Harris et al. 2005 ); increased drug and alcohol use (Ortiz and Newcomb 1995; Kulis et al. 2003; Orozco and Lukas 2000); and higher levels of stress and depression (Fragoso and Kashubeck 2000). The more positive traits associated with machismo center around honor, bravery, and a deep commitment to family wellbeing (Gutmann 2003). ...
Research is limited or absent on Mexican adolescents' exposure to substance offers, ways of dealing with these offers, and possible gender differences in responses to offers. Extending U.S.-based research, this study examines how youth living in the Mexican state of Guanajuato employ the four drug resistance strategies-refuse, explain, avoid, and leave-that are part of the Keepin' It REAL evidence-based drug prevention intervention. The analysis uses cross-sectional survey data from 702 students enrolled in eight alternative secondary education sites in 2007. Participants reported the drug resistance behaviors they used to deal with offers of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana. Using multivariate regression, findings indicate most youth had developed repertoires of drug resistance strategies that involved multiple REAL strategies and some other strategy as well. For those receiving offers, the most common strategy was to refuse the offer with a simple "no." However, males used all the strategies significantly more often than females for situations involving cigarettes and marijuana as well as when using refuse and non-REAL strategies for alcohol. Possible reasons for the gender difference in use of strategies are discussed. The findings can help inform effective prevention programs based on teaching culturally appropriate drug resistance and communication skills.
... Acculturation appears to be related to the gender roles, gender identities, and the drug use behaviors of Mexican American males and females ( Kulis et al., 2002;Orozco & Lukas, 2000). However, "machismo" and "marianismo," central gender role influences for Mexican men and women, are often absent in the conceptualization of studies that explore the impact of gender and acculturation on substance use. ...
This article presents the findings of a survey completed by 1351 predominantly Mexican American middle school students residing in a large urban center in the U.S. Southwest. The study explores possible associations between drug use attitudes and behaviors and gender (biological sex), gender identity, ethnicity, and acculturation status. Based on the concepts of "machismo" and "marianismo" that have been used to describe Mexican populations, four dimensions of gender identity were measured: aggressive masculinity, assertive masculinity, affective femininity, and submissive femininity. In explaining a variety of indicators of drug use behaviors and anti-drug norms, gender alone had limited explanatory power, while gender identity-often regardless of gender-was a better predictor. Aggressive masculinity was generally associated with higher risk of drug use, while the other three gender identity measures had selected protective effects. However, the impact of gender identity was strongly mediated by acculturation. Less acculturated Mexican American students reported lower aggressive masculinity scores than non-Latinos. Less acculturated Mexican American girls reported both the lowest aggressive masculinity scores and the highest submissive femininity scores. More acculturated Mexican American students, along with the less acculturated Mexican American boys, did not appear to be following a polarized approach to gender identity (machismo and marianismo) as was expected. The findings suggest that some aspects of culturally prescribed gender roles can have a protective effect against drug use behaviors and attitudes, possibly for both girls and boys.
... It is important, therefore, to consider the sources of resiliency within the Mexican and Mexican American community. Sources of resilience can be found in Spanish language preference (Marsiglia and Waller, 2002), female adherence to traditional gender roles (Kulis et al., 2003; Marsiglia and Holleran, 1999; Moon et al, 1999), and positive ethnic identity (Gamst, Dana, Der-Karabetian, Aragon, Arellan, & Kramer, 2002; Holleran and Waller, 2003; Marsiglia, Kulis, & Hecht, 2001; Orozco and Lukas, 2000). Additionally, Marsiglia, Miles, Dustman, and Sills (2002) observed the emergence of three resiliency themes, which have been supported in the literature (e.g. ...
The prevention literature has given little attention to how parental influences affect substance use among Mexican origin adolescents, even though they form part of the largest ethnic minority group in the United States. This study explored the effects of three types of parental influences-parental monitoring of the child's whereabouts, degree of parental permissiveness, and the strength of parental injunctive norms discouraging substance use-on alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and anti-drug norms. Results showed that parental permissiveness and parental injunctive norms, particularly anti-drug injunctive norms, had the strongest effects on the substance use outcomes, but parental monitoring generally was not a significant predictor. These results and implications for prevention are discussed in light of Mexican cultural norms toward substance use, gender roles, and family roles.
... Recent substance-use research suggests that identity plays a role in substance-use decisions (Brook and Pahl, 2005;Marsiglia, Kulis, and Hecht, 2001;Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier, 2002). This research explored whether identity influences substance use and abuse (Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, and Seay, 1999), and also focused on a variety of identifications such as racial/ethnic (Austin, 2004;Hecht, Trost, Bator, and MacKinnon, 1997;Marsiglia, Kulis, Hecht, and Sills, 2004), gender (Moon, Hecht, Jackson, and Spellers, 1999;Orozco and Lukas, 2000), and sexual orientation (McCabe, Boyd, Hughes, and d'Arcy, 2003). ...
This paper examines the relationship between ethnic identification and substance use for 1,346 Mexican-heritage preadolescents in a National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded study in Phoenix, Arizona (2004-2005). Participants ranged from 9 to 13 years old, 49% reported their gender as male, 33% self-identified as Mexican, and 67% as Mexican American, and 91% of the students reported taking part in the free or reduced-price lunch program. Questionnaire responses were analyzed by fitting regression models. Analyses showed that ethnic identification may play a protective role, with stronger ethnic identification related to more antidrug norms, less positive drug expectations, stronger refusal efficacy, and less intent to use substances. While gender did not significantly moderate the relationships, ethnic identification appears more broadly related to antisubstance-use norms for Mexican-born than U.S.-born participants. This study presents important implications for substance-use prevention research among Mexican heritage preadolescents. Finally, limitations of the study are noted.
... It seems, however, that the differences in drinking between males and females are significantly larger among immigrants compared to those of the native population [13,23], and findings from some studies suggest that the gender differences in drinking among immigrants decrease with increasing host culture assimilation [24,25]. On the other hand, it has also been demonstrated in a small study that male immigrants reported a significantly higher level of polydrug use than female immigrants and thus had adjusted to the majority drug use more than females [26]. ...
To assess the association between drinking behaviour among adolescents with both immigrant and native backgrounds with aspects of acculturation.
Cross-sectional school survey among 15-16 year olds.
All students, a total of 8361, in 10th grade during spring 2000 and 2001 in Oslo, Norway with response rate 88.3%. The sample consisted of 1213 students with an immigrant background and 4627 students with a Norwegian background.
Indicators of the length of the acculturation process were assessed as first versus second generation and in terms of length of stay in Norway. The proportion of Muslim students in school was an indicator of social environment 'dryness'. Drinking behaviour was assessed as drinking alcohol ever, drinking frequency and intoxication frequency.
A smaller proportion of immigrant students were current drinkers, frequent drinkers and drank to intoxication compared with adolescents with a Norwegian background. Adjusted two-level analyses showed that alcohol drinking was less common among immigrant students with a short stay in Norway and with a large proportion of Muslim students in school. In those with a Norwegian background there was a larger proportion of abstainers, and those who drank did so less frequently and were less frequently intoxicated the larger the proportion of Muslim students there was in their school.
Drinking behaviour among adolescents in a multicultural and heterogeneous society seems to reflect a bi-directional acculturation process where the majority population tend to adapt to the behaviours of the immigrant population which in turn, to a varying degree, tends to adapt to the behaviour of the majority population.
The legalization of recreational cannabis consumption in Canada created a cultural conflict for international students from China, where the use of cannabis is heavily criminalized and deemed immoral. This conceptual paper theorizes this cultural conflict experienced by Chinese international students in Canada by applying three theories from macro to micro levels. Neoliberalism is first used to understand how this cultural conflict exposes collisions between the neoliberal West and the rising economic power of China as illustrated through Chinese students studying in Canada. Next, acculturation theory focuses on these students’ cultural transition and provides further insight into potential strategies for their handling of specific cultural conflicts such as cannabis use. Lastly, Cloninger’s theory of substance use is adopted to explore Chinese international students’ individual reasoning about cannabis use, particularly how they make decisions based on evaluations of various conditions. Building upon the above analyses, an integrated conceptual model is further formed to help us understand Chinese students’ potential perception of cannabis use in Canada. This conceptual framework provides an important theoretical and conceptual base for future research and practice, from which to further explore cannabis use in the context of cultural transition of different immigrant and migrant groups.
Preventive intervention research dictates that new techniques are needed to elucidate what types of interventions work best for whom to prevent behavioral problems. The current investigation applies a latent class modeling structure to identify the constellation of characteristics—or profile—in urban male adolescents (n = 125, aged 15) that interrelatedly predict responses to a brief administration of an evidence-based program, Positive Adolescent Choices Training (PACT). Individual-level characteristics were selected as predictors on the basis of their association with risk behaviors and their implication in intervention outcomes (e.g., mental health, stress exposure, temperament, cognitive function, stress reactivity and emotion perception). Outcome measures included virtual reality vignettes and questionnaire-style role play scenarios to gauge orientations around aggressive conflict resolution, communication, emotional control, beliefs supporting aggression and hostility. A three-class model was found to best fit the data: “NORMative” (NORM), with relatively low symptomatology; “Mental Health” problems (MH-I) with elevated internalizing symptoms; and “Mental Health-E + Cognitive Deficit” (MH-E + Cog) with elevated mental health symptoms paired with cognitive decrements. The NORM class had positive PACT effects for communication, conflict resolution, and aggressive beliefs. Moderation was evidenced by lack of positive PACT effects for the MH-I and MH-E + Cog groups. Also, PACT classes with MH issues showed marginally significant worsening of aggressive beliefs compared to control students in the same class. Results suggest that a latent class model may identify “signatures” or profiles of traits, experiences and other influences that collectively—and more realistically—predict variable intervention outcomes with implications for more effectively targeting interventions than singular factors.
This study investigated the associations between traditional gender roles (TGRs) and substance use among early adolescents in Mexico’s largest cities. The sample of seventh grade students (n = 4,932) attended 26 public schools in Mexico City, Guadalajara, or Monterrey in 2014. Outcomes included recent alcohol, binge drinking, cigarette and marijuana use, and lifetime poly-substance use; substance-use intentions, norms, attitudes, and expectancies; and substance-use exposure (peer use, offers) and resistance (refusal confidence, refusal skills, and decision-making skills). A TGR scale assessed endorsement of a polarized gender division of family labor and power. As hypothesized, among males, TGRs were consistently associated with poorer outcomes, and this association was usually stronger for males than for females. In contrast, among females there was no evidence that TGRs were associated with desirable outcomes. Contrary to expectations, TGRs predicted poorer outcomes for both females and males, and to equivalent degrees, for binge drinking, cigarette use, positive substance-use expectancies, and friends’ approval of substance use, and they predicted poorer outcomes for females but not for males on parental disapproval of substance use and drug-resistance skills. Interpretations highlight the persisting aspects of TGRs in the family and conflicting messages for females as Mexico undergoes changes in its gender order.
This chapter presents an overview of recent literature and new data on differences in the prevalence of mental disorders across four key social variables: socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, marital status, and urbanicity. In some cases, these social factors can be risk factors for a mental disorder; in others they can be consequences of a mental disorder (e.g., low educational attainment secondary to a childhood disorder). Also, these social variables can interact with one another and act as confounders, mediators, or moderators in the association of specific mental disorders with specific social factors.
This study examined whether a relationship exists between acculturation and alcohol use among African American college students and if the relationship varies by religiosity and gender. Most researchers use unidimensional African American acculturation measures that cannot capture the construct's complexity; this study is the first to use a bidimensional measure. Results revealed a relationship between acculturation and alcohol use. Less frequent drinking occurred among marginalists (those who reject both African and Eurocentric U.S. culture), while assimilationists (those who reject African culture in favor of Eurocentric U.S. culture) drank more frequently. Religiosity and gender also significantly influenced the nature of the relationship.
Hispanic adolescent females are the largest group of minority adolescents in the nation and appear to be at great risk for substance use. This research is based on data generated from a cross-sectional study of 150 Mexican American gang-affiliated adolescent females to predict substance-use recurrence. Findings reveal that positive family relationships, and in particular, mother-daughter relationships are protective factors for alcohol- and tobacco-use recurrence. Furthermore, the ability of the immediate family to cope with difficulties, stress, and conflicts were significant in averting illicit drug recurrence. This research provides evidence of the role of the family as a protective factor among these adolescents, despite their gang affiliation and street orientation. Discussed is how these findings contribute to formulating effective intervention, prevention, and treatment responses aimed at this “beyond risk” population.
Objective: Two studies examined racial identity (RI) as a protective factor against substance-related cognitions and substance use among Black adolescents and young adults living in high versus low percentage Black social environments. Method: Using structural equation modeling techniques, Study 1 examined longer term effects of RI on substance use cognitions and behaviors among 720 Black adolescents. Study 2 examined the impact of RI and percentage Black peer environment on alcohol use among 203 Black young adults. Results: Study 1 revealed that RI was prospectively associated with lower levels of perceived friends' use and lower favorability of the substance user prototype and, in turn, lower substance willingness and use, but only among Black adolescents in predominantly White neighborhoods. These adolescents also reported greater access to substances. In Study 2, low RI Black young adults who reported predominantly White peer environments reported the highest levels of alcohol use. Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of RI among Black youth and the impact of the social context on the health risk behaviors of adolescents and young adults. This research also demonstrates the utility of social psychological models, such as the prototype–willingness model, to examine mediating and moderating effects of individual differences and contextual factors on health risk cognitions and behavior. Theoretical and applied implications of the results are discussed.
The following are consensus definitions recognized by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society, and American
Society of Addiction Medicine:
A number of programs for adolescent substance abuse are reportedly effective for a significant number of subjects; however, there is invariably a substantial subgroup that does not respond favorably. It is critical that underlying mechanisms for these differential effects are identified in order to improve prevention efficacy. Integrity of executive cognitive function (ECF) and its modulation of emotional arousal levels may represent key dimensions of regulatory processes related to risk for substance abuse, and may play a principal role in differential responses to prevention programming. Deficits in ECF and skin conductance responses (SCRs) have been associated with several behavioral disorders, most notably substance abuse, aggression, psychopathy, conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Differences in these neurocognitive-emotive processes may also contribute to differential responses to preventive interventions. ECF and physiological responses to cognitive processing (SCRs) implicated in substance abuse were measured in a small pilot study reported herein. Responses of extreme groups of high risk youth who responded favorably and unfavorably to an effective prevention program differed in cognitive and emotional measures, suggesting that they may play a role in variation in intervention outcomes. Further investigation will provide valuable insights for developing preventive interventions.
Living and working conditions of farmworkers have been difficult throughout United States agricultural history. Farmworkers experience low wages, unstable work availability, and numerous hazards. As they are immigrant, mobile, and often undocumented, they are usually missed in population-based surveys.
METHODS: Data from the unique National Agricultural Workers Survey(NAWS) were analyzed to determine the prevalence of, and the employment and lifestyle characteristics associated with, use of U.S. health care, alcohol consumption, and dermatitis. The NAWS is a workplace-based multi-stage sample, representative of U.S. farmworkers. SAS survey procedures accounted for multi-stage sampling.
RESULTS: Between 1999 and 2004 the NAWS interviewed 19,987 farmworkers. Sample sizes were 16,678, 9,906, 16,945 for analysis of health care, alcohol, and dermatitis, respectively. Fewer than half(43%) of farmworkers utilized health care. Men were more likely to drink(59%) and binge drink(23%) than women (14% and 4%, respectively). Dermatitis prevalence was significantly higher in women than men (12% versus 7%, respectively). Significant associations exist with economic variables (wages, assets); cultural integration variables (English speaking ability and immigration and mobility); and employment characteristics (employer, number of workers, years of U.S. farm work, and peach workers). Higher hourly wages were generally associated with better outcomes???higher odds of utilizing health care and lower odds of dermatitis in women???although in men the highest wages predicted higher odds of binge drinking. Among Hispanic men, speaking English ???well??? was associated with utilization of health care while intermediate English ability was associated with binge drinking. Male farmworkers employed by farm labor contractors had lower odds of utilizing health care but also lower odds of binge drinking.
CONCLUSIONS: The NAWS provides a unique data source addressing the health of farmworkers, a population not captured in surveys requiring workers have permanent addresses or stable employment. Farmworkers??? risk of not receiving health care, binge drinking, and dermatitis are associated with employment and lifestyle factors. Outreach efforts should focus on the lowest income workers and those lacking English skills. The health impact of working for labor contractors should be explored further. Farmworkers who labor to feed Americans should not work at the expense of their own health.
Acculturation has become a popular variable in research on health disparities among certain ethnic minorities, in the absence of serious reflection about its central concepts and assumptions. Key constructs such as what constitutes a culture, which traits pertain to the ethnic versus "mainstream" culture, and what cultural adaptation entails have not been carefully defined. Using examples from a systematic review of recent articles, this paper critically reviews the development and application of the concept of acculturation in US health research on Hispanics. Multiple misconceptions and errors in the central assumptions underlying the concept of acculturation are examined, and it is concluded that acculturation as a variable in health research may be based more on ethnic stereotyping than on objective representations of cultural difference.
The present experiment was designed to determine whether individual variation in neurobiological mechanisms associated with substance abuse risk moderated effects of a brief preventive intervention on social competency skills. This study was conducted in collaboration with the ongoing preventive intervention study at Johns Hopkins University Prevention Intervention Research Center (JHU PIRC) within the Baltimore City Public Schools. A subsample (N = 120) of male 9th grade students was recruited from the larger JHU study population. Approximately half of the participants had a current or lifetime diagnosis of CD while the other half had no diagnosis of CD or other reported problem behaviors. Measures of executive cognitive function (ECF), emotional perception and intelligence were administered. In a later session, participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group. The experimental group underwent a facilitated session using excerpted materials from a model preventive intervention, Positive Adolescent Choices Training (PACT), and controls received no intervention. Outcomes (i.e., social competency skills) were assessed using virtual reality vignettes involving behavioral choices as well as three social cognition questionnaires. Poor cognitive and emotional performance and a diagnosis of CD predicted less favorable change in social competency skills in response to the prevention curriculum. This study provides evidence for the moderating effects of neurocognitive and emotional regulatory functions on ability of urban male youth to respond to preventive intervention materials.
In a 22-year study, data were collected on aggressiveness and intellectual functioning in more than 600 subjects, their parents, and their children. Both aggression and intellectual functioning are reasonably stable in a subject's lifetime and perpetuate themselves across generations and within marriage pairs. Aggression in childhood was shown to interfere with the development of intellectual functioning and to be predictive of poorer intellectual achievement as an adult. Early IQ was related to early subject aggression but did not predict changes in aggression after age 8. On the other hand, differences between early IQ and intellectual achievement in middle adulthood were predictable from early aggressive behavior. A dual-process model was offered to explain the relation between intellectual functioning and aggressive behavior. We hypothesized that low intelligence makes the learning of aggressive responses more likely at an early age, and this aggressive behavior makes continued intellectual development more difficult.
Aggressive and point-maintained operant responding of normal male participants were measured during 7 25-min sessions conducted over 8-hr experimental days. Aggressive responding ostensibly subtracted points exchangeable for money from another participant. Aggressive responding was engendered by subtracting points from the participants and maintained by initiation of intervals free of point subtractions. Point subtractions presents to the participants were attributed to other persons. Participants earned points exchangeable for money on a 2nd response option. Placebo and 5, 10, or 20 mg of eltoprazine were administered orally, and peak effects of eltoprazine on operant response measures occurred at 3 hr. Aggressive and point-maintained responding was decreased following the 10- and 20-mg eltoprazine doses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Heterosexual dating partner preferences were examined in a multi-ethnic context. Four groups at UCLA were studied: Asian Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, and Euro Americans. Participants completed surveys asking them to rate a ‘typical/hypothetical’ opposite-sex member for each of the four ethnic groups on physical attractiveness, similarity, social network approval, status, and desirability as a dating/marriage partner; social identification with the ethnic ingroup was also assessed. Members of all four ethnic groups demonstrated some degree of ethnocentrism on most measures (especially partner preferences) by rating opposite-sex members of their own group higher than outgroup members rated them; however, Asians and Latinos rated opposite-sex Whites as more physically attractive than typical members of their own group, and Latinos and Blacks rated Whites and Asians as higher status. Overall, Whites received more favourable ratings than any of the three minority groups. Regression analyses indicated that social network approval (by far), similarity, and physical attractiveness were (in that order) the most powerful predictors of ethnocentrism in partner preferences. Avenues of integration and interpretation between theories of inter-personal attraction and intergroup relations were considered, including the dimensionality of ingroup favouritism, and the need for stronger consideration of social influence in theories of intergroup relations.
Hispanic groups, taken together, constitute nearly 9% of the U.S. population. Research undertaken in the last decade has demonstrated that segments of the Hispanic male population are particularly heavy drinkers and are at high risk for alcohol-related problems. This article reviews several of the most important studies of alcohol use and its consequences among Hispanics, and reports new data from a study of alcohol use and its correlates among 452 young adult men and women in Los Angeles. The findings show important differences between immigrants and U.S.-born Hispanics as well as clear gender differences in terms of alcohol use patterns, expectations about the benefits of alcohol consumption, and depressive symptomatology associated with the use of alcohol. These differences have implications for the design of prevention and treatment services for Hispanics and these are discussed.
The existence of subgroup differentiation and its impact on the development of in-group bias were explored among Latinos. Consistent with prior evidence, Cubans, Mexicans, and Puerto Ricans were more likely than Anglos to distinguish between Latino subgroups. However, Latinos did not distinguish equally between Cubans, Mexicans, and Puerto Ricans. Latinos differentiated their own subgroup from others but were no more likely than Anglos to differentiate between Latino subgroups to which they did not belong. Latinos even regarded the term Hispanic as more applicable to members of their own subgroup than to members of other subgroups. This tendency among Latinos to view their own subgroup as distinct from others was also linked to a bias for fellow subgroup members but not for Latinos overall. Moreover, results suggested that subgroup differentiation was based more on a desire for positive distinctiveness than on familiarity with members of different Latino subgroups.
This study examined initiation into drug use during grade school years in a sample of Cuban-American, Black, and White non-Hispanic students in the greater Miami, Fla, area. Findings indicate that first use of alcohol occurs in fifth grade and cigarettes in sixth grade for all subgroups except White non-Hispanics, who peak in the fifth grade. White non-Hispanics had the highest life-time levels of alcohol and cigarette use. Foreign-born Cuban Americans had a lower lifetime prevalence of alcohol and cigarette use than US-born Cuban Americans. Higher acculturation level was related to first use of alcohol. One important implication of this study is that alcohol interventions should begin no later than third grade and smoking interventions no later than fourth grade.
It is widely believed that risk factors identified in previous epidemiologic studies accurately predict adolescent drug use. Comparative studies are needed to determine how risk factors vary in prevalence, distribution, sensitivity, and pattern across the major US ethnic/racial groups.
Baseline questionnaire data from a 3-year epidemiologic study of early adolescent development and drug use were used to conduct bivariate and multivariate risk factor analyses. Respondents (n = 6760) were sixth- and seventh-grade Cuban, other Hispanic, Black, and White non-Hispanic boys in the 48 middle schools of the greater Miami (Dade County) area.
Findings indicate 5% lifetime illicit drug use, 4% lifetime inhalant use, 37% lifetime alcohol use, and 21% lifetime tobacco use, with important intergroup differences. Monotonic relationships were found between 10 risk factors and alcohol and illicit drug use. Individual risk factors were distributed disproportionately, and sensitivity and patterning of risk factors varied widely by ethnic/racial subsample.
While the cumulative prevalence of risk factors bears a monotonic relationship to drug use, ethnic/racial differences in risk factor profiles, especially for Blacks, suggest differential predictive value based on cultural differences.
Data from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used to examine the influence of acculturation on alcohol consumption among Puerto Rican, Cuban-American, and Mexican-American women in the United States. Acculturation was found to be positively related to frequency of consumption and probability of being a drinker among all three groups. A positive relationship was also evident for total drinks consumed among Cuban-American women, and volume (drinks per occasion) and total drinks consumed among Mexican-American women.
Aggressive responding was compared between 21 men and 21 women using the © Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm which provides both the opportunity to aggress and to escape provocation. Subjects were between the ages of 18 and 23 years old and reported no drug use history. The hypothesis was that females would emit more escape, but fewer aggressive, responses than males. Results showed that men and women did not significantly differ in the number of aggressive responses emitted, F(1, 36) = .19, p < .67, or the number of escape responses emitted, F(1, 36) = .02, p < .89, although a significant gender by race interaction was found, F(2, 36) = 6.17, p < .005. These results are consistent with the notion that gender differences in aggressive behavior are not large under laboratory conditions, and they suggest that the availability of an escape option in this paradigm does not have the expected reductive effect on female aggressive responding.
An acculturation inventory consisting of sociocultural and semantic differential items was administered to adult men and women: 26 Anglo Americans, 16 first generation Mexican Americans, and 26 third generation Mexican Americans in three Southern California communities. The results indicated that acculturation scores derived from the inventory correlated highly with ethnic group membership (.83 ≤ r ≤ .85; p < .01). Furthermore, hypotheses pertaining to directional differences in acculturation scores among group means were confirmed: Anglo Americans scored significantly higher (p < .01) than third generation Mexican Americans, who, in turn, scored significantly higher (p < .05) than first generation Mexican Americans. Advantages and limitations of the inventory are discussed, as well as theoretical implications concerning the construct of acculturation and its relationship to sociocultural characteristics.
This article describes the development, reliability, and validity of the African American Acculturation Scale. This 74-item scale has good construct and concurrent validity. The eight subscales, assessing eight dimensions of African American culture, have high internal consistency reliability, and the scale as a whole has high split-half reliability. African Americans'scores on the scale were unrelated to social class, gender, and education. The needfor cross-validation of the scale andfor specific research projects using it are detailed.
While there has been a growing concern with alcohol-related problems among Mexican Americans and an increase in research devoted to learning more about alcohol use in this population, data on these issues are widely scattered. Differences in perspectives on alcohol-related issues and variation in research methodologies have produced a body of information which must be viewed as a whole before distinct patterns can be clearly seen. These circumstances have made it difficult to apply research findings in the design of programs that would be relevant and useful to Mexican Americans suffering problems related to alcohol. Using a framework based on the foci of ethnic alcohol studies in the United States, this review provides information on modal patterns of alcohol use in Mexico, and on the prevalence and level of alcohol use among Mexican Americans. Factors affecting intra-ethnic variation in Mexican American alcohol practices, such as region, gender, age, acculturation and social class are documented. The prevalence and incidence of social and medical problems associated with excessive alcohol use in this population are summarized. Consideration is given to the role of acculturation stress in the etiology of alcohol abuse among Mexican Americans. Conceptual and methodological problems in past research are critically assessed, discontinuities in the literature identified, and areas in particular need of research are delineated.
In order to clarify the relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem, this article identifies a number of components of ethnic identity and examines research linking each component to self-esteem. Research generally has found a weak or inconsistent relationship between self-esteem and the following components: negative stereotypes of one's group; acceptance versus rejection of one's group membership; knowledge about one's group; and commitment to the group. Failure to find a clearer relationship may be a result of not taking into account the ethnic group member's relationship to the mainstream culture. There is evidence to suggest that a strong ethnic identity, when accompanied by a positive mainstream orientation, is related to high self-esteem, whereas without some adaptation to the mainstream it may be problematic.
Level of acculturation has been recognized as important in clinical work with ethnic minorities. However, scales are lacking for assessment of this variable for Asians. The SL-ASIA, Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale, was modeled after a successful scale for Hispanics. Initial reliability and validity data are reported for two samples of Asian subjects, from two states.
A short, self-report acculturation scale designedfor use with Hispanic youth is presented. The ShortAcculturation Scalefor Hispanic Youth (SASH-Y) is a downward extension of the ShortAcculturation Scale for Hispanics, an existing acculturation scale for Hispanic adults. Initial normative data as well as internal consistency and split-half reliabilities for the SASH-Y are provided. An exploratory factor analysis conducted on scores reported by 141 Hispanic youth in Grades 5 through 8 resulted in three factors labeled Extrafamilial Language Use, Familial Language Use, and Ethnic Social Relations. Implications for using the SASH-Y in psychoeducational assessment batteries are discussed.
A 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects design was employed to examine the relationship among status differentials, status stability, and intergroup social competition. The three independent variables were the ethnic background of subjects (Anglo-American/Mexican American), manipulated status rank (high status/low status), and status stability (stable status/unstable status). The dependent variable was social competition defined as in-group bias/out-group discrimination as measured by Taffel's matrices. Fifty-two Mexican American and 42 Anglo-American subjects participated in this study. They were asked to rate a bogus ethnic in-group and out-group on the quality of their solutions to a problem-solving task. The results indicated that stable high-status Anglo-Americans exhibited social competition against the Mexican American out-group whereas stable low-status Anglo-Americans showed slight favoritism toward this out-group. Furthermore, unstable Anglo-Americans, both low and high statuses, displayed social competition against Mexican Americans. Finally, the results showed that Mexican Americans, regardless of their status rank or status stability, exhibited social competition against the Anglo-American outgroup. Thesefindings are believed to be a result of the real-world minority status of Mexican Americans.
222 Mexican American psychiatric inpatients and hospital staff/students were administered an acculturation scale (given in English/Spanish and scored on a 5-point Likert scale) to differentiate between 5 levels of acculturation: Very Mexican, Mexican-Oriented Bicultural, True Bicultural, Anglo-Oriented Bicultural, and Very Anglicized. ANOVA and factor analysis confirmed the hypothesis that acculturation levels are lowest for 1st-generation Mexican Americans and that they increase with each subsequent generation. The concept of considerable heterogeneity within the Mexican American population was supported, and the scale's reliability and validity were established. (Spanish abstract) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Males on parole were recruited into a study to determine the external validity of the ©Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm, a laboratory procedure for measuring human aggressive responding. Subjects were assigned to either a violent or nonviolent group based on their criminal record and the Brown History of Violence Questionnaire. Subjects participated in six 25-min sessions and completed a series of questionnaires. During the laboratory sessions subjects were given two response options: 1) Pressing button A to accumulate points exchangeable for money, and 2) pressing button B which ostensibly subtracted points from another fictitious person. Responding on button B was defined as aggressive since it resulted in the ostensible delivery of an aversive stimulus to another person. Results indicated that the subjects in the violent group emitted significantly more aggressive responses than subjects in the nonviolent group. The two groups also differed on psychometric measures of aggression. This study provides external validity for this laboratory measurement of human aggressive responding, even among males with very similar backgrounds. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The severity of cocaine dependence of 39 hospitalized patients was assessed by administering the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R. No significant relationship was found between severity of cocaine dependence and cocaine use at 3-month follow-up. These findings suggest that severity of cocaine dependence may be a poor predictor of relapse to cocaine use.
The authors studied a group of 149 hospitalized cocaine abusers as a follow-up to previous research performed in 1980-82, which had revealed a high prevalence of affective disorder in cocaine abusers. The authors hypothesized that the changing epidemiology of cocaine abuse since that time may have been accompanied by changes in the characteristics of patients seeking treatment for dependence on the drug. The cocaine abusers were compared with 293 other drug abusers to see whether clinical changes over time were specific to individuals abusing cocaine. The authors found slightly more affective disorder in the cocaine abusers when compared with the other patients (26.8% vs. 20.1%), with a significantly higher rate of cyclothymic disorder (11.4% vs. 2.7%, p less than .001). Affective illness was significantly more prevalent in the first-degree relatives of the cocaine abusers when compared with the sex-matched relatives of the other patients (p less than .05). Diagnostic trends changed a great deal, however, between the original 1980-82 study sample and the follow-up 1982-86 sample. The rate of affective disorder decreased over time from 50.0% to 21.0% (p less than .01), and the rate of affective illness in the families also declined, from 31.0% to 11.5% in females (p less than .001) and from 14.3% to 2.2% in males (p less than .001). No such change occurred in the comparison group of opioid and central nervous system depressant abusers. The authors conclude that although a substantial number of cocaine abusers suffer from concurrent affective disorder, this form of premorbid psychopathology has become a less important risk factor for the development of chronic cocaine abuse as cocaine use has become more widespread.
In a 22-year study, data were collected on aggressiveness and intellectual functioning in more than
600 subjects, their parents, and their children. Both aggression and intellectual functioning are reasonably
stable in a subject's lifetime and perpetuate themselves across generations and within marriage
pairs. Aggression in childhood was shown to interfere with the development of intellectual
functioning and to be predictive of poorer intellectual achievement as an adult. Early 1Q was related
to early subject aggression but did not predict changes in aggression after age 8. On the other hand,
differences between early IQ and intellectual achievement in middle adulthood were predictable
from early aggressive behavior. A dual-process model was offered to explain the relation between
intellectual functioning and aggressive behavior. We hypothesized that low intelligence makes the
learning of aggressive responses more likely at an early age, and this aggressive behavior makes continued
intellectual development more difficult.
Eleven men were administered placebo and three doses (0.12, 0.23 and 0.46 g of absolute alcohol per kg of body weight) of 50% alcohol (vodka) in a laboratory situation that provided both aggressive and nonaggressive response options. Two aggressive responses were available to subjects: the ostensible subtraction of money from a fictitious other person and the ostensible presentation of a loud noise to a fictitious other person. A nonaggressive monetary reinforced response was also available. Aggressive responding was elicited by the subtraction of money from the subjects which was attributed to the fictitious other person. Relatively low doses of alcohol (0.23 and 0.46 g/kg) increased aggressive monetary subtraction responses, but had no effect on decreased nonaggressive monetary reinforced responses. Thus, the observed increase in aggressive responding cannot be attributed to a generalized stimulant action of low alcohol doses. The increased aggressive responding was observed at blood alcohol levels well below those usually defined as intoxicating. It is suggested that responses to aggression-provoking situations can be altered by the consumption of the equivalent of one or two alcoholic drinks.
These results differ from previous laboratory studies in that the increases in human aggressive responding were observed at substantially lower doses. These lower doses of alcohol, 0.25 and 0.5 ml/kg, are equivalent to the amount of alcohol frequently consumed in one drink. These same doses of alcohol had little or no effect upon nonaggressive monetary-reinforced responding, indicating that the increase in aggression observed at low doses of alcohol could not be attributed to any generalized stimulant action of low doses of alcohol.
A new methodology was employed to study the effects of drugs on human aggressive behavior in a laboratory situation. The effects of not smoking, smoking a low nicotine dose (0.42 mg/cigarette), and smoking a high nicotine dose (2.19 mg/cigarette) on human nonaggressive and aggressive responding was determined. A nonaggressive response, which resulted in the accumulation of money, was continuously available to the subject. Two different aggressive responses were also available: the ostensible subtraction of money from, and the ostensible presentation of a 1-s blast of white noise to a (fictitious) person. Aggressive responding was elicited by subtracting money from the research subjects, which was attributed to a fictitious person paired with the research subject randomly each day. Nicotine, administered with experimental cigarettes, produced dose-dependent decrease in both types of aggressive responding elicited by low or high frequency subtractions of money attributed to another person. Generally, the more aggressive response option, i.e., subtraction of money from another person, decreased more following nicotine administration. Smoking the same doses of nicotine increased nonaggressive monetary reinforced responding. This indicates that the suppressant effects of nicotine on aggressive responding was not due to a non-specific depressant action.
Epidemiologic data from three national surveys conducted in 1988, 1990, and 1991 were used to investigate the association between acculturation and use of crack cocaine among Hispanic Americans living in the United States. Poststratification and conditional logistic regression were used to hold constant shared aspects of neighborhood environment, age, sex, and education. The analyses showed a strong inverse relationship between degree of acculturation and crack smoking among Mexican Americans (relative odds = 0.12, 95% confidence interval = 0.04, 0.34) but not among other Hispanics in the study population. This observed variation within the US Hispanic American population deserves special attention in future research.
An investigation was carried out on the relation of assertiveness to use of alcohol among 3129 Hispanic junior high school students. Data were obtained through questionnaires administered in 47 public and parochial schools in New York City to 5501 students. An 18-item modified version of the Gambrill-Richey Assertiveness Inventory was used to assess assertiveness. Factor analysis of the inventory identified five assertiveness factors of substance awareness, mastery of cognitive skills, individual rights, dating, and social skills. Significant gender differences were observed. Multiple regression analysis showed that substance awareness was negatively associated with alcohol use while dating, social skills, and individual rights factors were positively associated with alcohol use. Acculturation with peers was also a significant predictor of alcohol use or abuse. The findings provide a basis for design of alcohol prevention programs that specifically focus on Hispanic youth.
The investigations examined drug usage-based and culture-based differences in young Puerto Ricans living in New York (100 nonusers and 192 drug users), Americans living in New York (100 nonusers and 99 drug users), and Puerto Ricans living in Puerto Rico (100 nonusers and 98 drug users). The Associative Group Analysis method was used to measure cultural change in three dimensions: dominant perceptions, priorities, and evaluations. The findings show that the Puerto Rican drug user and nonuser groups in New York differed significantly in their paths of acculturation. The nonusers were shown to progress successfully in learning American meanings and adopting American perspectives and cultural norms. The drug users were attracted to dominant American priorities (e.g., wealth and freedom) but showed little progress in adopting deeper American cultural meanings necessary for effective coping.
The present study assessed the effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on aggressive responding in a controlled laboratory setting. Eight male subjects received gradually increasing doses of testosterone cypionate (150 mg/week for two weeks, 300 mg/week for two weeks, and 600 mg/week for two weeks) or placebo using a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design. Subjects were tested both before and after the series of injections. During the experimental session subjects could press a button to accumulate points exchangeable for money (non-aggressive response) or press another button to subtract points from a fictitious opponent (aggressive response). Aggressive responding was instigated by subtracting points from the subject which was attributable to the fictitious opponent. Testosterone administration resulted in a significantly higher number of aggressive responding compared to placebo.
Aggressive responding was compared between 29 subjects with a history of substance dependence and 24 subjects with no drug use history, using the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm. The hypothesis was that subjects from the substance dependence history group would emit more aggressive responses than subjects with no drug use history. The substance dependence history group emitted more aggressive responses per session than the non drug using group (F(1,49) = 14.867, P = 0.032). These results are consistent with previous studies that have reported an association between aggression and drug abuse or dependence.
To examine the interrelationship of acculturation, family, personality, ecology, and peer domains measured in adolescence as they impact drug use 5 years later and to assess the role of family variables as buffers against personality risks.
Youths completed questionnaires in classrooms at T1 and were individually interviewed at T2 (mean age = 20 years). Data were analyzed separately for African-Americans and Puerto Ricans using correlations, hierarchical multiple regressions, and two-way interactions.
Most results were similar for both ethnic groups. Eighty percent of the T1 variables significantly related to T2 stage of drug use. A mediational model of the path to drug use was supported. Acculturative influences were associated with family relations, which in turn were related to personality attributes. A reciprocal relationship emerged between the personality and peer domains in their impact on drug use. Family variables primarily enhanced the effect of protective personality traits on drug use.
Stability of drug use alone cannot explain the relationship between the earlier domains and later drug use. Specific adolescent risks have long-lasting effects. The personality domain has a direct effect on later drug use despite a benign picture in the acculturation, family, and peer domains.
Psychology of the Americas: Mestizo Perspectives on Personality and Mental Health
- M Ramirez
Ramirez, M., 1983. Psychology of the Americas: Mestizo Perspectives on Personality and Mental Health. Pergamon Press, New York.
Social, Adaptational and Psychologi-cal Antecedents of Adolescents Psychopathology 10 Years Later
- S G Kellam
- H Brown
Kellam, S.G., Brown, H., 1982. Social, Adaptational and Psychologi-cal Antecedents of Adolescents Psychopathology 10 Years Later. John Hopkins University, Baltimore.
How often has it been hard to get along with others because you didn't speak English well?' Although this study focused primarily on African-American and Hispanic men and women, the question-References Subjects with a history of drug dependence are more aggressive than subjects with no drug history
- T J Allen
- F G Moellar
- H M Rhoades
- D R Cherek
Language (foreign language speakers only) ('How often has it been hard to get along with others because you didn't speak English well?' Although this study focused primarily on African-American and Hispanic men and women, the question-References Allen, T.J., Moellar, F.G., Rhoades, H.M., Cherek, D.R., 1997. Subjects with a history of drug dependence are more aggressive than subjects with no drug history. Drug Alcohol Depend. 46, 95– 103.