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Assessment of arsenic level in the hair of the nonoccupational Egyptian population: Pilot study
Abstract
Arsenic level of hair samples of apparently healthy Egyptian was measured by means of hydride atomic absorption spectrophotometery. It ranged between 0.04 and 1.04 mg As/kg hair, about 55% of the analysed hair samples were within the range of allowable values (0.08-0.25 mg As/kg hair), but 45% were not. There were no considerable sex-related differences (0.303 and 0.292 mg As/kg hair for males and females, respectively). Different educational levels did not influence it either, when the effect of the age had been excluded. Children and adolescents proved to be more susceptible to arsenic as their mean levels (0.353 microg/g), and were significantly higher than those in the adults (0.233 microg/g). Smoking and some dietary habits had an important role in the elevation of arsenic levels among the nonoccupational Egyptian population: 60% of smokers and 66.7% of indoor passive smokers had arsenic levels >0.25 mg As/kg hair. Arsenic levels were also dependent on the kind of smoking, as hair arsenic of the subject smoking molasses tobacco was found to be significantly higher than that of cigarette smokers (0.459 and 0.209 mg As/kg hair, respectively). The frequency of meat and fish consumption per week was also found to be positively, significantly correlated with arsenic levels. On the other hand, the frequency of consumption of fruits, fresh and cooked vegetables, milk and milk products per week beneficially influenced the arsenic level of the hair samples examined. Arsenic content of the consumed water in Egypt was 0.001 mg/l, which is below the maximum drinking water level allowed by World Health Organisation (WHO). Therefore, the arsenic content of domestic tap water hardly contributed to the arsenic exposure of the Egyptian population in the regions of the study. It is likely that exposure routes by smoking, fish and animal protein consumption are the principal cause of arsenic accumulation in the general Egyptian population.
... This is thought to reflect the binding of arsenite (As(III)) to sulfhydryl groups in keratin. Nonexposed hair samples contained b1 μg/g arsenic (Mahata et al., 2003;Saad and Hassanien, 2001). However, while hair samples are often used as a biomarker for long-term exposure to arsenic, urine samples are more indicative of recent exposure. ...
... μg/g (Table 1). At Tu Liem, where arsenic levels in water were b 1 μg/L, the GM for the arsenic concentration in hair was 0.29 μg/g, a value that was comparable to those from nonexposed populations in the West Bengal (0.3 μg/g) and Egypt (0.04 -1.04 μg/g) (Mahata et al., 2003;Saad and Hassanien, 2001). On the other hand, arsenic concentrations were significantly higher in hair of residents from Dan Phuong (GM, 0.45 μg/g), Ly Nhan (GM, 0.62 μg/g) Fig. 4a indicates the threshold value for arsenic skin lesions (1 μg/g; Chakraborti et al., 2003). ...
... This might be enhancing the chance of potential ingestion of contaminants present in soil/dust. The children are more susceptible to toxicants as compared to adults, because of their rate of growth, they are also more exposed to dietary sources of pollution, as they need more nutrients and consume more food per unit body weight than the adults and the excretion also varies with maturation of the kidney and other systems (Saad and Hassanien 2001). ...
... The wide range interval of As in the literature indicates an extensive As variation in scalp hair of different geographic societies, which could be associated with the differences in the environmental and nutritional sources. For instance, the mean As concentration found in studied areas is lower than the value reported for India, Mexico, Iran, and Argentina (Ahamed et al. 2006;Monroy-Torres et al. 2009;Mosaferi et al. 2005;Concha et al. 2006) but consistent with those values reported in Egypt and Lahore, Pakistan (Saad and Hassanien 2001;Anwar 2005). ...
This cross-sectional study measured the arsenic level in scalp hair samples of children from two age groups exposed to contaminated underground water in Pakistan. The As concentrations in water and scalp hair samples were analyzed by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The studied areas were divided into three regions based on concentration of As in water and scalp hair of children who had been exposed to different levels of As through drinking water. The average As concentrations in underground water samples of sub-districts Faiz Ganj, Thari Mirwah, and Gambat were observed to be 15.2, 28.5, and 98.3 μg/L, respectively, which were marked as less, medium, and highly contaminated areas, respectively. The proportion of the children with lower body mass index significantly increased with increasing As exposure level; the dose–response relationship was consistently observed among the subgroups. The range of As concentrations in scalp hair samples of children of age 1–5 and 6–10 years was 0.21–3.88 and 0.32–3.63 μg/g, respectively. Thus, it is likely that children in our study areas are chronically exposed to As through drinking groundwater, suggesting that there is an urgent need to take immediate solution, especially in the Gambat sub-district.
... Several studies have examined the relationship between individuals' seafood consumption and arsenic levels. A study of 100 individuals from Egypt reported that the average weekly amount of fish consumed was correlated with hair arsenic levels [40]. Two other studies, one from Norway and one from Italy and Croatia revealed correlation between the amounts of fish consumed and blood arsenic levels, which are more likely to reflect recent exposure [11,41,42]. ...
Toxic chemicals from polluted seas can enter the human body through seafood consumption and cause health problems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of selected heavy metals and trace elements among fishermen who frequently consumed seafood and controls who consumed seafood less frequently in four provinces on the shores of the Sea of Marmara, which is heavily polluted by industrial activities. Fourteen elements (antimony, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium, vanadium, and zinc) were analyzed in hair samples using the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer method. Levels of arsenic (0.147 ± 0.067 µg/g vs. 0.129 ± 0.070 µg/g, p = 0.025), chromium (0.327 ± 0.096 µg/g vs. 0.269 ± 0.116 µg/g, p < 0.01), nickel (0.469 ± 0.339 µg/g vs. 0.403 ± 0.368 µg/g, p = 0.015), strontium (1.987 ± 1.241 µg/g vs. 1.468 ± 1.190 µg/g, p < 0.01), and zinc (103.3 ± 43.1 µg/g vs. 92.7 ± 37.4 µg/g, p = 0.047) were higher in the fisherman group than in the control group. No difference was found between the groups in terms of other elements. The findings suggest that heavy metal-trace element contamination in the Sea of Marmara may increase the exposure levels of individuals to some chemicals through seafood consumption.
... Therefore, the effect of gender on the amount of arsenic accumulation in the residents' hair is not signi cant. In a study conducted in Cairo (Egypt) in 1999, it was also reported that there was no signi cant relationship between the amount of arsenic in the hair of women and men (Saad & Hassanien, 2001). However, in a study conducted in India (Bengal) in 1995, it was reported that the amount of arsenic in women's hair was higher than that of men (Samanta et al., 2004). ...
Drinking water is one of the most important sources of arsenic entering the human body. Due to the location of Urmia County in the volcanic belt of Urmia-Dokhtar, the presence of arsenic in the drinking water of the villages of Urmia city is probable. The concentration of arsenic in the drinking water of the villages varied from undetectable amounts to 92 µg/L.
In 7 out of 80 villages, the concentration of arsenic was higher than the drinking water standards of WHO. There is no statistically significant difference between the concentration of arsenic in the drinking water of the villages of Urmia County in different seasons. There is a significant relationship between the concentration of arsenic in drinking water and its concentration in the hair of people living in villages (r=0.88, P-value=0.046). There is a strong and significant correlation between age and the average concentration of arsenic in the hair of the age groups of the population. Also, smoking creates a statistically significant difference between the concentration of arsenic in the hair of smoking men and non-smoking men. The reason for the existence of a significant difference in the amount of arsenic in the hair of the residents of the case and control villages, and the presence of a high concentration of arsenic in the bottom sediments of Lake Urmia, can be concluded that the possibility the entry of arsenic from the geological formations of the region into the drinking water of the villages is very high.
... e impact of smoking habit on the accumulation of As, Cd, and Pb in fingernails of the participating farmers has been investigated (Table 10). Several studies revealed that tobacco smoke contained considerable amount of As, Cd, and Pb, and thus, it increases their levels in smokers [61,79,[85][86][87][88][89]. By contrast, the results of present study show insignificant difference (P > 0.05) in concentration of As, Cd, and Pb among smokers and nonsmoker farmers. ...
This study aims to assess the concentration levels of heavy metals, which are associated with health hazards: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) among Libyan farmers using fingernails as a biomarker. Factors that may contribute for accumulation of these toxic heavy metals in the farmers’ fingernails were also evaluated. This cross-sectional study involved 127 farmers and 25 high school teachers living in the same geographical area as the farmers (served as the control group). Fingernail samples of the participants were collected, treated, and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for As, Cd, and Pb contents after microwave acid digestion. Results of this study indicated that the concentration levels of the investigated heavy metals in fingernail samples of both participating farmers and control group were in order of Pb > Cd > As. Also, the results showed that As, Cd, and Pb levels in the farmers’ fingernails were found to be higher than in the control group by about 9-, 5-, and 2-fold, respectively. This difference for all heavy metals analyzed was found to be statistically significant P<0.05. As a conclusion, the results of this study clearly indicated that Libyan farmers have been exposed to high levels of toxic heavy metals as a result of their agricultural activities compared with the general population living in the same geographical area as farmers, which, in turn, pose a high risk to their health. Thus, toxicological, epidemiological, and clinical studies for the Libyan farmers are strongly recommended.
... Moreover, hair is considered a noninvasive matrix and its transport, preparation, and analysis are more convenient than blood or urine (Drobyshev et al., 2017;Sazakli & Leotsinidis, 2017a;Zhu et al., 2018). Numerous biomonitoring studies have been investigating the exposure of the general population to metals and metalloids using hair, and in different countries such as Pakistan (Eqani et al., 2018), Russia (Skalny et al., 2015a(Skalny et al., , 2015b, China (Li et al., 2014), Nigeria (Nnorom et al., 2005), Iran (Rafiee et al., 2020) and Egypt (Saad & Hassanien, 2001). Some studies have focused on children and adolescents as sensitive population sub-groups (Drobyshev et al., 2017;Fábelová et al., 2018;Molina-Villalba et al., 2015;Peña-Fernández et al., 2014;Soetrisno & Delgado-Saborit, 2020;Varrica et al., 2014). ...
Concentrations of metals and metalloids derived mainly from anthropogenic activities have increased considerably in the environment. Metals might be associated with increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage, potentially related to several health outcomes. This study has recruited 200 adult participants, including 110 males and 90 females in Shiraz (Iran), to investigate the relationship between chronic exposure to metals and ROS damage by analyzing malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) concentrations, and has evaluated the associations between chronic metal exposure and ROS damage using regression analysis. Our findings showed participants are chronically exposed to elevate As, Ni, Hg, and Pb levels. The mean urinary concentrations of 8-OHdG and MDA were 3.8 ± 2.35 and 214 ± 134 lg/g creatinine, respectively. This study shows that most heavy metals are correlated with urinary ROS biomarkers (R ranges 0.19 to 0.64). In addition, regression analysis accounting for other confounding factors such as sex, age, smoking status, and teeth filling with amalgam highlights that Al, Cu, Si and Sn are associated with Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.
... Moreover, hair is considered a noninvasive matrix and its transport, preparation, and analysis are more convenient than blood or urine (Drobyshev et al., 2017;Sazakli & Leotsinidis, 2017a;Zhu et al., 2018). Numerous biomonitoring studies have been investigating the exposure of the general population to metals and metalloids using hair, and in different countries such as Pakistan (Eqani et al., 2018), Russia (Skalny et al., 2015a(Skalny et al., , 2015b, China (Li et al., 2014), Nigeria (Nnorom et al., 2005), Iran (Rafiee et al., 2020) and Egypt (Saad & Hassanien, 2001). Some studies have focused on children and adolescents as sensitive population sub-groups (Drobyshev et al., 2017;Fábelová et al., 2018;Molina-Villalba et al., 2015;Peña-Fernández et al., 2014;Soetrisno & Delgado-Saborit, 2020;Varrica et al., 2014). ...
Concentrations of metals and metalloids derived mainly from anthropogenic activities have increased considerably in the environment. Metals might be associated with increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage, potentially related to several health outcomes. This study has recruited 200 adult participants, including 110 males and 90 females in Shiraz (Iran), to investigate the relationship between chronic exposure to metals and ROS damage by analyzing malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) concentrations, and has evaluated the associations between chronic metal exposure and ROS damage using regression analysis. Our findings showed participants are chronically exposed to elevate As, Ni, Hg, and Pb levels. The mean urinary concentrations of 8-OHdG and MDA were 3.8 ± 2.35 and 214 ± 134 µg/g creatinine, respectively. This study shows that most heavy metals are correlated with urinary ROS biomarkers (R ranges 0.19 to 0.64). In addition, regression analysis accounting for other confounding factors such as sex, age, smoking status, and teeth filling with amalgam highlights that Al, Cu, Si and Sn are associated with 8-OHdG concentrations, while an association between Cr and MDA and 8-OHdG is suggested. Smoking cigarettes and water-pipe is considered a significant contributory factor for both ROS biomarkers (MDA and 8-OHdG).
Graphic abstract
... Each hair sample was washed with a solution of 1% Triton X-100, rinsed with ultrapure water, and air-dried (20). A 100-mg of each sample was accurately weighed and respectively transferred into a PTFE microwave digestion vessel. ...
In this study, a simple and
sensitive hydride generation
atomic absorption spectroscopy
(HG-AAS) method is developed
and validated for assessment of
arsenic concentrations in human
hair known as the best biochemical indicator to detect chronic
exposure. Hair samples from the
occipital region of the head were
obtained from 94 volunteers
ranging in age from 18 to 74
years. Microwave digestion combined with acid digestion was
applied and an electrothermal
hydride generation module was
utilized for atomization.
The method showed linearity
in the range of 1–20 µg/L with a
detection and quantification limit
equal to 0.1 µg/L and 0.3 µg/L,
respectively, as well as very good
repeatability not exceeding 3%.
The calibration curve was characterized by a high correlation coefficient (r=0.997). Validation was
performed in terms of accuracy
with the use of a reference material. The method was applied to
the analysis of spiked Certified
Reference Material (CRM) samples yielding satisfactory results
(107–110%). The assessed hairarsenic levels of the volunteers
ranged from 21 to 367 µg/kg,
with an average value of
115±6.12 µg/kg.
... Many heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As), were proved to be components of tobacco. Several studies detected significantly higher blood lead levels in smokers compared to non-smokers (Youssef and Saad 2005;Saad-Hussein and Hussanien 2001) The aim of the present work is to evaluate the oxidative stress status and DNA damage induced by occupational exposure to lead and the role of concomitant smoking. ...
One of the most toxic heavy metals in the environment nowadays is lead (Pb). Even though exposure to lead has been reduced in some developed countries, individuals working in certain occupations are still exposed to lead at dangerous levels. Occupational exposure is of great concern and is also the main cause of lead poisoning. Although experts in various fields have been investigating the toxic effects of lead and its compounds for many years now, the association between chronic lead exposure and geno-toxicity is still an interesting point of research. The study aims to evaluate the possible DNA damage and the oxidative stress status induced by occupational exposure to lead and the role of concomitant smoking. The study was conducted on 60 subjects divided into two groups: an exposed group (40 male workers exposed to lead in their workplaces). This group was further divided into two subgroups; 20 workers were cigarette smokers and the other 20 workers were non-smokers. The other control group consists of 20 healthy males, not exposed to lead and matched by age to the exposed group (10 were smokers and the rest were non-smokers). Venous blood samples were collected from each participant for the determination of the following: blood lead level (BLL), plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and DNA damage using agarose gel electrophoresis. The exposed workers had significantly higher levels of lead and MDA, as well as a high frequency of DNA fragmentation. Smoking workers showed a greater frequency of DNA fragmentation than non-smokers. A significant relation was revealed between the BLL, as well as the MDA level, and the degree of DNA fragmentation among the lead-exposed workers. The study has shown additional evidence proving the association between Pb exposure and oxidative stress. The results further reinforced the role of cigarette smoking in augmenting such oxidative damage in the Pb-exposed population. However, further studies are recommended to evaluate the effect of cigarette smoking on Pb-exposed workers.
... In a study on a group of 100 subjects in Cairo, Egypt 1999, concentrations of arsenic in their hair and in drinking-water samples were measured by hydride generation-atomic absorption spectroscopy (H-AAS, detection limit 1 µg/L). The levels of arsenic in hair samples varied from 40 to 1,040 µg/kg, and they were less than 1 µg/L in drinking-water samples [39]. Arsenic contamination has been reported in the State of Hidago in the Zimapan valley in Mexico, where 35,000 people have been exposed to arsenic, and levels of arsenic in well water varied from 21 to 1,070 µg/L [23,40]. ...
World Health Organization (WHO) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) have reduced the maximum contamination level (MCL) of arsenic in drinking water from 50 μg/L to 10 μg/L because excessive amounts of arsenic in drinking water cause serious health problems. Especially in the Western Anatolia of Turkey, where arsenic levels in ground and surface waters were found to contain higher than 10 μg/L, efforts have been made for arsenic removal. Therefore, the impact of exposure to arsenic on human health in risky areas, especially around the world, must be investigated. In this study, effects of some parameters and operating conditions on arsenic removal from real groundwater by a new air-fed fixed-bed electrocoagulation reactor were investigated. The influences of some process variables such as initial pH (pHi), applied current (i), EC operating time (tEC) and airflow rate (Qair) were evaluated. The pH did not have a significant effect on the As(V) removal in the pH range of 6.5–8.5, but higher current density, airflow rate and lowest surface area of electrode led to remove arsenic rapidly from groundwater. As(III) removal efficiency with no air injected was lower at higher pH values. The optimum operating conditions were determined to be a pH of 7.6, Co of 200 μg/L, 0.30 A, and airflow rate of 6 L/min resulted in a removal efficiency of 99.3% and operating cost of 1.55 US$/m3 at 15 min for As(III), and 96.9% and 0.10 US$/m3 at 12 min for As(V).
... For example, compressed air cleaning removed 40% of arsenic residues from objects (Glastrup, 2001); soap and water washing and vacuuming techniques were used by Seneca tribal members to reduce unspecified amounts of arsenic on masks ; and vacuuming techniques were unsuccessfully used by Arizona State Museum researchers to remove arsenic from feathers (odegaard et al., 2003). Gibson and Gage, 1982;Foo et al., 1988;oskarsson et al., 1994;Saad and Hassanien, 2001;Pesch et al., 2002;Ali andTarafdar, 2003. b Cumbie, 1975;Sheffy and St. Amat, 1982;Stevens et al., 1997;evans et al., 1998;ben-David et al., 2001;Kocar et al., 2004;Duffy et al., 2005. ...
The Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute Workshop on Pesticide Mitigation was one of the first professional meetings dedicated to current research on removing pesticide residues from museum objects. Seven papers were presented at the workshop, and two more were added to introduce topics not focused on during the meeting but of significant importance when considering actual application of any of these methods. The aim of the workshop was to bring together conservators, scientists, and even industry representatives to discuss the complex issues associated with pesticide removal from artifacts and to provide representative examples of the research and work being carried out at different institutions in the United States and abroad. Among the issues explored were possible methods and techniques that might become useful in the museum conservation field to reduce, mitigate, clean, or remediate undesirable pesticides on objects. The meeting also served to inform conservators and scientists in the Smithsonian Institution of the wide range of approaches that are currently being tested and that might prove useful in the future. Topics covered in the presented papers included removal of mercury and arsenic contamination with α-lipoic acid; the treatment of Haudenosaunee medicine masks with surface active displacement solutions; the possibility of using mercury-resistant bacterial communities to remediate contamination; solvent extraction through the use of special solvents such as hydrofluoroethers; carbon dioxide as a cleaning fluid either in liquid or in supercritical state; and novel cleaning techniques either through the use of additives to improve the efficiency of liquid or supercritical CO2 cleaning, other gases in a supercritical state, or other techniques such as fluidized beds. The introduction of novel techniques at the workshop was encouraged in order to broaden the range of promising methods that might improve the technology of pesticide mitigation or remediation. The two supplemental papers discuss pesticide analysis on objects and safety measures that should be implemented by institutions with contaminated collections.
... Arsenic is one of the most toxic elements. In humans, exposure to arsenic can occur via ingestion of foods and water or inhalation of dust contaminated with arsenic [27]. Total arsenic exposure is a sum of exposure to food, drinking water, soil and dust which are directly ingested, inhaled or penetrated in dermal route [28]. ...
The main goal of this study was to investigate the effect of exposure time and smoking habit on arsenic levels in biological samples of workers occupationally exposed to metals in comparison with non-occupational residents in Turkey. Blood, urine and hair samples were collected from 95 metal workers at Ankara Occupational Diseases Hospital, Turkey. Similarly, 94 hair samples were taken from controls. Arsenic levels in biological samples were measured using Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS) equipped with Zeeman background correction and Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (HGAAS). In metal workers; mean hair-arsenic levels of the smokers group (2.05 ±1.97 mg As/kg) was found to be significantly higher than the mean of the hair-arsenic levels of non-smokers group 1.80±1.79 mg As/kg (p<0.05). Mean hair-arsenic levels of exposure time group (4-10 years) was found (2.34±2.21 mg As/kg) to be significantly higher than the arithmetic mean of exposure time group (1-3 years) (1.39 ±1.25 mg As/kg, p<0.01). As for the control group, mean of hair-arsenic levels in the smokers group (0.133 ±0.012 mg As/kg) was found to be significantly higher than the mean of the hair-arsenic levels of non-smokers group (0.101±0.006 mg As/kg, p<0.05). In addition, mean hair arsenic level in metal workers (1.81 ±1.79 mg As/kg) was found significantly higher than mean hair arsenic level in control group (0.115 ±0.006 mg As/kg, p=0.00). Smoking increased the hair arsenic levels significantly both in metal workers and controls. The hair arsenic levels significantly enhanced with ascending exposure time. In addition, metal workers had significantly higher hair arsenic levels than controls. However, there was no significant effect detected in terms of urine and blood arsenic levels.
... The HPLC/ICP-MS can detect inorganic and organic arsenic with high accuracy. Saad and Hassanien (2001) assessed arsenic levels in hair of the nonoccupational Egyptian population, which was measured by means of hydride atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Gong et al. (2001) studied the performance of a microwave plasma torch discharge AES system directly coupled with Hydride Generation for the determination of arsenic and antimony. ...
... Therefore, exposure to As in rice correlates better with observed markers of exposure than exposure to As in tap water. Similar results have been found elsewhere (Cottingham et al. 2013;Hinwood et al. 2003;Saad and Hassanien 2001). ...
In Ecuador alone, 500,000 people in rural areas are estimated to have been exposed to high concentrations of As from water and food, but no quantitative evaluation of health risk has yet been made. The present study quantifies exposure and health risk for the Ecuadorian population from the ingestion of arsenic in white rice. Estimated exposure is correlated with published data on tap water quality and biomarkers of exposure for the population of two towns in the metropolitan area of Quito. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of arsenic for infants living in urban areas of Ecuador is around four times that of European infants, being equal for those livings in rural areas. EDI for the population as a whole is almost twice that of Europe, but between a half and a third of that of Brazil, Bangladesh, and India. Estimated excess lifetime risk (ELTR) for adults is 3 per 10,000, while for infants varies between 10 per 10,000 in rural areas and 20 per 10,000 in urban areas. Future research on arsenic impacts on human health in Ecuador should consider in particular poor populations living in regions where environmental arsenic concentrations are highest, including cross-sectional and longitudinal epidemiologic studies.
... As alındığında karaciğer, akciğer, böbrek ve kalp başta olmak üzere daha çok, kas ve sinir dokusunda ise daha az birikmektedir. Arseniğin vücuda alınmasından 2-4 hafta sonra, arsenik keratinli sülfidril gruplara bağlanarak tırnak, saç ve ciltte depolanmaya başlamaktadır [24], [37], [38]. Bu, keratindeki sülfhidril gruplar ile arsenitin bağ oluşturduğunu düşündürmektedir [39]. ...
... Quando o ser humano sofre uma exposição a arsênio, aguda ou crônica, sua concentração é frequentemente monitorada pela determinação de arsênio total na urina [125] . ...
... For example, compressed air cleaning removed 40% of arsenic residues from objects (Glastrup, 2001); soap and water washing and vacuuming techniques were used by Seneca tribal members to reduce unspecified amounts of arsenic on masks ; and vacuuming techniques were unsuccessfully used by Arizona State Museum researchers to remove arsenic from feathers (odegaard et al., 2003). Gibson and Gage, 1982;Foo et al., 1988;oskarsson et al., 1994;Saad and Hassanien, 2001;Pesch et al., 2002;Ali andTarafdar, 2003. b Cumbie, 1975;Sheffy and St. Amat, 1982;Stevens et al., 1997;evans et al., 1998;ben-David et al., 2001;Kocar et al., 2004;Duffy et al., 2005. ...
... In human body, as was transported to different organs mainly through blood and the major potion was slowly excreted through urine. However, a small portion of the As was deposited in hairs, nails and shin (Saad and Hassanien, 2001) therefore, should be note to the potential health risk by means of consumption of the local foods with high As concentrations and ingestion, inhalation and dermal adsorption of contaminated soils. The symptoms are those of profound gastrointestinal, inflammation sometimes with hemorrhage and cardiogenic shock (National Academy of Science; Arsenic, 1979). ...
Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. The contamination of the top soil is serious from the standpoint of its direct impact on human health. This pollution consists mainly of contamination by toxic metals in connection with emissions from industry and transportation. Metals maybe inhaled as dust and also ingested involuntarily through food and drink as well as would be absorbed through skin. Metals are notable for their wide environmental dispersion from such activity; their tendencies to accumulate in select tissues of the human body, and their overall potential to be toxic even at relatively minor levels of exposure. Some metals do not play any role in human body and some others as in the case lead, cadmium, mercury are toxic even at trace levels and also essential metals could be harmful at very high levels. The toxicity of metals commonly involves the brain and the kidney, but other manifestations occur. This paper focuses on exposure to the heavy metals lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, chromium etc. as they are arguably the most important metal toxins from a world as well as some additional remarks are also made regarding a few other metals of concern.
... In a study published in Environment International (2001), we proved that smoking habits had an important role in the elevation of arsenic levels among the non- occupational Egyptian population: 60% of smokers and 66.7% of indoor passive smokers had arsenic levels > 0.25 mg As/kg hair. Arsenic levels were also dependent on the kind of smoking, as hair arsenic of the subject smoking molasses tobacco (shisha) was found to be significantly higher than that of cigarette smokers (0.459 and 0.209 mg As/kg hair, respectively), (Saad-Hussein and Hussanien, 2001). ...
... The high concentration of As in street children compared to control group (in Figure 1) may be related to the use of contaminated water [28,29] or the smoking status uring their lifestyle [30]. However, the average concen-d Table 2. Raw data for street children group with individual concentration in ng/g for detected trace elements. ...
... The concentration of arsenic in hairs ranging from 0.08 -0.25 µg/g for people from areas not contaminated with arsenic to more than 9 µg/g for people ingesting drinking water containing arsenic regularly [10,14]. Liebscher and Smith reported a range of 0.02 to 8.17 µg/g in 1250 hair samples from persons living in the industrial city of Glasgow, Scotland [9]. ...
Since arsenic compounds have an affinity to thiol groups their greatest amounts can then be found in the tissues containing sulphur-rich proteins, like beta-keratin in skin, hair and nails. Accumulation of arsenic also depends on the macronutrient content in daily food ration. The deficiency and excess of both the protein and fat may contribute to a higher content of arsenic in the organism, including hair in human or fur in animals.
Hair and fur is a good indicator of population exposure to many toxic substances, including arsenic. The degree of arsenic accumulation may depend on the diet and nutritional status. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of protein and fat in diet on the accumulation of arsenic in rats' fur.
A total number of 70 male Buffalo rats (body weight 200 - 220 g, age - 6 weeks) were divided into 10 groups. Rats were housed in plastic cages (4 per cage) in a 12h light/dark cycle for 6 weeks. The diets of different protein and fat contents ware administered to the animals. Five of ten groups of rats received throughout the whole period 10 ppm sodium arsenite dissolved in distilled drinking water (about 250 µg As/animal/day). The arsenic were determined with the method of atomic adsorption spectrometry in conjunction with a graphite-furnace atomize using a Varian AA240FS apparatus.
The highest arsenic concentrations were found in fur of rats which were given low protein diet and water with arsenic. The lowest arsenic contents were found in fur of rats, which were given control diet and high protein diet with arsenic in water.
Balanced control diet or high protein diet protected organism from arsenic accumulation, only small increase of arsenic content in rats' fur, compared to the control group, was observed.
arsenic, rats' fur, protein and fat in diet, exposure to arsenic.
... The arsenic concentrations in the KI group is fairly high, with 100% over the normal range (0.08-0.25 μg/g) (Saad & Hassanien, 2001). Industrial exposure, food and beverage, and groundwater are the primary sources of arsenic to humans, while groundwater is considered a serious problem in many countries all over the world. ...
... Both biomarkers require an extensive washing procedure to remove the adsorbed As (Morton et al. 2002;Phan et al. 2011;Slotnick and Nriagu 2006). Despite the limitations of these three biomarkers, they are suitable for measuring chronic low-level As exposure in human populations (Brima et al. 2006;Rivera-Núñez et al. 2012;Saad and Hassanien 2001;Wilhelm et al. 2005). Arsenic in urine, hair, and nails has been associated with various exposure sources, such as drinking water, soil, air, and food intake (including seafood) (Fillol et al. 2010;Mandal et al. 2003;Phan et al. 2011;Rivera-Núñez et al. 2012;Slotnick et al. 2007;Soleo et al. 2008;Tsuji et al. 2005;Wilhelm et al. 2005). ...
The various toxic effects associated with inorganic arsenic (iAs) warrants that exposure sources be identified. This pilot study evaluated if greater seafood consumption from Vieques-Puerto Rico is associated with increased exposure to iAs. Nail, hair, and urine samples were used as biomarkers of iAs exposure in adult women and men from Vieques classified as high (n = 31) and low (n = 21) seafood consumers, who reported eating fish and/or shellfish ≥1 time per week and once per month or less, respectively. The sum of urinary iAs (As III + As V), monomethylarsonic acid (MA[V]), and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA[V]), denoted as SumAs, fluctuated from 3.3 µg/g Cr (1.2 μg/L) to 42.7 μg/g Cr (42 μg/L) (n = 52). Levels of As in nail samples (n = 49) varied from 0.04 to 0.82 μg/g dry weight (dw), whereas in hair (n = 49) As was only detected in 49 % of the samples with a maximum value of 0.95 μg/g dw. None of the biomarkers of exposure to As exceeded exposure reference values for urine (50 μg/g Cr or 50 μg/L), nails (1 μg/g), or hair (1 μg/g). However, median (10.0 μg/g Cr; 10.6 μg/L) and 95th percentile (31.9 μg/g Cr; 40.4 μg/L) of urinary SumAs were higher in Vieques samples than in the those from the general population of other countries. Among the three biomarkers of exposure, nail samples reflected better the exposure to iAs from seafood consumption with significantly higher average As concentrations in high (0.24 μg/g) than low (0.12 μg/g) seafood consumers. Multivariate results for As in nail samples (R
2 = 0.55, p < 0.0001) showed a positive association with fish consumption, particularly for men, with levels increasing with years of residency in Vieques.
... Scalp hair has therefore been constantly proposed as a potentially useful tissue in that it can document the extent of and changes in the level of many trace elements in the body over a long period of time. The amount of As in hair shaft segments reflects the As burden at the time during hair was formed (Chappell et al., 1999;Saad and Hassanien, 2001). Arsenic concentrations in hair can be used as biomarkers for arsenic exposure in humans (Gault et al., 2008b). ...
The state of Penang encompasses an industrial region with a potential for the existence of a variety of industrial pollutants. Such pollutants would certainly have a possible impact effect on the environment and the people. The determination of trace elements levels in hair which is well known as a method for environmental exposure monitoring, evaluation of heavy metal poisoning, assessment of nutrient levels and disease diagnoses, is chosen here as the method to determine the possible exposure to possible pollutants in the form of unwanted trace elements. The natural levels of trace elements in hair are hence monitored first as reference values for the assessment of the possible human contamination levels. In this work the concentrations of Cu,
Zn and Pb in human scalp hair of 50 residents of Penang were determined using XRF. The results of this study were compared with the results obtained in other cities where such measurements have also been carried out.
... In summary, trace element monitoring in hair strands remains an attractive method in toxicology and surveillance of nutritional status. The assessment of suspected occupational, environmental or accidental exposure to toxic elements (Hg, Pb, As) was described [6,10,[12][13][14]. ...
Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) has been developed as reliable analytical technique for the quantitation of metal distributions at micrometre resolution. In this work a novel microanalytical strategy for biomonitoring of arsenic, toxic and essential metals in single hair strands is proposed. Two different calibration strategies in LA-ICP-MS were developed using either certified hair standard reference material (IAEA 086) or prepared matrix-matched laboratory hair standards doped with analytes of interest at defined concentration. Powdered hair standards and human hair strands mounted on a sticky tape in the LA chamber were analyzed under the same experimental conditions by an optimized LA-ICP-MS technique. The use of hair powder standard allows calibration curves to be obtained by plotting the analyte ion (M+) intensity normalized to 34S+ (the ratio M+/34S+) as a function of the concentration determined by ICP-MS of acidic digests. The linear correlation coefficients (R) of calibration curves for analytes As, Ba, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Hg, Mg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr,Ti and U were typically between 0.985 and 0.999. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.6μgg−1 for As and ranged from 0.3 to 7.8μgg−1for the other analytes. Distinct elemental exposition time profiles were observed in hair samples from five volunteers.
... Os níveis de As encontrados em 1.927 amostras de sangue (indicativos de contato recente) e 1.986 amostras de cabelo (indicativos de contato pregresso) analisadas da comunidade do Elesbão, comparados com a história clínica individual e outros dados da pesquisa, nos permitem a interpretação de Tabela 4 -Distribuição dos níveis de Arsênio em sangue de 1.927 moradores do Elesbão segundo quatro categorias propostas que, para os indivíduos analisados, existe exposição, sem indícios de intoxicação. As médias encontradas coincidem com médias de normalidade referidas na literatura, em populações não expostas 27,28 . Não foram estabelecidas associações entre a avaliação clínico-laboratorial e os teores de arsênio medidos no sangue ou no cabelo. ...
Este artigo é uma revisão das pesquisas da Seção de Meio Ambiente do Instituto Evandro Chagas/FUNASA sobre exposição ao mercúrio (Hg) no vale do rio Tapajós e Estado do Acre, e exposição ao arsênio (As) através de resíduos da exploração de manganês (Mn) realizada pela ICOMI deixados no Porto de Santana-AP. Em relação ao mercúrio, têm sido pesquisadas populações sob risco através da via respiratória ou alimentar. No primeiro caso, os trabalhadores de casas de compra e venda de ouro têm apresentado teores mais elevados de Hg em urina do que os garimpeiros estudados. No segundo caso, as populações ribeirinhas têm mostrado níveis diferenciados de exposição (Hg em cabelo). Comunidades ribeirinhas situadas em áreas não afetadas pelo mercúrio da garimpagem e com hábitos alimentares semelhantes às de área de risco têm sido avaliadas, visando a construção de parâmetros de normalidade regional. São também pesquisados os teores de Hg em materiais ambientais e na biota aquática. Os estudos de saúde humana e ambiente na cidade de Santana-AP objetivaram avaliar as fontes e possíveis vias de exposição da população da comunidade do Elesbão ao arsênio. Verificou-se a existência de fonte de risco através dos rejeitos de Mn, porém os níveis de As na água consumida pela população mostraram-se dentro dos parâmetros de normalidade. As médias encontradas em sangue e cabelo coincidem com médias de normalidade referidas na literatura, em populações não expostas, e as associações entre variáveis epidemiológicas, avaliação clínico-laboratorial e os teores de arsênio não mostraram significância estatística.
... Scalp hair has therefore been constantly proposed as a potentially useful tissue in that it can document the extent of and changes in the level of many trace elements in the body over a long period of time. The amount of As in hair shaft segments reflects the As burden at the time during hair was formed (Chappell et al., 1999; Saad and Hassanien, 2001). Arsenic concentrations in hair can be used as biomarkers for arsenic exposure in humans (Gault et al., 2008b). ...
As with many cities all over the world with active industrial developments, the city of Penang in Malaysia has also the potential of being exposed to industrial pollution. Such exposure would certainly have a detrimental impact on the environment and the people. The determination of trace elemental levels in hair which is well known as a method for environmental exposure monitoring, evaluation of heavy metal poisoning, assessment of nutrient levels and disease diagnoses. In this study, it is selected as the method to determine the possible exposure to pollutants in the form of unwanted trace elements. The natural levels of trace elements in hair are hence monitored first as reference values for the assessment of the possible human contamination levels. In this work the concentrations of As and Hg in the human scalp hair of 100 residents of Penang were determined using XRF. The results of this study are compared with the results obtained in other cities where such measurements have also been carried out.
... Each hair sample was washed with a solution of 1% Triton X-100, rinsed with ultrapure water, and air-dried (20). A 100-mg of each sample was accurately weighed and respectively transferred into a PTFE microwave digestion vessel. ...
... Several reports on concentration of selected variables in hair and nails with the division for both various professions and nonoccupational populations have been published before(Saad and Hassanien, 2001;Gerhardsson et al., 2002;Wilhelm et al., 2002;Strumylaite et al., 2004).Gerhardsson et al. (2002) presented results of median concentration of Cu and Zn in hair and nails samples for copper smelter workers. For Cu it was 14.80 μg·g −1 (range 9.20-80.30 ...
This paper describes the results of study on testing of hair and nails samples as possible markers of occupational exposure in a phosphate fertiliser plant. The key objectives were to verify if: (1) elements originating from fertiliser production may accumulate in hard tissue and hence allow preliminary occupational exposure risk assessment; (2) linear discriminant function analysis (LDA) may be applied as a diversification tool in preliminary assessment of occupational exposure risk based on hard tissue samples analysis; and (3) both hairs and nails can be used successfully as an efficient biological sample in biomonitoring studies and as markers of occupational exposure in various types of plant. The complex data matrix (2025 observations) obtained by the determination of 25 elements by neutron activation analysis in hard tissue samples was treated by LDA. The obtained results indicated the presence of two discriminant functions (DFs). The data variance explained by the first DF is 78%, and that by the second DF is 22%. The first DF is highly related to S, W, Cu, K and Mg concentrations and separates hair from nails samples, and the second DF, being related to phosphate fertiliser precursors, separates the control group from the employees. Sm, Al, Mo and As accumulate in nails and hairs of fertiliser plant employees, whereas Cl and Ti are removed from hard tissues. The mean concentrations of Na, In, I, Au, Dy, Ca, La, U, Sb, V, Zn, Mn and Co in hard tissue samples do not discriminate employees and control group members and hence prove their ineffectiveness in occupational exposure assessment in phosphate fertiliser plants.
... Furthermore, it becomes evident that even low level of Arsenic may pose a significant health risk to human especially for diabetes mellitus (NRC, 1999; Navas-Acien et al., 2008). Although Arsenic content of the consumed water in Egypt is below the maximum drinking water level allowed by World Health Organization (WHO, 2004) is 10 µg /L, hair Arsenic levels were above the allowable values in 45% of apparently health Egyptian (Saad and Hassanien, 2001). Public interest in the cumulative health effects of environmental exposures continues to grow as information increases about the potential for multiple exposures to variety sources. ...
Current study was undertaken to evaluate the impact of repeated co-exposure of the widely used analgesic-antipyretic drug Acetaminophen (Paracetamol), Malathion (organophosphates pesticides), and metalloid (Arsenic) on the functions of the liver and pancreas of male albino rats. Eighty male albino rats weighing 140-160g were orally treated with Acetaminophen (100 mg/kg b.w), Malathion (30 mg/kg b.w) or Arsenic (1.5 mg/kg b.w) individually and in-combination for 28 days. Biochemical results revealed that all treatments under investigation showed significant increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and amylase activities, as well as fasting glucose levels. Lipase recorded fluctuation in its activity according to treatment group, whereas cholinesterase activity (ChE) showed non–significant changes except for malathion treatment. In contrast, paraoxonase (PON1) and insulin activities were significantly declined after single and combined treatments at (P < 0.05). Histopathological changes in liver and pancreas tissues among all treated groups were recorded. These physiological and pathological observations were more prominent in combined treatments. In conclusion, association of environmental factors including drug therapeutic dose and pollutants might lead to different unexpected types and levels of toxicities.
... It is observed that contents of lead (7)(8)(9) and arsenic (10)(11)(12) in biological samples of human population are much higher in smokers than those in non-smokers. ...
Contents of lead and arsenic were determined in 617 tobacco samples and 80 samples of cigarettes. The mean content of lead in tobacco was 0.93 microg/g (range 0.02-8.56 microg/g) and arsenic was 0.15 microg/g (range < 0.02-2.04 microg/g). The mean content of lead in cigarettes was 1.26 microg/g (range 0.02-6.72 microg/g) and arsenic was 0.11 microg/g (range < 0.02-0.71 micro/g). There was a large variability in lead and arsenic content among samples of tobacco and samples of cigarettes. Positive correlation between lead and arsenic contents in tobacco was found (r = 0.22; p < 0.0001). Based on our data and data from literature we compare the content of lead and arsenic in tobacco and cigarettes in other studies and discuss the influence of smoking to lead and arsenic exposure and health. In conclusion, at the same time with the implementation of tobacco use prevention programmes it is advisable to implement continuous monitoring of lead and arsenic in tobacco and cigarettes in order to reduce the health risk due to exposure of these metals.
... This research confirms that exposure to well water contaminated with arsenic represents an evident risk of metal absorption. Mean As level found in hair of exposed children was 1.3 mg/kg, greater than the allowable limits for the country (0.05 mg/kg) and for the international community (>0.25 mg/kg) (NOM-041-SSA1-1993; Chakraborti et al., 2003;NOM-117-SSA1-1994;Saad and Hassanien, 2001). We did not studied clinical signs of arsenicosis, but studies done in Bangladesh showed that future complications are very likely to happen in populations with levels of As exposure similar to those found in Guanajuato, including cancer development (Smith, 2000). ...
This cross-sectional study measures the arsenic level in school children exposed to contaminated well water in a rural area in México. Arsenic was measured in hair by hydride generation atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Overall, 110 children were included (average 10 years-old). Among 55 exposed children, mean arsenic level on hair was 1.3 mg/kg (range <0.006-5.9). All unexposed children had undetectable arsenic levels. The high level of arsenic in water was associated to the level in hair. However, exposed children drank less well water at school or at home than unexposed children, suggesting that the use of contaminated water to cook beans, broths or soups may be the source of arsenic exposure.
... Due to the difficulties in sampling of invasive matrices, such as blood or tissues of internal organs, non-invasive markers of exposure (urine, saliva, hair, nails) of determination of potentially toxic doses of metals (Bencko, 2005). The technique has found an application in environmental biomonitoring (Maloney et al., 1998;Lee et al., 2000;Saad and Hassanien, 2001;Klevay et al., 2002;Bencko, 2005;Bencko et al., 2009;Zhang et al., 2007). The content of bioelements in hair for healthy population is recommended by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as significant biomarker of human exposure to metals (Bencko, 2005;Moreda-Pineiro et al., 2007). ...
The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the impacts of climate change on environmental pollutants, chemical or biological pollutants, which are causing liver health problems. Liver diseases reflect broad disparities all over the world. The persistence of exposure to environmental chemical pollutants is proved to be affected by climate change stressors, such as variations in the atmospheric temperature and precipitation, sea level rise, and wind speeds and directions. An increase in temperature, as an example, may enhance the release, degradation, transportation, and mobilization of chemical pollutants. Wind speeds and directions affect mainly transportation, dispersion, and deposition of air pollutants that affect the burden of illness and mortality associated with them, and stagnation of the wind speed increases the concentration of pollutants. It was proved that global climate change has an impact on the biological pollutants through changing the distribution and movement of aquatic pollutants to higher latitudes, in addition to an increase in the growth of air biological microorganisms such as fungi with the increase in mycotoxin production. Therefore, climate changes have proved to have increased toxicity and bioaccumulation of the pollutants in the environment and in living creatures. The prediction of climate change impacts on the chemical and biological pollutants is still a formidable challenge for future science.
Due to the public health concern of arsenic, environmental management measures in mining areas had been implemented. To assess the effect of environmental management measures in the mining area comprehensively, arsenic accumulation in the urine, hair, nails, and urinary metabolites of residents in a realgar mining area in Hunan province, China were investigated in 2019, and the changes in arsenic levels in the biomarkers during 2012–2019 were tracked. The importance of confounding factors (age, sex, occupation, residence, clinical history, vegetable source, cooking fuel, smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI) was analyzed using the Boruta algorithm. After the implementation of environmental management measures (including ceasing mining and smelting activities, building landfills, adjusting the planting structure, and soil restoration), urine, hair, and nail arsenic concentration decreased drastically but were still excessive. Arsenic accumulation was highest in older male miners who were long settled in the mining area and consumed homegrown vegetables. The only factor for changes in urinary arsenic levels was the cooking fuel type; residents using wood as cooking fuel experienced sustained arsenic exposure. Occupation and sex were important for determining arsenic changes in the hair and nails. Short-term arsenic accumulation in urine was affected by arsenic exposure, while long-term accumulation in hair and nails by arsenic metabolic capacity. The percentage of urinary arsenic metabolism and arsenic methylation indices of the participants in the mining area were within the normal range (%iAs: 10–30 %, %MMA: 10–20 %, % DMA: 60–80 %); samples indicated worse metabolic capacity than the reference population. The arsenic metabolic capacity of male miners was relatively weak, probably aggravated by alcohol drinking and smoking. Without soil remediation, arsenic exposure will continue. Homegrown vegetables and biomass fuels should be abandoned; reduced cigarette and alcohol consumption is recommended. Urinary arsenic would be more proper for assessing environmental remediation in mining areas.
Arsenic is the most common and hazardous environmental contaminant, affecting millions of people around the world. The mechanisms of action responsible for the wide range of chronic health effects are complicated and remain to be understood. This review article describes several recent studies on metabolism, toxicity, and biomonitoring of arsenic species. Biomethylation is the most common process involved in the metabolism of arsenicals, producing mono-, di-, and tri-methyl arsenic species. Ability to biomethylate arsenic is related to the expression of methyltransferases, e.g., As( I? )-S-adenosylmethionine methyltransferase (AS3MT). Many of the arsenic metabolites have been detected in body fluids, tissues, and cell culture experiments. Much recent research has focused on the understanding of metabolism and toxicity of the various arsenic species, aiming to delineate the biological processes and the particular arsenic species that are responsible for the observed health effects. Detailed studies on binding of arsenic to proteins help gain insight into arsenic retention and its effects on enzyme inhibition and protein expression. Biomonitoring of arsenic species in urine, blood, saliva, nail, and hair is useful for assessing overall exposure and for further improving understanding of tissue distribution, metabolism, and toxicity of arsenic species.
Purpose of review:
Although smoking and gender are well-established bladder cancer (BCa) risk factors, a significant interaction with other risk factors could help in the identification of patterns for early detection and prevention strategies.
Recent findings:
Smoking appears to be more strongly associated with BCa risk in women than in men, which could be related to differences in metabolism, smoking behavior, exposure patterns, and DNA repair mechanisms. BMI is associated with a higher risk of BCa with negligible difference between genders. The risk for BCa is increased in postmenopausal women, specifically in women with earlier menopausal age (<45 years). Other potential risk factors such as alcohol, arsenic exposure, and particulate matter inhalation seem to affect the genders differently.Female smokers experience a higher risk of disease recurrence after bacillus Calmette-Guérin therapy than their male counterparts. Lastly, smoking appears to negatively affect the outcome of radiotherapy in women, but not that of men.
Summary:
Several lines of evidence point to an interaction between smoking and gender, whereas their impact on other potential risk factors remains to be elucidated. Identifying such differential effects could allow for gender-specific prevention, early detection, and treatment strategies.
Arsenic (As) is a major environmental contaminant that affects the plant, animal, and human life. It is obtained from the earth's crust and finds its use in industrial, cosmetic, agricultural, and health sectors. Though due to the medical concerns, its use has decreased, yet it continues to be bioavailable in different forms. Released through geological and anthropogenic activities, it presents to be a major risk to the human population. The current chapter reviews the role of As as a potential environmental contaminant and its effect as a carcinogen and toxin to the humans. Various sources of introduction of As into the environment are then discussed. A comprehensive review of the geographical patterns of As occurrence in environmental samples has then been provided along with the interventional strategies that can be employed to decrease the effects of As toxicity.
Chronic exposure to arsenic (As) in drinking water is an established cause of cancer and other adverse health effects. Arsenic concentrations >10 μg L(-1) were previously measured in 5% of private water supplies (PWS) in Cornwall, UK. The present study investigated prolongued exposure to As by measuring biomarkers in hair and toenail samples from 212 volunteers and repeated measurements of As in drinking water from 127 households served by PWS. Strong positive Pearson correlations (rp = 0.95) indicated stability of water As concentrations over the time period investigated (up to 31 months). Drinking water As concentrations were positively correlated with toenail (rp = 0.53) and hair (rp = 0.38) As concentrations - indicative of prolonged exposure. Analysis of washing procedure solutions provided strong evidence of the effective removal of exogenous As from toenail samples. Significantly higher As concentrations were measured in hair samples from males and smokers and As concentrations in toenails were negatively associated with age. A positive association between seafood consumption and toenail As and a negative association between home-grown vegetable consumption and hair As was observed for volunteers exposed to <1 As μg L(-1) in drinking water. These findings have important implications regarding the interpretation of toenail and hair biomarkers. Substantial variation in biomarker As concentrations remained unaccounted for, with soil and dust exposure as possible explanations.
Arsenic presence in groundwater is a serious contaminant and reported as a calamity of twentieth–twenty first century by many researchers. Intake of arsenic-contaminated water above 0.01 ppm causes melanosis, keratosis, and skin cancer, commonly referred as arsenicosis reported by World Health Organization. The first cases of arsenicosis were diagnosed from West Bengal, India in 1983. Gradually it spread to other part of the world and serious warning was issued to Bangladesh by World Health Organization in 1993. Several methodologies were studied and among that, biosorption is one such process which is considered to be cost-effective and proficient. Dried hyacinth root (DHR) is well documented as biosorbent for mitigating various heavy metals but least work has been done hitherto to consider it as adsorbent for arsenic removal. This short review of literatures has been conducted to address the efficiency of DHR as a biosorbent for arsenic mitigation. It was found from comprehensive review that DHR could be used to mitigate arsenic from drinking water. This highlights and provides an overview of hyacinth roots as a biosorbent for arsenic. Conclusions have been drawn from the literature reviewed, and suggestions for future research are proposed.
The toxicity of arsenic (As) and its effects on living organisms have been known since antiquity. Arsenic accumulates in hair which can therefore be used as a biological indicator of exposure to this toxic element. Several techniques have been used to study the amount of arsenic in hair, which in adult humans is normally less than 1 mg/kg. The most widely used technique for the analysis of As in hair is hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (HGAAS). Human hair has been analysed to detect As contamination in several countries worldwide. Over a hundred million people alive today, worldwide, are slowly being poisoned by As. Bangladesh, India, Nepal, China, Taiwan, Vietnam, for example, are contaminated with As. High concentrations of As in the ecosystems seriously affect the environment and the health of the local people, especially if some of these pollutants are leached from the surface and reach groundwater aquifers. Of the various routes of exposure to As, potable water poses the greatest risk to human health. After absorption, toxic compounds enter the circulating blood. Arsenic is then rapidly distributed throughout the body before eventually being excreted.
Extensive investigation has shown that smokeless tobacco (SLT) may cause inflammation of the oral cavity. In this study, the concentration of arsenic (As) was determined in SLT products (gutkha, mainpuri, and dry and moist snuff). Scalp hair samples of males aged 20–30 years who
consumed different types of SLT products available in Pakistan were analyzed for As contents. Total As in different SLT products and in scalp hair was determined by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry after microwave-assisted extraction. The validity of the methodology was tested
by simultaneously analyzing certified reference materials and spike recovery studies. The range of As concentrations in moist snuff, dry snuff, gutkha, and mainpuri were 0.574–1.53, 0.642–1.07, 0.246–0.622, and 0.419–0.874 μg/g, respectively. We estimated that a
daily intake of 10 g of all SLT products could contribute 2.0–12.2% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake for As in adults. The As concentration in scalp hair of SLT consumers was higher than that of referents who had not consumed any type of tobacco products.
The earth’s resources are finite, and it can no longer be considered a source of inexhaustible bounty for the human population. However, this realization has not been able to contain the human desire for rapid industrialization. The collateral to overusing environmental resources is the high-level contamination of undesirable toxic metals, leading to bioaccumulation and cellular damage. Cytopathological features of biological systems represent a key variable in several diseases. A review of the literature revealed that autophagy (PCDII), a high-capacity process, may consist of selective elimination of vital organelles and/or proteins that intiate mechanisms of cytoprotection and homeostasis in different biological systems under normal physiological and stress conditions. However, the biological system does survive under various environmental stressors. Currently, there is no consensus that specifies a particular response as being a dependable biomarker of toxicology. Autophagy has been recorded as the initial response of a cell to a toxic metal in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Various signaling pathways are triggered through cellular proteins and/or protein kinases that can lead to autophagy, apoptosis (or necroptosis), and necrosis. Although the role of autophagy in tumorigenesis is associated with promoting tumor cell survival and/or acting as a tumor suppressive mechanism, PCDII in metal-induced toxicity has not been extensively studied. The aim of this review is to analyze the comparative cytotoxicity of metals/metalloids and nanoparticles (As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Fe, and metal-NP) in cells enduring autophagy. It is noted that metals/metalloids and nanoparticles prefer ATG8/LC3 as a potent inducer of autophagy in several cell lines or animal cells. MAP kinases, death protein kinases, PI3K, AKT, mTOR, and AMP kinase have been found to be the major components of autophagy induction or inhibition in the context of cellular responses to metals/metalloids and nanoparticles.
Objective: In many countries, data obtained from individuals has been evaluated in order to determine environmental metal exposure and country standards. In the present study, the aim is to find out the mean arsenic levels of residents of our country by detecting the arsenic levels in hair samples of metallurgical workers who were thought to be exposed to arsenic and unexposed volunteers.
Methods: The study population comprised 175 metallurgy workers aged 20 to 58 and 175 age-matched
(21 to 60 years) volunteers. GFAAS equipped with zeeman background correction system was utilized for
hair as determination.
Results: The average levels in hair of exposed
workers and the control group was 2.53±2.47 μg/g and
0.21±0.20 μg/g, respectively. The level in hair was
found significantly higher in the exposed group than in
the control group (p<0.01).
Conclusion: The mean hair arsenic level was lower
in the unexposed group and was 2-fold higher in workers
than 1 μg/g that is accepted as standard, revealing that
precautions and sanctions should be increased.
Objective: In many countries, data obtained from
individuals has been evaluated in order to determine
environmental metal exposure and country standards.
In the present study, the aim is to find out the mean
arsenic levels of residents of our country by detecting
the arsenic levels in hair samples of metallurgical
workers who were thought to be exposed to arsenic and
unexposed volunteers.
Methods: The study population comprised 175
metallurgy workers aged 20 to 58 and 175 age-matched
(21 to 60 years) volunteers. GFAAS equipped with
zeeman background correction system was utilized for
hair as determination.
Results: The average levels in hair of exposed
workers and the control group was 2.53±2.47 μg/g and
0.21±0.20 μg/g, respectively. The level in hair was
found significantly higher in the exposed group than in
the control group (p<0.01).
Conclusion: The mean hair arsenic level was lower
in the unexposed group and was 2-fold higher in workers
than 1 μg/g that is accepted as standard, revealing that
precautions and sanctions should be increased.
In this study, a simple and sensitive hydride generation atomic absorption spectroscopy (HG-AAS) method is developed and validated for assessment of arsenic concentrations in human hair known as the best biochemical indicator to detect chronic exposure. Hair samples from the occipital region of the head were obtained from 94 volunteers ranging in age from 18 to 74 years. Microwave digestion combined with acid digestion was applied and an electrothermal hydride generation module was utilized for atomization. The method showed linearity in the range of 1-20 μg/L with a detection and quantification limit equal to 0.1 μg/L and 0.3 μg/L, respectively, as well as very good repeatability not exceeding 3%. The calibration curve was characterized by a high correlation coefficient (r=0.997). Validation was performed in terms of accuracy with the use of a reference material. The method was applied to the analysis of spiked Certified Reference Material (CRM) samples yielding satisfactory results (107-110%). The assessed hairarsenic levels of the volunteers ranged from 21 to 367 μg/kg, with an average value of 115±6.12 μg/kg.
Psoriasis is a noncontagious, chronic skin disease affecting 1 in 50 people worldwide.
The aim of present study was to compare the levels of arsenic (As) and selenium (Se) in samples of whole blood, urine, and scalp hair of 418 psoriasis patients of both genders aged 25 - 55 years. All psoriatic patients lived in the vicinity of a cement factory, and were categorized as mild, moderate, and severe. For comparison purposes, 395 healthy age-matched referent/control subjects, residents of industrial and non-industrial areas, were selected. The concentrations of essential trace and toxic elements were measured by electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of methodology was checked by using certified reference materials (CRMs) and the conventional wet acid digestion method on the same CRMs and real samples.
The observed mean values of As were significantly higher in scalp hair, blood, and urine samples of patients with mild and severe psoriasis as compared to the controls (p = 0.01 - 0.001), while the concentrations of Se were lower in the scalp hair and blood, but higher in the urine samples of psoriasis patients of all categories.
The deficiency of Se in psoriatic patients may undoubtedly be caused by the toxic element exposures via dust produced by the cement factory.
Arsenic is listed as a hazardous material and is a suspect carcinogen, reportedly responsible for lung and skin cancers. It is also a teratogen, which means that it is capable of crossing the placental membrane into the metabolic system of unborn children. The level of arsenic allowed in drinking water has been set at 0.01 mg/l by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, the maximum permissible limit of arsenic in drinking water of Bangladesh is 0.05 mg/l. The actual toxicity of arsenic to the human body varies depending on several factors as general health and diet. It is a cumulative substance, which slowly passes out of the body through urine, hair, fingernails/toenails and skin. In Bangladesh, most of the recognized stages of arsenic poisoning have been identified. The risk of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh is increasing. The number of patients seriously affected by arsenic in drinking water has now risen to 7000 demanding extensive research in this field.
Calculated loading rates of trace metals into the three environmental compartments demonstrate that human activities now have major impacts on the global and regional cycles of most of the trace elements. There is significant contamination of freshwater resources and an accelerating accumulation of toxic metals in the human food chain.
In policymaking on environmental health, it is often assumed that the entire population is exposed to and reacts to environmental contaminants in a similar manner. However, this assumption is misguided, especially where children are concerned. This article presents the scientific basis for the impacts of the environment on children, showing how children are different from adults in the ways in which they are exposed to environmental contamination and the ways in which they react to it when exposed. Specifically, the article examines the changing physical and biological environments of children. Children at different stages of development have unique physical risk factors for certain types of exposure because of changing location, levels of mobility, oxygen consumption, eating patterns, and behavior. When children are exposed to contaminants, their developing biological makeup--the way in which they absorb, distribute, and metabolize chemicals--will also affect how their bodies deal with the foreign substance. Each of these factors, along with the customs, laws, and regulations that affect the way in which children are exposed to the contaminants, had implications for the well-being of children in the years to come.
Part of the northern Palatinate region in Germany is characterized by elevated levels of arsenic and antimony in the soil due to the presence of ore sources and former mining activities. In a biomonitoring study, 218 residents were investigated for a putative increased intake of these elements. Seventy-six nonexposed subjects in a rural region in south lower Saxony were chosen as the reference group. Urine and scalp hair samples were obtained as surrogates to determine the internal exposures to arsenic and antimony. The analyses were performed using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry except for arsenic in urine, which was determined by the hydride technique. This method does not detect organoarsenicals from seafood, which are not toxicologically relevant. In the northern Palatinate subjects, slightly elevated arsenic contents in urine and scalp hair (presumably not hazardous) could be correlated with an increased arsenic content in the soil. On the other hand, the results did not show a correlation between the antimony contents in the soil of the housing area and those in urine and hair. Except for antimony in scalp hair, age tended to be associated with internal exposures to arsenic and antimony in both study groups. Consumption of seafood had a slight impact on the level of urinary arsenic, which is indicative of the presence of low quantities of inorganic arsenicals and dimethylarsinic acid in seafood. The arsenic and antimony contents in scalp hair were positively correlated with the 24-hr arsenic excretion in urine. However, antimony in scalp hair was not correlated with seafood consumption as was arsenic in scalp hair and in urine. This indicated the existence of unidentified common pathways of exposure contributing to the alimentary body burden. Short time peaks in the 24-hr excretion of arsenic in urine, which could not be assigned to a high consumption of seafood, were detected for six study participants. This suggests that additional factors relevant in the exposure to arsenic are still unidentified.
For the last 50 years, the economic and industrial development of the nations of Central and Eastern Europe has been achieved at the cost of environmental degradation. The health risks posed by this pollution to children and the steps necessary to ameliorate such risks are only beginning to be investigated. At a recent conference in Poland, sponsored in part by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, participants from 11 countries in the region, together with scientists from Western Europe and the United States, met to share information regarding pediatric environmental health in Central and Eastern Europe, to consider methodologic issues in the design and conduct of such studies, and to discuss preventive strategies. This report summarizes the deliberations, outlines problem areas such as heavy metals and air pollution, delineates research and training needs to help Central and Eastern Europeans deal more effectively with such problems, and recommends specific future actions and collaborative efforts.
Arsenic, cadmium, and lead have been associated with various forms of cancer, nephrotoxicity, central nervous system effects, and cardiovascular disease in humans. Drinking water is a well-recognized pathway of exposure to these metals. To improve understanding of the temporal dimension of exposure to As, Cd, and Pb in drinking water, we obtained 381 samples of tap and/or tap/filtered water and self-reported rates of drinking water consumption from 73 members of a stratified random sample in Maryland. Data were collected at approximately 2-month intervals from September 1995 through September 1996. Concentrations of As (range < 0.2-13.8 microg/L) and Pb (< 0.1-13.4 microg/L) were within the ranges reported for the United States, as were the rates of drinking water consumption (median < 0.1-4.1 L/day). Cd was present at a detectable level in only 8.1% of the water samples. Mean log-transformed concentrations and exposures for As and Pb varied significantly among sampling cycles and among respondents, as did rates of drinking water consumption, according to a generalized linear model that accounted for potential correlation among repeated measures from the same respondent. We used the intraclass correlation coefficient of reliability to attribute the total variance observed for each exposure metric to between-person and within-person variability. Between-person variability was estimated to account for 67, 81, and 55% of the total variance in drinking water consumption, As exposure (micrograms per day), and Pb exposure (micrograms per day), respectively. We discuss these results with respect to their implications for future exposure assessment research, quantitative risk assessment, and environmental epidemiology.
Understanding the natural occurrence and the chemical and mineral forms of arsenic in the surface environment is of paramount importance in assessing the sources and pathways contributing to human exposure. Arsenic is a metalloid element, within Group Vb of the Periodic Table, but is often incorrectly referred to as a metal. Arsenic is ubiquitous in the environment, usually being present in small amounts in all rock, soil, dust, water, air and biological tissues.
The hair arsenic (As) levels are a useful indicator of chronic As poisoning in forensic cases, provided that external contamination of the hair by As can be excluded. Nails and hair have similar affinities for As, but the data on nails is somewhat limited because hair is more convenient to work with. Nails can take up and concentrate As in vitro, and therefore, like hair, are subject to the external As contamination. Hair As can be employed to identify chronic As poisoning provided that external contamination can be excluded. However, the relationship between the hair As levels and the degree of toxicity is only very approximate. Unfortunately, its lack of clinical precision limits its usefulness in assessing the severity of poisoning in the subjects who are exposed to As in their drinking water. The external contamination of the hair from washing in this water may also be a confounding factor. Preliminary experiments have shown that the locations in the hair of external As contamination and of As derived from ingestion are identical. Recent studies agree that the hair As levels in persons not subjected to significant As exposure are less than 1 μg/g. However, levels can be higher in the people living in polluted environments.
Arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd), chrornium (Cr), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), tin (Sn), thallium (Tl), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn) concentrations were determined in brain, bone, kidney, liver, and lung of 20 autopsied subjects nonoccupationally exposed to these elements, who at the time of death had lived in Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain) during at least the last 10 years. Results were analyzed in terms of age, sex, and specific place of residence. Beryllium, Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Tl, Sn, V, and Zn were measured by ICP-MS, whereas As and Hg were determined by using hydride generation/ICP-MS. Beryllium, Tl, and V were under the respective detection limits. Bone showed the highest concentrations of As, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn. In turn, the highest levels of Cd and Hg were found in kidney, while liver was the organ with the highest Mn concentrations. For most elements, tissue levels were higher in males than in females. No significant differences in metal concentrations (with the exception of Cd, Mn, and Zn in lung) were observed in relation to the age of the subjects. The current levels of metals in tissues of individuals from Tarragona are in the normal range based on concentrations reported in previous surveys.
Humans are exposed to arsenic (As) from many sources, such as food, water, air, and soil. Most foods contain both organic and inorganic forms of As and the inorganic compounds are generally considered to be more toxic. Although fish and shellfish are major contributors to dietary As among seafood consumers, over 90% of the As in seafood is generally organic rather than inorganic. Thus, it is important to know the relative levels of various As species in fish and shellfish when estimating risks from seafood consumption. Data were collected from published and unpublished literature on the concentrations of total, inorganic and organic As present in fish and shellfish. Distributions were skewed with median concentrations, in this instance, a better representation of central tendency than mean concentrations. The data were used to estimate total exposure to inorganic As from consumption of fish/shellfish for several exposure scenarios applicable to seafood-consuming populations, including subsistence groups. Data on fish and shellfish consumption patterns were derived from the 1989–1991 U.S. Department of Agriculture Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals. Organic As in ocean and estuarine fish and shellfish is primarily present as arsenobetaine (AsB) with smaller amounts as arsenocholine (AsC) or other organic compounds. Less is known about the identity of the organic As in freshwater fish. Data on the toxicokinetics of AsB and AsC demonstrate that the As in these compounds is apparently not bioavailable for interaction with other biological molecules.
Within the context of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS), metals were evaluated in the air, soil, dust, water, food, beverages, and urine of a single respondent. Potential doses were calculated for five metals including arsenic. In this paper, we seek to validate the potential dose calculations through spatial analysis of the data. Others report elevated arsenic concentrations in biological and environmental samples from residents of mining towns, particularly Ajo, Arizona. These reports led us to expect potential arsenic doses above the 90th percentile of the NHEXAS exposure distribution to be from residents of mining communities. Arsenic dose was calculated using media concentrations, time activity patterns, and published exposure factors. Of the 179 homes evaluated, 54 were in mining communities; 11 of these were considered separately for reasons of population bias. Of the 17 homes with the greatest potential arsenic doses, almost half (47%) were in mining communities. We evaluated the potential doses by media from nonmining and mining areas using the nonparametric Mann–Whitney U test. Statistically significant (p=0.05) differences were found between mining (n=43) and nonmining sites (n=122) for total exposure and for each of the following media: house dust, yard soil, outdoor air, beverage consumed, and water consumed. No differences were found in either food or indoor air of mining and nonmining areas. We eliminated outliers and repeated the test for all media; significance increased. Dietary, organic arsenic from fish consumption contributed to elevated arsenic exposure among people from nonmining communities and acted as an initial confounder. When controlling for fish consumption, we were able to validate our potential dose model using arsenic, particularly in Ajo. Further, we identified three mining communities lacking elevated arsenic exposure. Additional work is needed speciating the arsenic and evaluating health risks. The utilization of Geographic Information System facilitated spatial this project and paves the way for more sophisticated future spatial analyses.
Arsenic is ubiquitous and exposure can occur from natural and anthropogenic sources. Human exposure occurs from air, food, and drinking water. Airborne exposure is small except in polluted locations. Food exposure can be significant but, particularly in fish and shellfish, it is mostly in organic forms that are relatively nontoxic. Drinking water remains the most significant source worldwide, and large numbers of people are subject to serious exposure from this source in India, Bangladesh, China, and Mongolia. Toxicity consists mostly of neuropathy, skin lesions, vascular damage, and carcinogenesis. Vascular lesions are the result of endarteritis (blackfoot disease). This appears to be more prevalent in developing rather than developed countries and may be related to nutritional deficiencies. Skin cancer is the most clearly associated malignancy related to arsenic exposure from drinking water; however, bladder, lung, liver, and kidney tumors also appear to be related. Whereas the toxicity of drinking water levels of >200 μg/L is well established, the toxicity below 100 μg/L is not clearly defined, and this remains one of the most important enigmas in arsenic toxicology today. J. Trace Elem. Exp. Med. 13:165–172, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The water from some drilled wells in southwest Finland contains high arsenic concentrations (min-max: 17-980 microg/L). We analyzed inorganic arsenic (As-i) and organic arsenic (monomethylarsonate [MMA] and dimethylarsinate [DMA]) species in urine and conducted a clinical examination of current users (n = 35) and ex-users (n = 12) of such wells. Ex-users had ceased to use the water from the wells 2-4 months previously. Urinary arsenic species were also analyzed from persons whose drinking water contained less than 1 microg/L of arsenic (controls, n = 9). The geometric means of the concentrations of total arsenic in urine were 58 microg/L for current users, 17 microg/L for ex-users, and 5 microg/L for controls. The excreted arsenic was associated with the calculated arsenic doses, and on average 63% of the ingested arsenic dose was excreted in urine. The ratios of MMA/DMA and As-i/As-tot (As-tot = As-i + MMA + DMA) in urine tended to be lower among the current users and in the higher exposure levels than in controls, suggesting that As-i was better methylated in current users. However, the differences were mainly explained by age; older persons were better methylators of inorganic arsenic than younger individuals. The arsenic content of hair correlated well with the past and chronic arsenic exposure; an increase of 10 microg/L in the arsenic concentration of the drinking water or an increase of 10-20 microg/day of the arsenic exposure corresponded to a 0.1 mg/kg increase in hair arsenic. The individuals were interviewed and complained of muscle cramps, mainly in the legs, and this was associated with elevated arsenic exposure. The present study demonstrates that arsenic methylation has no threshold at these exposure levels.
In an attempt to establish a method for biological monitoring of inorganic arsenic exposure, the chemical species of arsenic were measured in the urine and hair of gallium arsenide (GaAs) plant and copper smelter workers. Determination of urinary inorganic arsenic concentration proved sensitive enough to monitor the low-level inorganic arsenic exposure of the GaAs plant workers. The urinary inorganic arsenic concentration in the copper smelter workers was far higher than that of a control group and was associated with high urinary concentrations of the inorganic arsenic metabolites, methylarsonic acid (MAA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA). The results established a method for exposure level-dependent biological monitoring of inorganic arsenic exposure. Low-level exposures could be monitored only by determining urinary inorganic arsenic concentration. High-level exposures clearly produced an increased urinary inorganic arsenic concentration, with an increased sum of urinary concentrations of inorganic arsenic and its metabolites (inorganic arsenic + MAA + DMAA). The determination of urinary arsenobetaine proved to determine specifically the seafood-derived arsenic, allowing this arsenic to be distinguished clearly from the arsenic from occupational exposure. Monitoring arsenic exposure by determining the arsenic in the hair appeared to be of value only when used for environmental monitoring of arsenic contamination rather than for biological monitoring.
Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the animal and plant kingdoms and our environment where sources can be natural or anthropogenic. Agricultural uses of arsenic have declined recently, but it still has well-defined roles in industry. Small amounts of arsenic are metabolized in a variety of ways and are largely rapidly methylated and excreted by man and animals. Poisoning can occur and may follow an acute or chronic course. Toxic manifestations in man occur at the cellular level and may appear in many organ systems. Specific effects can often be demonstrated in the skin and in the vascular and nervous systems. Other toxic effects appear to include carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and teratogenesis.
The distribution, retention and biotransformation of arsenobetaine, the most common organic arsenic compound in fish and crustacea, have been studied in mice, rats and rabbits by use of synthesized 73As-labelled arsenobetaine. Orally administered arsenobetaine was almost completely absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract in mice. The urinary excretion for 3 days following intravenous injection was about 75% of the dose in the rabbits and more than 98% in the mice and rats. The rate of excretion in mice was independent of the dose level in the range 4 to 400 mg As/kg body weight. In both animal species the tissue distribution differed widely from that observed following exposure to inorganic arsenic. The clearance of arsenobetaine from plasma and most tissues was fast (somewhat faster in mice than in rabbits) and seemed to follow first-order kinetics. The clearance from cartilage, testes, epididymis, and in the rabbits also the muscles, was slower and consisted of more than one phase. 73As-arsenobetaine was the only labelled arsenic compound detected in urine and soluble extract of tissues, indicating that no biotransformation occurred.
The distribution, retention and biotransformation of arsenocholine, an organic arsenic compound present in certain seafood, have been studied in rats, mice and rabbits by use of synthesized 73 As-labelled arsenocholine. Orally administered arsenocholine was almost completely absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract in mice and rats. In all species 70--80% of the administered dose was excreted in the urine within 3 days, [73 As] arsenobetaine was the main urinary metabolite; [73 As] arsenocholine was found in the urine of the first day only. No degradation to inorganic arsenic, mono- or dimethylarsenic acids, or trimethylarsine oxide was observed. In the tissues the 73 As activity retained was found in the form of [73 As] arsenobetaine and [73 As arsenophospholipids. Tissues with longest retention times were prostate, epididymis, testes, myocardium, liver, adrenal cortex, pancreas, dental pulp and pituitary gland.
The urinary elimination of the metabolites of arsenic has been followed up as a function of time in volunteers who ingested a single oral dose of arsenic (500 microgram As) either as sodium arsenite (Asi), monomethylarsonate (MMA), or cacodylate (DMA). The excretion rate increased in the order Asi less than DMA less than MMA. After 4 days, the amount of arsenic excreted in urine represents 46, 78, and 75% of the ingested dose in the case of Asi, MMA and DMA, respectively. With regard to the in vivo biotransformations, it is concluded that DMA is excreted unchanged; MMA is slightly (13%) methylated into DMA while roughly 75% of the arsenic excreted after ingestion of Asi is methylated arsenic (about 1/3 as MMA and about 2/3 as DMA).
Hair samples from 79 young healthy adults from Vienna (Austria) and Rome (Italy) were analyzed for As, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni and Pb by ICP-MS. No differences were found between the two locations except for chromium, which was significantly higher in the Viennese population (P < 0.001). In both cities male hair contained higher arsenic (P < 0.001) and lower cadmium (P < 0.05) levels than female hair, and in Vienna lead concentrations were lower in males (P < 0.05). Striking differences appeared when smokers were compared with non-smokers. Geometric means (micrograms/g) of smokers versus non-smokers were: arsenic 0.081 vs. 0.065, cadmium 0.075 vs. 0.038 (P < 0.05), cobalt 0.025 vs. 0.010 (P < 0.05), chromium 0.84 vs. 0.72 (P < 0.05), lead 3.42 vs. 1.47 (P < 0.001) and nickel 0.64 vs. 0.32 (P < 0.005). Consideration of a large number of biological and behavioural factors minimizes bias inherent in unmatched sample composition.
Arsenic concentrations were measured in scalp hair of three groups of people of a village in west of Iran. One group consisted of healthy subjects, the second of subjects with suspected arsenic poisoning and the third with people infected with arsenic poisoning. The measurements were carried out using neutron activation analysis at Tehran Research Reactor. Along with these measurements, the arsenic content of water sources used by the inhabitants were also measured. The measurements revealed that the average arsenic concentration in the healthy group was 0.2 +/- 0.07 ppm, in the suspected group was 4.9 +/- 0.5 ppm, in the infected group was 5.6 +/- 0.5 ppm and in water samples varied between 0.03 +/- 0.01 and 1.04 +/- 0.10 ppm.
A meeting on the health effects of arsenic (As), its modes of action, and areas in need of future research was held in Hunt Valley, Maryland, on 22-24 September 1997. Exposure to As in drinking water has been associated with the development of skin and internal cancers and noncarcinogenic effects such as diabetes, peripheral neuropathy, and cardiovascular diseases. There is little data on specific mechanism(s) of action for As, but a great deal of information on possible modes of action. Although arsenite [As(III)] can inhibit more than 200 enzymes, events underlying the induction of the noncarcinogenic effects of As are not understood. With respect to carcinogenicity, As can affect DNA repair, methylation of DNA, and increase radical formation and activation of the protooncogene c-myc, but none of these potential pathways have widespread acceptance as the principal etiologic event. In addition, there are no accepted models for the study of As-induced carcinogenesis. At the final meeting session we considered research needs. Among the most important areas cited were a) As metabolism and its interaction with cellular constituents; b) possible bioaccumulation of As; c) interactions with other metals; d) effects of As on genetic material; e) development of animal models and cell systems to study effects of As; and f) a better characterization of human exposures as related to health risks. Some of the barriers to the advancement of As research included an apparent lack of interest in the United States on As research; lack of relevant animal models; difficulty with adoption of uniform methodologies; lack of accepted biomarkers; and the need for a central storage repository for stored specimens.
Within the context of the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS), metals were evaluated in the air, soil, dust, water, food, beverages, and urine of a single respondent. Potential doses were calculated for five metals including arsenic. In this paper, we seek to validate the potential dose calculations through spatial analysis of the data. Others report elevated arsenic concentrations in biological and environmental samples from residents of mining towns, particularly Ajo, Arizona. These reports led us to expect potential arsenic doses above the 90th percentile of the NHEXAS exposure distribution to be from residents of mining communities. Arsenic dose was calculated using media concentrations, time activity patterns, and published exposure factors. Of the 179 homes evaluated, 54 were in mining communities; 11 of these were considered separately for reasons of population bias. Of the 17 homes with the greatest potential arsenic doses, almost half (47%) were in mining communities. We evaluated the potential doses by media from nonmining and mining areas using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test. Statistically significant (p = 0.05) differences were found between mining (n = 43) and nonmining sites (n = 122) for total exposure and for each of the following media: house dust, yard soil, outdoor air, beverage consumed, and water consumed. No differences were found in either food or indoor air of mining and nonmining areas. We eliminated outliers and repeated the test for all media; significance increased. Dietary, organic arsenic from fish consumption contributed to elevated arsenic exposure among people from nonmining communities and acted as an initial confounder. When controlling for fish consumption, we were able to validate our potential dose model using arsenic, particularly in Ajo. Further, we identified three mining communities lacking elevated arsenic exposure. Additional work is needed speciating the arsenic and evaluating health risks. The utilization of Geographic Information System facilitated spatial this project and paves the way for more sophisticated future spatial analyses.
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