The effect of build orientation on tensile properties and corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel fabricated by laser powder bed fusion

Abstract

The effects of build orientation on tensile property and corrosion behavior of laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel were investigated. The laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel in normal direction exhibited lower tensile strength and elongation than one in build direction. In view of the fact that there was no obvious martensitic transformation in the two samples, high density dislocation and more low-angle grain boundaries in laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel in build direction both enhanced tensile yield and tensile strength. More deformed twins in the sample in build direction induced better plasticity. In addition, laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel in build direction exhibited better corrosion resistance than one in normal direction in borate buffer and sodium chloride solutions. This was attributed to the larger grain and more densely packed crystallographic faces in build direction for laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel.

Full text

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
Available online 12 October 2023
1526-6125/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
The effect of build orientation on tensile properties and corrosion resistance
of 316L stainless steel fabricated by laser powder bed fusion
Lv Jinlong
a
,
*
,
1
, Zhou Zhiping
a
,
1
, Wang Zhuqing
b
,
*
, Yida Xiong
c
a
Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, Guangdong, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
c
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Stainless steel
Laser powder bed fusion
Build orientation
Tensile
Corrosion
ABSTRACT
The effects of build orientation on tensile property and corrosion behavior of laser powder bed fusion 316L
stainless steel were investigated. The laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel in normal direction exhibited
lower tensile strength and elongation than one in build direction. In view of the fact that there was no obvious
martensitic transformation in the two samples, high density dislocation and more low-angle grain boundaries in
laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel in build direction both enhanced tensile yield and tensile strength.
More deformed twins in the sample in build direction induced better plasticity. In addition, laser powder bed
fusion 316L stainless steel in build direction exhibited better corrosion resistance than one in normal direction in
borate buffer and sodium chloride solutions. This was attributed to the larger grain and more densely packed
crystallographic faces in build direction for laser powder bed fusion 316L stainless steel.
1. Introduction
316L stainless steel (SS) was widely used as structural metallic ma-
terials in several important industrial applications due to its excellent
mechanical properties and excellent pitting corrosion resistance [1,2].
Recently, innovation laser powder bed (L-PBF) technology has gained
signicant attention due to its exible fabrication and time saving ad-
vantages [3,4]. The new and advanced L-PBF technique can use a high-
energy laser beam to melt some metal powders by way of progressive
layers and prepare an integral components with complex shape.
The evident effects of the L-PBF parameters variations on micro-
structural characteristics and mechanical properties are still not well
understood. It was demonstrated that higher laser power promoted to
induce strong crystallographic textured columnar coarse-grains and also
signicantly improved ductility of L-PBFed 316L SS [5]. In addition,
Maria et al. [6] found that the lower power facilitated the formation of
more random and some ner cell-like structures in L-PBFed 316L SS.
Larimian et al. [7] found that the higher scanning speed during the L-
PBF process improved densication of L-PBFed 316L SS and thus
induced excellent mechanical strengthening. It was found that lower
scanning speed promoted the higher elongation of L-PBFed 316L SS [8].
The scanning strategy signicantly affected the characteristic size of
cell-like structures and grains which both could determine the tensile
strength for L-PBFed 316L SS [9]. Moreover, Hong et al. [10] observed
that the L-PBF process severely suppressed the stain-induced
α
’
martensitic transformation compared with the conventional 316L SS,
and low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) and ne cellular microstruc-
tures synergistically suppressed dislocation slip and deformed twinning
during deformation, which resulted in the reduction in the nucleation
sites of
α
’-martensite. However, Wang et al. [11] found that the cellular
structures in L-PBFed 316L SS facilitated the generation of shear bands
for the nucleation sites of
α
’-martensite and nally promoted the phase
transformation. Therefore, the initial microstructures of L-PBFed
316LSS signicantly affected the deformation during tension process
[12]. Therefore, the presence of a lot of dislocation cellular structures
should be very important reason for high yield and tensile strength of L-
PBFed 316L SS [13]. However, a weak dislocation barrier ability was
also found based on experiments and calculations [14].In addition, high
residual internal stresses in the SSs due to rapid solidication also
induced dislocation cells [15]. The mechanical properties of L-PBFed SSs
were affected by residual stresses [16–20]. The importance of critical
laser energy density was emphasized during L-PBF processing [16,17].
The build orientation and dislocation density both affected signicantly
mechanical properties of L-PBFed 316L SS [21]. It was found that BD
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ljltsinghua@126.com (L. Jinlong), wzhuqing@scu.edu.cn (W. Zhuqing).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.10.010
Received 3 April 2023; Received in revised form 4 October 2023; Accepted 5 October 2023

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
364
(denoted BD, parallel to building direction) L-PBFed biodegradable high
manganese steel showed lower ultimate tensile strength than ND
(denoted ND, perpendicular to building direction) L-PBFed one [22].
Recent studies showed that build orientation also affected the crystallite
size of the samples and further changed tensile strength [23].
The understanding of corrosion resistance of the passive lms formed
on the surface of L-PBFed 316L SS should also be urgently needed [24].
The molten pool boundary was the most weakened position for the
pitting corrosion in L-PBFed 316L SS [25]. However, it was demon-
strated that better pitting corrosion resistance of L-PBFed 316L in NaCl
solution was attributed to the rened MnS inclusion [26]. Moreover, it
also was found that compressive residual stress for L-PBFed 316L SS
could effectively decrease passive current density and donor density in
the passive lms [27]. The grain size distribution characteristic strongly
depended on the building direction during the L-PBF processing [28].
Previous investigations indicated evident differences in the corrosion
resistance for two faces which were perpendicular and parallel to
building direction in L-PBFed 316L SSs [29,30]. It was found that
crystallographic lamellar microstructure showed superior corrosion
resistance [31]. Moreover, it was also found that the face parallel to
building direction showed better corrosion resistance than the face
perpendicular to building direction for L-PBF maraging steel [32].
Evidently, the relationships between mechanical property and
building direction are still not clear, and the main reason behind the
improved properties of L-PBF 316L SS should be further claried. In
order to break the strength–ductility trade-off, the effect of build
orientation on mechanical properties should be investigated. In addi-
tion, the effect of building direction on compactness of the passive lms
on the surface of L-PBF 316L SS also should be compared and evaluated.
Thus, this paper aims to investigate the effect of BD and ND on
microstructures, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of L-
PBFed 316L SSs.
2. Experimental methods
Table 1 shows the chemical compositions of the 316L SS powers, and
the diameter of 316L SS powers is between 15
μ
m and 55
μ
m. This
powder size has good ow ability. Cubic L-PBFed specimens were
fabricated using the EOS M290 (Germany) system with a 400 WYb,
operating by laser wavelength (YAG ber laser) of 1070 nm at the
continuous mode. Laser power from 275 W to 315 W, scanning speed
from 760 mm/s to 1160 mm/s and hatch distance from 90
μ
m to 110
μ
m
were used. Each layer was scanned unidirectionally and the scanning
direction was rotated by 67∘ for the next layer, as shown in Fig. 1a-c.
The specic main manufacturing process parameters are shown in
Table 2. These set of parameters are ultimately optimized for 316L SS
with the minimum defects for the L-PBF process. The cut dog-bone
tensile samples from cubic structures (50 mm side length) were cut in
Table 1
The composition of the 316L SS powers (wt%).
Sample C S P Cr Mo Ni Mn Si Fe
Power 0.022 0.01 0.034 17.16 2.71 12.2 1.45 0.47 Balance
Fig. 1. (a-c) Schematic of the printing strategy. (d) Dimensions of samples used for tensile testing.
Table 2
Main manufacturing process parameters.
Parameters Values
Laser power, W 275
Scanning speed, mm/s 960
laser spot,
μ
m 80
Layer thickness,
μ
m 40
Hatch distance,
μ
m 110
Scanning strategy 67◦
Inert gas Argon
L. Jinlong et al.

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
365
the required printing directions (BD and ND) in Fig. 1d. Uniaxial tensile
tests for BD and ND L-PBFed specimens were performed on a MTS sys-
tem with an engineering strain rate of 1 ×10
−4
s
−1
. Before the electron
backscattered diffraction (EBSD) tests, all the specimens were wet
ground, polished with diamond paste to 1
μ
m, and subsequently
vibrated with colloidal alumina (0.05
μ
m) for 4 h. The microstructures
of BD and ND L-PBFed 316L SSs were analyzed by TESCAN MIRA3
scanning electron microscopy.
The specimens welded with Cu wire were embedded in an epoxy
resin (exposed area of 10 mm ×10 mm) for electrochemical test. All
corrosion test evaluations were conducted in borate buffer solution and
0.1 M NaCl solution. A three-electrode CHI 660E electrochemical
equipment was used, consisting of L-PBFed 316L SS as the working
electrode, a large Pt sheet as counter electrode and a saturated calomel
electrode as reference electrode. The electrochemical impedance spec-
troscopy (EIS) was started with an excitation signal amplitude of 5 mV
and a frequency ranging from 10
5
Hz to10
−2
Hz. The donor and acceptor
values (defect points densities) in surface passive lms formed on L-
PBFed 316L SSs, determined by the Mott–Schottky analysis, were ob-
tained by the detection system and calculation. The capacitance (C) of
space charge layer in the depletion region varied with applied potential
(E) according to the following Eq. (1) [33]:
C−2=C−2
H+C−2
SC =±2
ε
S
ε
0qNA,D(E−Efb −kT
e)(1)
where
ε
s (≈12) is permittivity of the passive lm,
ε
0 is vacuum dielectric
constant (8.85 ×10
−12
F m
−1
), e is electron charge (1.6 ×10
−19
C), N
D
and N
A
are donor and acceptor densities (cm
−3
). E
fb
is at band potential
(V), k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10
−23
J K
−1
) and T is absolute
temperature (K). N
D
and N
A
both were calculated from tting two slopes
of linear range in the Mott-Schottky relationships.
3. Results and discussion
The microstructures of the ND and BD L-PBFed 316L SSs, including
their grain orientation and the grain-boundary angles, were compared
using inverse pole gures (IPFs) in Fig. 2a and b. The ND face presented
more slender grains than BD face, and average grain size of ND L-PBFed
316L SS and BD L-PBFed 316L SS is 32.5
μ
m and 53.4
μ
m, respectively.
The grain size of ND L-PBFed 316L SS is smaller than that of BD one. This
was attributed to the greater temperature gradient in the build direction
than in the two other directions during the laser melting process. In
addition, LAGBs (56.3 %) in ND L-PBFed 316L SS were less than those
(73.7 %) in BD one. This should be attributed to different heat con-
duction in the different fabrication directions [34,35]. Large grain with
<101>orientation was formed in ND L-PBFed 316L SS, and such grain
morphology was also reported for L-PBFed 316L SS [36]. However, more
<111>orientations were formed in BD L-PBFed 316L SS in Fig. 2b.
The tensile curves of the ND and BD L-PBFed 316L SSs are displayed
in Fig. 3. ND L-PBFed 316L SS shows lower ultimate tensile strength and
yield strength than BD one. Furthermore, the former shows the smaller
elongation after fracture than the later. Güden et al. [37] found that the
variations in the strength and ductility of L-PBFed 316L SSs with
different building directions should be attributed to different ber
texture orientations. It was demonstrated that high hardness of L-PBFed
316L SS should be attributed to a large number of the LAGBs [38],
nanotwins and very ne
α
’-martensite [39]. Comparing with traditional
wrought 316L SS, the higher yield and tensile strength of two L-PBFed
316L SSs should come predominantly from the rened grain and the
high density dislocations [40].
Comparing Fig. 4a with Fig. 4b, it can be seen that deformed degree
of grains in BD L-PBFed 316L SS is more evident than that in ND one due
to larger elongation of the former. The ratio of LAGBs of ND and BD L-
PBFed 316L SSs after the fracture is 28.4 % and 57.2 %, respectively.
More LAGBs formed in BD L-PBFed 316L SS should be attributed to the
accumulation and rearrangement of dislocations, and ne grains with
high density dislocations were achieved [41]. More LAGBs during the
deformed processing in BD L-PBFed 316L SS impeded the dislocation
movement and improved the strengthening due to synergistic effect of
dislocation strengthening and grain boundary strengthening. In addi-
tion, more deformation twins are activated in BD L-PBFed 316L SS (8.5
%) compared to ND one (0.6 %). The <111>grain orientation facili-
tated to induce more deformation twins in BD L-PBFed 316L SS [42].
Sun et al. [43] found that higher ratio of <011>textured microstructure
Fig. 2. The IPFs of (a) ND and (b) BD L-PBFed 316L SSs.
Fig. 3. Engineering stress–strain curves for ND and BD L-PBFed 316L SSs.
L. Jinlong et al.

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
366
facilitated to form more nano-twins and enhanced the strength and
ductility of L-PBFed 316L SS. Twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP)
resulted into higher tensile elongation of BD L-PBFed 316L SS [44].
Furthermore, it was suggested that hetero-deformation process also
enhanced the strengthening of L-PBFed 316L SS [45]. Some
ε
-martens-
ites were found near the twins in additively manufactured 316L SS
during necking due to decreased stacking fault energy during defor-
mation [46]. The absence of strain-induced
α
’-martensite trans-
formation was clearly observed in Fig. 5a and b. There is only a small
amount of strain-induced
α
’-martensite (1.2 %) in BD L-PBFed 316L SSs
in Fig. 5b. Evidently, the phenomenon which involved the deformation-
induced transformation following sequence of γ-austenite→
ε
-
martensite→
α
’-martensite was very weak during the tensile process.
Thus, in both L-PBFed 316L SS samples, the deformation behavior was
predominantly governed by dislocation slips and twins. These disloca-
tions induced misorientations can be measured by the EBSD method.
Therefore, the KAM value quanties the averaged local misorientation
in EBSD and can be used to estimate the geometric dislocation density
(GND) in deformed L-PBFed 316L SSs using the formula:
ρ
GND
=
α
KAMavg/
μ
b [47], where
ρ
GND
is the density of the GNDs, and KAMavg is
the average KAM value of the selected area.
μ
and b are the step size (
μ
m)
in the EBSD processing and the magnitude of Burgers vector (nm). The
value of constant (1–2) depends on dislocation type. The more disloca-
tions are concentrated near the grain boundary in ND L-PBFed 316L SS
Fig. 4. IPF map and grain boundaries distribution for after the fracture for (a) ND and (b) BD L-PBFed 316L SSs.
Fig. 5. (a, b) Phase maps and (a
′
, b
′
) KAM maps after the fracture for (a, a
′
) ND and (b, b
′
) BD L-PBFed 316L SSs
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
367
in Fig. 5a’, while most of dislocations are formed inside smaller grains in
BD L-PBFed 316L SS in Fig. 5b’. Evidently, BD L-PBFed 316L SS has
higher dislocation density than ND one. The high density of dislocations
existed in cellular microstructures in the grains due to the high cooling
rates (10
3
–10
8
K/s) during the L-PBF process [48]. It was found that the
cellular dislocation structure could inhibited the strain-induced
α
’-martensite transformation of austenite at cryogenic temperature,
which resulted in excellent combination of strength and ductility in L-
PBFed 316L stainless steel [49]. This is consistent with current research.
The high density of dislocations at the cellular boundary and LAGBs
should be contributed to the high strength of BD L-PBFed 316L SS due to
the interfacial strengthening effect by inhibiting the dislocation motion
[50,51]. Lower elongation of ND L-PBFed 316L SS should be attributed
to less dislocation glides in the grain interiors, while the higher uniform
elongation of BD L-PBFed 316L SS should be correlated to the TWIP,
improving working-hardening ability [52].
Fig. 6a and b shows the potentiodynamic polarization curves for ND
and BD L-PBFed 316L SSs in borate buffer solution and 0.1 M NaCl so-
lution. No evident changes of corrosion potentials of two samples were
observed under different orientation faces in two solutions. However,
BD L-PBFed 316L SS exhibited a lower passive current than ND one in
two solutions. In general, passive current reects the dissolution rate of
the passive lm during the corrosion process [53], and its larger passive
current value in ND L-PBFed 316L SS indicates its higher dissolution
Fig. 6. The polarization evolution of ND and BD L-PBFed 316L SSs in (a) borate buffer solution and (b) 0.1 M NaCl solution.
Fig. 7. (a, c) Nyquist and (b, d) Bode plots of two L-PBFed 316L SSs in (a, b) borate buffer solution after passivation at 0.6 V
SCE
for 1 h and in (c, d) 0.1 M NaCl
solution after passivation at 0.1 V
SCE
for 1 h.
L. Jinlong et al.

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
368
rate, especially in 0.1 M NaCl solution. This demonstrated that BD L-
PBFed 316L SS exhibited higher corrosion resistance than ND one in the
two solutions. Karimi et al. [54] also found that the corrosion current
density of L-PBFed 316L SS was about one-third of wrought counterpart.
The Nyquist and Bode plots acquired for two L-PBFed 316L SSs in the
both solutions are presented in Figs. 7a-d. The radius of the capacitive
arc in the Nyquist plots is usually used to evaluate anticorrosion ability
of the surface passive lms [55]. Therefore, the corrosion resistance of
BD L-PBFed 316L SS was higher than ND one, as shown in Fig. 7a and c.
Negative phase angle values near −85◦indicate a main capacitive sur-
face layer in Fig. 7b and d. Thus, the results above indicated that BD L-
PBFed 316L SS showed higher corrosion resistance than ND one, which
agrees with the potentiodynamic polarization results.
Fig. 8a depicts the Mott-Schottky analysis results for the passive lms
formed on two L-PBFed 316L SSs in 0.1 M NaCl solution. The negative
and positive slopes indicate p-type and n-type semiconductor. Mac-
Donald et al. [56] demonstrated that the cation vacancies were the main
point defect for the contribution of p-type semiconductor, while inter-
stitial cations and oxygen vacancies were the main point defect for the
contribution of n-type semiconductor. In Fig. 8b, the density of pre-
dominant point defects in the passive lm on BD L-PBFed 316L SS is
lower than that on ND one based on the calculated results from the
slopes of the Mott-Schottky analyses. Comparing the pitting corrosion
attacks after polarization test in 0.1 M NaCl solution in Fig. 9a and b,
obviously, the extent of attack of BD L-PBFed 316L SS is much less than
that of ND one due to less pitting corrosion of the former. Sander et al.
[57] noted that the protective potential decreased with the increasing
porosity. Kong et al. [58] emphasized that some defects such as melt
pool boundaries and nonequilibrium phases decreased the corrosion
resistance of L-PBFed 316L SS. Sub-surface enclosed pores were partic-
ularly vulnerable for pitting attack, while the cell boundaries remained
relatively intact due to the segregation of corrosion resistant elements
along the boundaries [59]. The residual compressive stress induced by
the L-PBF also could promote the passivation process and decreased
driving force of the repassivation process [27]. This will undoubtedly
improve pitting resistance of 316L SS. It was demonstrated that the ne
cellular and columnar structures improved the durability of surface
passive lms formed on 316L SS obtained by severe plastic deformation
in the corrosive media [60]. However, through microstructures, elec-
trochemical measurement analyses and pitting corrosion attack char-
acteristics in this study, larger grain decreased the dissolution of BD L-
PBFed 316L SS. Moreover, the more densely packed crystallographic
faces of (111) orientation in BD L-PBFed 316L SS resulted in its higher
corrosion resistance in borate buffer solution and sodium chloride so-
lution [61].
4. Conclusions
The tensile behaviors and corrosion characteristics of ND and BD L-
PBFed 316L SSs were investigated. It was found that BD L-PBFed 316L
SS exhibited higher strengthening, larger elongation and better corro-
sion resistance than ND one. Higher yield strengthening and tensile
strengthening of BD L-PBFed 316L SS were attributed to more LAGBs
and higher density dislocation during tensile process. Better plasticity of
BD L-PBFed 316L SS should be attributed to synergetic interaction be-
tween deformed twins and dislocations. The tangled dislocation inter-
acted with deformation twins, which induced superior work hardening
capability and ductility of BD L-PBFed 316L SS. The BD L-PBFed 316L SS
showed less pitting pits than one in ND one in sodium chloride solution,
which was attributed to more compact passive lm formed on the sur-
face of the former. Comparing with ND L-PBFed 316L SS, the larger
grain and more densely packed crystallographic faces in BD L-PBFed
316L SS induced higher corrosion resistance in borate buffer solution
and sodium chloride solution. Very small amounts of deformation twins
Fig. 8. (a) The Mott-Schottky plots after being passivated at 0.1 V
SCE
for 1 h in 0.1 M NaCl solution for two L-PBFed 316L SSs, (b) donor and acceptor concentrations
in the passive lms.
Fig. 9. Optical microscopy images after polarization in 0.1 M NaCl solution for (a) ND and (b) BD L-PBFed 316L SSs.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 106 (2023) 363–369
369
and
α
’-martensites were generated in BD L-PBFed 316L SS after tensile
strain. Whether more deformation twins and
α
’-martensites can be
induced by the grain renement technique. This is a problem worth
studying in the future for improving mechanical properties of L-PBFed
316L SS. Therefore, Current research revealed the strengthening
mechanism and corrosion optimization mechanism of ND and BD L-
PBFed 316L SSs, which provided theoretical guidance for the applica-
tion of new technology in metallic materials.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Authors Lv Jinlong and Zhou Zhiping: Planning and performing the
experiments, investigation, analysis, writing original draft. All other
authors: Reviewing and editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by “The Chengdu Xianhe Semiconductor
Technology Co., Lt., China, No. 45000-71020047; and The Chengdu
Rihe Xianrui Technology Co., Ltd., China, No. 45000-71020048”.
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