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Road Materials and Pavement Design
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Role of mineral filler in asphalt mixture
Yu Chen , Shibing Xu , Gabriele Tebaldi & Elena Romeo
To cite this article: Yu Chen , Shibing Xu , Gabriele Tebaldi & Elena Romeo (2020):
Role of mineral filler in asphalt mixture, Road Materials and Pavement Design, DOI:
10.1080/14680629.2020.1826351
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1826351
Published online: 07 Oct 2020.
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ROAD MATERIALSAND PAVEMENT DESIGN
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1826351
STATE OF THE ART
Role of mineral filler in asphalt mixture
Yu Chena, Shibing Xua, Gabriele Tebaldiband Elena Romeob
aSchool of Highway, Chang’an University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China; bDepartment of Engineering and
Architecture, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
ABSTRACT
Mineral filler, fine-grained mineral particles naturally present in or manufac-
tured and added to aggregates play a significant role on the performance
of asphalt mastic and asphalt mixtures. A clear understanding of effects of
filler on the properties of asphalt paving mixtures is critical to ensure a good
asphalt mixture design and its field performance. In this study, the basic
properties of mineral filler, mainly including physical and chemical proper-
ties, were first reviewed and followed by the effects on mastic and mixture
performances. This review finds that particle size distribution and specific
surface area are the two most important physical characteristics for fillers
in terms of its impact on mastic performances. Fillers, including diatomite,
hydrated lime and cement, can improve the high temperature and durabil-
ity performances of mastic and mixture. However, fillers, like glass powder,
steel slag and bentonite, have a detrimental effect on the low-temperature
performances. It can be concluded that it is important to carefully select the
mineral filler type and proportion in order to improve the asphalt mixture
performances.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 8 May 2020
Accepted 15 September 2020
KEYWORDS
Mineral filler; asphalt mastic;
physical properties; asphalt
mixture; pavement
performance
1. Introduction
Mineral filler used in asphalt mixtures consists of fine-grained mineral particles either naturally present
in or separately added to the aggregate system. It has often been defined as the portion of aggregates
passing through a 0.075 mm sieve (ASTM D242, 2000) and also referred as mineral dust or rock dust.
As an important component of the composite asphalt mixture (see Figure 1for individual compo-
nents on different scales), mineral fillers were generally treated as being suspended in the asphalt
binder without particle–particle contact and contributed to the toughening and stiffening of the
asphalt binder (Remisova, 2015). However, it has also been viewed as part of the aggregate skele-
ton and provides contact points between particles or assumes a dual role (Kallas & Puzinauskas, 1961).
Thus, in addition to affecting the rheological and mechanical properties of mastic, the physical and
chemical properties of mineral fillers are also strongly involved in the determination of pavement
performances of asphalt mixture, including rutting, fatigue cracking, low-temperature cracking and
stripping or moisture damage.
A substantial amount of researches have been conducted in terms of effects of mineral filler on the
properties of mastic and mixture since asphalt binder was introduced to the modern road construc-
tion more than 100 years ago. In literature, mineral fillers were first reported in 1914 to not only fill the
voids between aggregates but also may cause some changes in the physiochemical property of the
asphalt binder and the dispersion of fillers in asphalt binder may form a colloidal suspension system
(Richardson, 1914,1915). Besides asphalt binder, mastic properties are also significantly affected by
CONTACT Gabriele Tebaldi gtebaldi@unipr.it
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & FrancisGroup
2Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 1. Multiscale model of asphalt mixture (Jäger et al., 2004).
filler characteristics, like particle shape, texture, particle size, gradation, particle-size distribution, spe-
cific surface area (SSA) and density and finer particles or lower specific density have a beneficial effect
on the filler-asphalt system (Ferrigno, 1987; Lee, 1964). The reinforcement effect on asphalt binder was
reported to depend on the source and particle size of mineral fillers (Anderson & Goetz, 1973). Guo,
Tan, Hou, et al. (2017) and Guo et al. (2017) evaluated the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) tests data
from three types of mineral filler (limestone, granite and andesite) and concluded that the SSA is one
of the main factors affecting the interfacial interaction between asphalt binder and mineral filler. Rig-
den (1947) proposed a method to measure the porosity of mineral fillers, which was shown to closely
relate to the stiffening effect of fillers on asphalt mastic (Lackner et al., 2005; Little & Petersen, 2005;
Wang et al., 2011).
Various types of fillers were reported to improve the high-temperature performance of asphalt mas-
tic and asphalt mixture, such as diatomite (Chen et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2016), ceramic waste powder
(Aburkaba et al., 2012), cement (Wang et al., 2007;Wangetal.,2018) and phosphorus slag powder
(Sheng et al., 2017). Creep stiffness of asphalt mastic was found to increase with the addition of fillers,
which confirmed the deterioration of low-temperature cracking resistance (Li et al., 2017; Moon et al.,
2014; Romeo et al., 2016; Tan et al., 2010; Yan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2005). Wu and Airey (2011)con-
cluded that there are three types of functional mechanisms of fillers involved in the ageing of asphalt
mortar, namely, catalysis of fillers on the oxidation of asphalt, the absorption of oily component and
the adsorption of polar components in asphalt by fillers. Smith and Hesp (2000) conducted fatigue
tests by using dynamic rheometer in strain-control mode on asphalt mortars and it was found that the
fatigue life of asphalt mastic increased with the decreasing of filler particle size.
Dynamic stability (DS) of asphalt mixture was found to continue to increase with the increase of
replacement ratio of natural mineral filler by activated carbon powder (ACP) and it was caused by the
microporous structure of ACP and thus the stronger interaction between asphalt binder and mineral
filler (Liu et al., 2019). Based on indirect tensile tests (IDTs), it was found that brake pad waste can
improve the low-temperature tensile strength of the mixture as compared with limestone filler (Hu
et al., 2017). Seashell powder was reported to increase the optimum asphalt content (OAC) due to
its rough surfaces and thus high absorption rate of asphalt binder and improve the fatigue cracking
performance of asphalt mixture (Arabani et al., 2014). Hydrated lime or cement filler incorporated to
asphalt mixtures can chemically interact with asphalt binders and lead to the formation of compounds
adsorbed on the surface of negatively charged aggregates, resulting in the improvement of adhesion
between mastic and aggregate and better moisture resistance (O’Flaherty, 2015).
The objective of this paper is to review the application of mineral filler in asphalt mixtures. The study
can be divided into three main parts: (1) characterisation of the physical and chemical properties of
mineral fillers; (2) effects of mineral filler on asphalt mastics and (3) effects of mineral filler on asphalt
mixtures.
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 3
2. Basic properties of mineral fillers
2.1. Sources of mineral llers
Mineral fillers can be classified into three categories based on their material sources: (1) mineral
powders directly manufactured through screening and crushing of original rocks, such as limestone
(Alvarez et al., 2012;Guo,Tan,Yu,etal.,2017; Kandhal & Lynn, 1998; Zheng et al., 2017), granite (Guo
et al., 2017; Moraes & Bahia, 2015; Wasilewska et al., 2017) and dolomite (Geber et al., 2017); (2) indus-
trial products or by-products, such as hydrated lime (Huang et al., 2007; Romeo et al., 2016; Saleh,
2006), cement (Rao & Sen, 1973;Wangetal.,2018; Yan et al., 2013) and fly ash (Aburkaba et al., 2012;
Lebedev & Chulkova, 2017); (3) ashes or fine particles derived from waste materials draws increasing
attentions due to environmental concerns, such as steel slag powder (Pasetto et al., 2016), rice husk
ash (RHA) (Al-Hdabi, 2016; Sargın et al., 2013) and glass powder (Saltan et al., 2015;Tangetal.,2015).
A detailed summary of various mineral fillers and the corresponding performances is presented in
Table 1.
2.2. Particle size distribution
As stated earlier, physical characteristics including particle size distribution, SSA and density and
chemical characteristics including chemical composition and hydrophilic coefficient (HC) have signif-
icant impact on the rheological and mechanical performances of asphalt-filler system. Morphological
parameters, like porosity, angularity index, average diameter, aspect ratio and fractal dimension, have
Tab le 1 . Effects of mineral filler on mastic and mixture performances.
Mineral filler
High tem-
perature
Low tem-
perature Moisture Anti-ageing Fatigue Ref.
Cement Wang et al. (2007), Wang et al. (2018)
Hydrated lime Remisova (2015), Lesueur and Little (1999),
Mohammad et al. (2000), Das and Singh
(2017), Lesueur et al. (2013), Xiao et al.
(2019), Zulkati et al. (2012), Diab and
Enieb (2018), Kim and Lee (2003)
Red mud \Zhang et al. (2018), Choudhary et al. (2018),
Zhang et al. (2018), Zhang et al. (2019)
Fly ash Tons et al. (1983), Sharma et al., 2010,
Tap ki n (2008), Kumar et al. (2008),
Sobolev et al. (2013), Mistry et al. (2019)
Ceramic waste
powder
Aburkaba et al. (2012), Muniandy et al.
(2013)
Steel slag filler ✗Aburkaba et al. (2012), Li et al. (2017),
Pasetto et al. (2016), Xiao et al. (2019),
Muniandy et al. (2013), Tao et al. (2019),
Al-Hdabi and Al Nageim (2017)
Diatomite Cheng et al. (2016), Chen et al. (2010),
Cheng et al. (2015), Shukry et al. (2018),
Cong et al. (2012)
Brake pad waste ✗Hu et al. (2017)
Phosphorus slag
powder
✗ Sheng et al. (2017), Qian et al. (2013), Nie
et al. (2014)
Glass powder \✗Saltan et al. (2015), Tang et al. (2015),
Choudhary et al. (2018), AL-Saffar (2013)
Cement kiln dust Ekblad et al. (2013), Aziz et al. (2019)
Rice husk ash \✗Al-Hdabi (2016), Choudhary et al. (2018),
Mistry et al. (2019), Akter (2018)
Bentonite Clay ✗Chen et al. (2010)
Brick powder ✗Wu et al. (2011), Chen et al. (2011)
Silica fume ✗Kai et al. (2018), Abutalib et al. (2015)
Note: , positive effects; ✗,negativeeffects;\mixed effects.
4Y. CHEN ET AL.
Tab le 2 . Gradation requirements for mineral fillers.
ASTM D242 BS EN 13403
Sieve size (mm) Percent passing (%) Sieve size (mm) Percent passing (%)
0.6 100 2 100
0.3 95–100 0.125 85–100
0.075 70–100 0.063 70–100
strong effects on per cent recovery and fatigue performance of mastics, whereas feature roughness,
roundness, convexity ratio, density and SSA have strong effects on non-recoverable creep compliance
(Xing et al., 2019). As a separate ingredient of asphalt mixture, mineral fillers have often been added
with certain gradation limits, for instance in ASTM D242 (2000) and BS EN 13403 (2013), as shown in
Table 2. It can be seen that there are different requirements in terms of standard sieve size and cumu-
lative percent passing. As a matter of fact, smallest sieve size has generally been used to define mineral
filler, including both 0.063 and 0.075 mm, which have been widely used in Europe and US (Kavussi &
Hicks, 1997), respectively.
Particle size distribution of mineral fillers has been reported to affect the stiffening of the asphalt
mastic (Brown et al., 1996; Heitzman, 2005; Kallas & Puzinauskas, 1961), which wraps the coarse aggre-
gates in asphalt mixture. Better rutting resistance and fatigue cracking resistance were observed for
mastic with medium to coarse particle size than that of mastic with fine particle size (Aburkaba et al.,
2012). Fine particle size fillers tend to reduce viscosity and softening point and increase penetration.
Fillers with rough particle textures (for instance manufactured sand) tend to have strong stiffening
effects on both mastic and mixtures (Huang et al., 2007), which are often evaluated by Marion-Pierce
approach (see Equation (1)) and Nielson’s model (see Equation (2)). Besides the particle size, filler
particle angularity might also play a significant role on binder stiffening for stone mastic asphalt
(SMA) (Brown et al., 1996). With the increase of particle size, steel slag filler mastic can release the
accumulated stress faster but it will also lead to higher cracking potential (Li et al., 2017).
η0=η0,m(1−φ/φm)−2(1)
where η0,mis the unmodified asphalt viscosity; η0is the viscosity of mastic; φmis the maximum packing
factor; φis the volume fraction of added filler;
Gc/Gm=(1+ABVp)/(1−BψVp)(2)
where A=KE−1; and B=(Gp/Gm−1)/(Gp/Gm+A);ψ=1+(1−φm)Vp/φ2
m;Gcis the effective
shear modulus of mastic; Gmis the shear modulus of asphalt binder; Gpis the shear modulus of filler; Vp
is the volume fraction of filler; KEis the generalised Einstein coefficient; φmis the maximum volumetric
packing fraction.
Various approaches were employed to measure the particle size distribution of mineral filler, includ-
ing the screen test (Melotti et al., 2013; Wasilewska et al., 2017), laser diffraction method (Bautista et al.,
2015; Cheng et al., 2016; Faheem et al., 2008; Kandhal & Lynn, 1998; Trautvain et al., 2015;Wangetal.,
2011;Yietal.,2016) and hydrometer test (Kuity & Das, 2015; Rao & Sen, 1973). Laser diffraction method
was recommended over other methods by Harris and Stuart (1995) for the measurement of particle
size distribution. By using laser particle analyser, Pasandín and Pérez (2015) found that commercial
fillers (limestone, fly ash, hydrated lime and Portland cement) have finer gradations than that of nat-
ural fillers as shown in Figure 2. The presence of mineral fillers was found to be responsible for the
improvement of asphalt stabilisation (Geber et al., 2017). Meanwhile, Brown et al. (1997) reported that
mastic stiffness is independent of per cent of mineral filler passing the 0.02 mm sieve. However, tensile
strength of mastic was shown to increase with the reduction of filler size due to the strong adhesion
between filler particles and asphalt (Chen & Peng, 1998).
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 5
Figure 2. Particle size distribution of commercial fillers and natural fillers (Pasandín & Pérez, 2015).
Attempts to correlate parameters of particle size distribution, like D10, D50, D60 and fineness mod-
ulus (FM), with performances of asphalt mastic and asphalt mixture have been made. Based on mixture
performance test results and gradation results of six commercial filler from particle size analyser, D60
and D10 were found to be directly related to the permanent deformation resistance and anti-stripping
performance (Kandhal & Lynn, 1998), respectively. D50 and FM were reported to be the main charac-
teristic indicators of mineral fillers and have a vital effect on the high-temperature performances of
asphalt mastic (Cheng et al., 2016;Li&Hu,2013). D10 and FM were also reported by Mehari (2007)
to have a good correlation with the moisture sensitivity value, while D60 and FM are also highly cor-
related with the effective asphalt content. However, Bautista et al. (2015) reported that D50 and D90
have no significant impact on the stiffness modulus of the asphalt mastic.
2.3. Specic surface area
SSA of mineral filler refers to the total surface area for a unit mass of material. There are various meth-
ods to measure SSA of powder materials, including adsorption test (Lerfald & Horvli, 2003; Zhang et al.,
2018), gas permeability test (Kuity et al., 2014; Rao & Sen, 1973) and microscopy test (Dan et al., 2014),
of which the nitrogen adsorption method with a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) (Brunauer et al., 1938)
analysis is commonly used by the researchers (Geber et al., 2017; Trautvain et al., 2015; Xing et al.,
2019) to measure SSA of fillers. From test results of six types of mineral fillers, Géber and Gömze (2010)
reported that mineral fillers with large SSA is not practical or economical due to increased binder
content by BET method.
SSA was reported to be the primary property of mineral fillers on mastic performances (Cheng et al.,
2016). By using DSR tests on three types of mineral fillers (limestone, granite and andesite), it was
confirmed that SSA is one of the main factors affecting the interfacial interaction between asphalt
and mineral fillers (Guo, Tan, Hou, et al., 2017;Guoetal.,2017). As compared with limestone filler, the
mastic with diatomite has a higher cohesive strength due to its larger SSA (Cheng et al., 2015). A larger
amount of structural asphalt was created for foamed asphalt with the increased SSA and thus larger
absorption of mineral filler at the presence of water vapour (Wen et al., 2018). Larger SSA was also
6Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 3. The definition of Rigden voids (Dan et al., 2014).
concluded to reduce the ageing index of mastic and glass transition temperature due to the absorption
of asphaltenes (Moraes & Bahia, 2015). The grey relational analysis between filler properties and mastic
performance suggested that the SSA is the best indicator for mastic performance as compared with
density, D50 and hydrophilicity of fillers (Cheng et al., 2016). However, Dan et al. (2014) stated that it
was not always accurate to use SSA as an indicator for the mechanical properties of asphalt mastics.
Shao et al. (2005) also pointed out that SSA has the least effect among average particle size, density,
particle content below 0.02 mm and mineral composition on the pavement performance of asphalt
mortar.
2.4. Void characteristics
The void characteristics of mineral fillers has a strong impact on the asphalt absorption of min-
eral fillers (Rigden, 1947), which is referred to as structural asphalt. The void characteristics of
mineral fillers depends on particle shape, particle size distribution and particle surface structure
(Kandhal, 1981), mesoscopic grading, SSA, length-to-diameter ratio and circular degree (Dan et al.,
2014). By evaluating the void contents of seven types of commercial fillers with three different
methods (dry compaction, briquetting and liquid absorption), it was found that shape and tex-
ture of filler have a significant impact on the void content and the void content was lower for
fillers being more regular and uniform in shape (Traxler et al., 1933). The fractional voids in the
dry compacted mineral filler (also referred to as Rigden Void (RV)) were used to review its pack-
ing characteristics and it was related to OAC and the rheological behaviour (Rigden, 1947). The
concept of RV can be illustrated in Figure 3. By using the Anderson modified Rigden approach, frac-
tional voids in dry compaction was determined to correlate well with the stiffening effect of filler
on binder and it was the only independent parameter that can differentiate between the “good”
fillers and the “bad” fillers (Harris & Stuart, 1995). Romeo et al. (2016) confirmed that RV is a use-
ful indicator for stiffening effect of fillers on asphalt binder. It was probably because fillers with
large RV can absorb and fix more free asphalt and improve the friction effect among filler particles
(Zhang et al., 2019).
At 95% confidence level, RV was reported to be the most significant factor on stiffening of asphalt
binder and it determines the softening point, penetration and dynamic viscosity of mastic (Grabowski
& Wilanowicz, 2007). Sangiorgi et al. (2017) stated that RV is a significant parameter for the deter-
mination of physical and mechanical properties of asphalt mixture and mixture workability may be
compromised for high RV even though harder mastic can be obtained. Fractional voids was also
showed to correlate well with the creep properties of the bitumen-filler composite (Lackner et al., 2005)
and mixture rutting potential (Wang et al., 2011). Values of RV between 34% and 39% were believed to
have the most appropriate stiffening effect with high value of RV leading to hard asphalt mastic and
high cracking probability, whereas low value of RV leading to soft asphalt mastic and being difficult
for paving construction (Harris & Stuart, 1995).
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 7
Figure 4. TheG*ratioasafunctionof(a)φmwith KEconstant; (b) KE,withφmconstant (Shashidhar & Romero, 1998).
Infiltrating free-pressure water test was believed to be more accurate than RV test and the meso-
scopic characteristics strongly affected the low-temperature cohesive strength of asphalt mastic (Dan
et al., 2014). Shashidhar and Romero (1998) reported that the maximum packing fraction (φm)and the
generalised Einstein coefficient (KE) were more accurate to predict stiffening than RV since RV does
not consider the effect of filler agglomeration on stiffening of asphalt binder. A lower value of φmindi-
cates a higher dispersion of filler in the asphalt and KErepresents the stiffening rate of the mastic, both
of which can be used to measure the hardening potential of fillers as illustrated in Figure 4.Itshould
be noted that stiffening effect of filler was measured by G* ratio, i.e. the ratio of complex modulus of
mastic to that of asphalt. Parameter φmshould be used when RV fails to predict the performance of the
mortar since φmmeasures the entire asphalt-filler system and a value of at least 0.38 for φmto ensure
the mastic performance (Shashidhar et al., 1999). Besides the RV test, the German Filler Test was also
used to measure the intergranular porosity or RV (Faheem et al., 2008;Sharmaetal.,2010). Kandhal
and Lynn (1998) evaluated three different test method (British Standard BS 812 (1975), Penn State-
modified equipment (Anderson, 1987) and German Filler Test for the determination of RV and it was
found that RV from British Standard BS 812 has a good correlation with RV from Penn State-modified
equipment, but both have no correlation with particle size parameters of fillers. Since the German
Filler Test does not require any special equipment and is very simple to operate, it is recommended to
replace the Penn State-modified method. Lower German Filler Test values will lead to higher RV and
thus higher porosity of fillers, which will stiffen the asphalt mixture by reducing the amount of free
asphalt and eventually reduce the mixture workability (Faheem et al., 2012; Melotti et al., 2013).
2.5. Density
The density of fillers is related to its mineral composition and structure. For fillers with the same mineral
composition, lower density indicates larger volume for the same amount of fillers and thus larger SSA.
Based on grey relational analysis, density was found to have a significant impact on high-temperature
performance (Zhang et al., 2009), a lower impact than SSA on high- and medium-temperature per-
formances (Cheng et al., 2016), and a lower impact than average particle size on high-temperature
performance (Shao et al., 2005) of mastic. Density was reported to have a lower impact than D50
and HC on softening point, viscosity and complex modulus of mastic but it has a stronger impact on
deformation energy of mastic than D50 and HC (Cheng et al., 2016).
8Y. CHEN ET AL.
Tab le 3 . Chemical composition of brick powder and lime-
stone powder, %by mass (Chen et al., 2011).
Component Brick powder Limestone powder
SiO268.10 17.95
CaO 2.05 46.90
Al2O316.35 0.46
Fe2O36.64 0.52
MgO 1.43 3.64
K2O 2.38 0.10
Na2O 1.20 0.08
TiO20.85 0.03
SO30.11 0.02
P2O50.26 0.04
MnO 0.06 0.14
ZrO30.05 0.11
SrO 0.02 0.02
ZnO 0.03 0.01
BaO 0.07 0.02
Cl 0.00 0.00
LOI 0.80 29.95
Total 99.80 99.99
2.6. Chemical composition
The chemical composition and crystallographic structure of mineral filler, which largely determines
the chemical properties of the filler, plays a major role on the adhesion properties of the mastic. There
are currently two main methods, i.e. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
for the chemical properties analysis of mineral fillers.
XRF was often used to measure the chemical elemental composition (Al-Hdabi, 2016; Lebedev &
Chulkova, 2017;Lietal.,2017; Pasandín & Pérez, 2015). Its main working principle is based on the
fact that atoms, when irradiated with X-rays, generate the fluorescence radiation, the wavelength and
energy of which is specific for each element. It was reviewed that limestone powder had considerable
higher content of CaO while brick powder had higher SiO2content (Chen et al., 2011). CaO and SiO2
are the main components of steel slag fillers (Li et al., 2017), whereas SiO2is the main component of
RHA (Al-Hdabi, 2016) and glass waste (Saltan et al., 2015). A typical XRF chemical composition results
are shown in Table 3.
XRD, a rapid analytical technique, was primarily used for phase identification and characterisa-
tion of compounds based on diffraction pattern. A typical XRD diffractograms is shown in Figure 5.
Diffractograms from XRD evaluation indicated that calcite (CaCO3) and portlandite (Ca(OH)2)arethe
main components of limestone and hydrated lime (Cheng et al., 2016), respectively. Meanwhile, RHA
was mainly composed of amorphous silica particles (Al-Hdabi, 2016). In addition, quartz was the main
mineralogical composition of both hornfels and feldspatic schist (Pasandín & Pérez, 2015).
Kuity et al. (2014) attributed the poor adherence of brick dust with asphalt binder to its acidic nature
caused by the presence of silica and thus asphalt mixture prepared with brick dust as fillers had low
moisture resistance. The strong adhesion from limestone powder was attributed to their electrical field
of molecular interaction and positive electrical charge (Barra et al., 2014).
Higher pH values of red mud powders than natural mineral filler were caused by its higher Na2O
content (Zhang et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). Rheological test results reviewed that chemical compo-
sition of coal combustion powders (CCP), including Al2O3,CaO,SiO
2,SiO
3and SAF (summation of SiO2,
Al2O3and Fe2O3) strongly affects the stiffness of mastics and the increase of Al2O3,SiO
2and SAF will
result in the plasticising of mastics (Bautista et al., 2015). RV and CaO content showed stronger corre-
lations with mixture rutting potential as compared with other filler characteristics (Wang et al., 2011).
Differences in minimum rate of strain from creep tests among mastics prepared with different min-
eral fillers were caused by the specific chemical compositions (Rao & Sen, 1973). The low-temperature
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 9
Figure 5. Typical XRD diffractograms for (a) limestone, (b) hydrated lime, (c) fly ash, (d) diatomite (Cheng et al., 2016).
performance of mastic with Ca-bentonite and Na-bentonite was due to the fillings of tetrahedral and
octahedral sites by cations (Chen et al., 2010), like Na+,Ca
2+and Mg2+. Mastics produced with steel
slag fillers had better high-temperature resistance than those of limestone fillers due to the chemical
action between alkaline components in steel slag fillers and asphaltic acid in binders (Li et al., 2017).
The presence of feldspar, one the main components of andesite fillers, will increase the specific surface
and reduce the mechanical strength of mixtures (Géber & Gömze, 2010). By employing 1HNMR and 13C
NMR, Diab and Enieb (2018) reported that no chemical interaction was observed between hydrated
lime, limestone and cement bypass dust and asphalt binder since no chemical structure change of
asphalt binder was observed after the addition of fillers.
It should be noted that fillers have been classified as being inert, like stone dust, limestone and
granite or being active, like hydrated lime, cement, fly ash, diatomite and steel slag (Das & Singh, 2017;
Li et al., 2017). Thus, filler activity in mastic has been divided into physical hardening and chemical
adhesion (Barra et al., 2014). The chemical activity was due to the chemical reaction between alka-
line component of fillers and asphaltic acid (Barra et al., 2014; Lesueur et al., 2013;Lietal.,2017;
Little & Petersen, 2005). This chemical reaction is critical for the adhesion performance between
filler/aggregate and asphalt binder, especially for hydrated lime (Lesueur et al., 2013; Lesueur & Little,
1999;Mohammadetal.,2000). This chemical reaction was also reported to improve the anti-ageing
potential (Das & Singh, 2017; Lesueur et al., 2013) and high-temperature resistance of mastic (Das
& Singh, 2017;Lietal.,2017) and asphalt mixture (Lesueur et al., 2013; Mohammad et al., 2000). It
should be noted that this chemical reaction between active filler and asphalt binder relies not only
on compositional and elemental characteristics of filler and binder, but also on the reaction time and
temperature (Lesueur & Little, 1999). Therefore, hydrated lime as active filler, acts as inert filler like any
other filler at temperatures below 20°C (Little & Petersen, 2005).
10 Y. CHEN ET AL.
2.7. Detrimental materials
Due to the clay’s tendency to absorb moisture and its surface charge, methylene blue value (MBV) tests
have been employed to determine the active clay content (Kandhal & Parker, 1998;Kuityetal.,2014;
Sharma et al., 2010;Wangetal.,2011). Low values of methylene blue tests showed that the content of
clay, harmful to asphalt mixture, was limited in biomass ashes (Melotti et al., 2013). High MBV values
being equal to high concentration of clay in mineral fillers often indicates low adhesive strength of
mastic (Sharma et al., 2010).
Ren (2015) reported that no improvement on consistency and softening point of mastic was
observed for fillers with MBV exceeding 12. High clay contents appear to reduce the tensile strength
ratio (TSR) of asphalt mixture (Kuity et al., 2014). It was pointed out that the MBV test can provide an
estimate of the moisture damage resistance of the mixture and TSR increased with decreasing MBV
(Kandhal & Parker, 1998;Sharmaetal.,2010), regardless of filler content. MBV value was also reported
to be related to permanent deformation resistance (Kandhal & Lynn, 1998) and anti-striping resistance
of asphalt mixtures (Ren, 2015).
2.8. Hydrophilic coecient
HC is defined as the ratio of volumes after sedimentation of equal volumes of mineral filler in a polar
medium liquid (e.g. water (Choudhary et al., 2018; Das & Singh, 2017;Lietal.,2009)andinanon-
polar medium liquid (e.g. paraffin (Géber & Gömze, 2010) and kerosene (Choudhary et al., 2018;Das
& Singh, 2017;Lietal.,2009). It measures mineral filler’s affinity towards bitumen as compared with
that of water. HC with value less than 1 indicates that stronger affinity towards asphalt binder than
with water. The optimum value of HC was recommended to be between 0.7 and 0.85 by Gezencvej
(1985). Values of HC for fillers from waste materials were all determined to be within this optimum
range rather than rice straw ash (HC =0.98) (Choudhary et al., 2018). HC value of red mud waste
(0.62) was comparable with hydrated lime (0.57) (Zhang et al., 2019), which indicated that it has the
potential to produce moisture resistant asphalt mixture. Steel slag powder has a lower HC value (0.693)
than limestone filler (Xiao et al., 2019) and it indicated that it can be used as fillers in asphalt mixture
in terms of good moisture resistance. Li and Hu (2013) reported that HC correlated well with mastic
properties and HC was lower for smaller grain size mineral filler. It should be noted that MBV and HC
are secondary parameters after SSA for mineral filler to predict the physical and chemical properties of
mastic (Alvarez et al., 2012; Choudhary et al., 2018; Melotti et al., 2013; Sangiorgi et al., 2017; Wasilewska
et al., 2017).
3. Effects of mineral filler on the performance of mastic
Asphalt mastic is generally a blend of asphalt binder and mineral filler smaller than 0.063 mm (Cardone
et al., 2015; Dehdezi et al., 2013; Liao et al., 2011; Remisova, 2015; Romeo et al., 2016; Wasilewska et al.,
2017), 0.075 mm (Alvarez et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2019; Choudhary et al., 2018; Diab & Enieb, 2018;
Huang et al., 2007;Moraes,2014; Moraes & Bahia, 2015; Sheng et al., 2017;Tarefderetal.,2016; Xing
et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2013; Zeng & Wu, 2008; Zhang et al., 2018; Zulkati et al., 2012) or 0.1 mm (Tehrani
et al., 2016), whereas a mixture of asphalt mastic and fine particles smaller than 2 mm (Jäger et al.,
2004; Tehrani et al., 2016) or 2.36 mm (Chen et al., 2019) is often defined as asphalt mortar. However,
asphalt mastic and asphalt mastic have also been used interchangeably (Hu et al., 2017; Moon et al.,
2014; Tao et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2018;Xieetal.,2016). It is interesting to note that materials (asphalt,
aggregates and air voids) within the interstices of dominate aggregate size range is recently referred
to as interstitial components (Chun et al., 2012).
Due to the shortage of high-quality aggregates, alternative mineral fillers, especially those obtained
from waste materials (construction waste, household waste, industrial by-products, etc.), are gaining
more attention. Various types of fillers were reported to improve the high-temperature performance
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 11
Figure 6. Determination of optimum range of F/A for a balanced performance (Zhang et al., 2019).
Note: FAv =filler to asphalt ratio by volume.
of mastics, such as diatomite (Chen et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2016), ceramic waste powder (Aburkaba
et al., 2012), cement (Wang et al., 2007;Wangetal.,2018) and phosphorus slag powder (Sheng et al.,
2017). Besides the source of fillers, filler concentration in mastic also plays a vital role on the high-
temperature performance of mastics. The concentration of filler is normally expressed as the weight
(Diab & Enieb, 2018;doValeetal.,2016;Jietal.,2014; Kai et al., 2018; Muniandy et al., 2013;Qiuetal.,
2013; Tan et al., 2010; Xing et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2018)/volume (Hesami et al., 2014a; Rao & Sen, 1973;
Sharma et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2019) ratio of filler to asphalt in the form of F/A ratio. The definition
of F/A ratio by volume can be seen in Equation (3). Filler concentration has also been defined as per
cent of filler weight by total weight of filler and aggregate (Huang et al., 2007). F/A ratio by weight
have been recommended to be 0.8–1.2 (Qiu et al., 2013) and 0.9–1.4 (Tan et al., 2010; Yan et al., 2013)
based on high-temperature and low-temperature performances. As a matter of fact, 0.6–1.2 F/A ratio
by weight were recommended by AASHTO M323. Appropriate F/A ratio was backcalculated from fixed
bitumen-free bitumen ratio, which was first determined based on control index of low-temperature
and fatigue failure (Zheng et al., 2018). The optimum range of F/A ratio can be determined based on a
series of property tests to obtain a balanced performance as shown in Figure 6.
FAv =VF/(Vb+VF)(3)
where VF, filler volume; Vb,bindervolume.
3.1. High-temperature performance of mastic
3.1.1. Softening point, penetration and viscosity
Softening point, penetration and viscosity were believed to be good indicators for evaluating the
hardening effect of fillers on asphalt (Kandhal, 1981). The modification of binder softening point, pene-
tration and viscosity was believed to be not related to particle size, but rather the form, surface texture,
SSA and mineralogical nature of fillers (Barra et al., 2014; Lee, 1964), allowing the filler behaviour to
be divided into physical hardening and chemical adhesion. Test results showed that incorporation of
fillers to asphalt binder can increase the softening point and reduce the penetration of asphalt binders
(Chen et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2015; Grabowski & Wilanowicz, 2007;Huetal.,2017; Wasilewska et al.,
12 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 7. Softening point (a) and penetration (b) of asphalt mastic with red mud filler (Zhang et al., 2018).
2017). As the proportion of red mud replacing limestone filler increased, the softening point of asphalt
mortar was increased and the penetration was reduced (Zhang et al., 2018), as shown in Figure 7.Due
to the absorption of light components in asphalt, rubber powder filler can also increase the soften-
ing point of mastic if it is used as mineral filler (Chen et al., 2015). An upper replacement limit of 20%
and 40% mineral filler by cement was reported in terms of low-temperature and high-temperature
performances for asphalt mixture (Aburkaba et al., 2012), respectively.
Limestone powder has been extensively used in the production of asphalt mixture and it was often
used as reference mineral filler for the evaluation of alternative fillers as a replacement. Diatomite
(Wasilewska et al., 2017), graphite powder (Liu et al., 2018) and red brick powder (Wu et al., 2011)
were reported to have better stiffening effect than limestone powder. Softening point was increased
from 45°C to 82°C with 9% vol. dosage of graphite powder due to the transformation of free asphalt
to structural asphalt under high SSA (Liu et al., 2018). The stiffening effect of diatomite was due
to the diatomite’s absorption of lower molecular group and lower polar aromatic molecules by its
porous structures (Song et al., 2011). The high softening point of mastic containing hydrated lime was
attributed to its physiochemical reactions with asphalt binder since hydrated lime has a high relative
concentration of reactive chemical functionality (Little & Petersen, 2005).
The rotational viscosity of asphalt mortar under different filler type and F/A ratio was studied by
Zeng and Wu (2008) and it was reviewed that the viscosity of asphalt mortar was increased with the
increase of F/A ratio. Based on the relationship between viscosity and temperature, the mean relative
values of mixing and compaction temperatures as function of F/A ratio are presented in Figure 8.The
viscosity of red mud mastic was about four times higher than that of limestone filler (Zhang et al.,
2019). The rotational viscosity of mastic increased exponentially with the increase of brake pad waste
powder as mineral filler (Hu et al., 2017). Based on the relationship between relative viscosity and F/A
ratio by volume as shown in Figure 9, the stiffening effect of filler on binder can be divided into diluted
phase and concentrated phase with critical filler concentration as the boundary between them (Liao
et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2019).
Since existing methods for viscosity determination of particle–fluid suspension system were either
developed for low concentrations like Einstein model or high concentrations like Frankel model, a
comprehensive framework (see Figure 10) was proposed for mastics with a wide range of concen-
tration (Hesami et al., 2012). With inputs like filler concentration, pure binder viscosity and particle
parameters, the calculated viscosity was successfully verified by measured mastic viscosity. It should
be noted that traditional methods for binder viscosity measurement were not specifically designed for
mastics and the testing temperature does not represent the construction temperature (Hesami et al.,
2014a). A new mastic viscosity measurement protocol was proposed that can evaluate the effects of
shape, size and size distribution of filler particles by a rotational co-axial viscometer at 100°C. By using
this new testing protocol, it was found that mastic with finer fillers reached the nonlinear zone at lower
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 13
Figure 8. Mean relative mixing and compaction temperatures versus F/A ratio (Zeng & Wu, 2008).
Note: UM =unmodified binder; LS =pulverizedlimestone; PC =Portland cement; HL =hydrated lime;
Figure 9. Diluted region versus concentrated region (Zhang et al., 2019).
Note: FAv =filler to asphalt ratio by volume.
concentration than coarser fillers and round fillers have a considerably lower viscosity accumulation
(Hesami et al., 2013).
3.1.2. Oscillating shear
Rutting factor G*/sinδfrom DSR tests has been widely used to evaluate the high-temperature per-
formances of asphalt mastic. With the increase of red mud (Zhang et al., 2019) and fly ash (Sharma
14 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 10. Mastic viscosity determination framework: (a) Coating layers around fillers; (b) Upper and (c) lower distance limit for
Frankel model; (d) detailed procedure (Hesami et al., 2012).
et al., 2010), the complex modulus and phase angle were reported to increase and decrease, respec-
tively. Researches (Hu et al., 2017; Kai et al., 2018;Li&Hu,2013; Tao et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2018) have
reported that incorporation of mineral filler to asphalt binder can significantly increase its rutting resis-
tance in terms of increased rutting factor. By studying warm asphalt mastic with Sasobit, Yan et al.
(2013) showed that G*/sinδincreased exponentially with the increase of F/A ratio for all three fillers
(limestone, Portland cement and hydrated lime). Qiu et al. (2013) also observed that the rutting resis-
tance of mastic with additive Sasobit and Sasowam increased with F/A ratio at normal temperatures as
shown in Figure 11. Sheng et al. (2017) found that phosphorus slag powder mastic has a higher value
of G*/sinδthan that of limestone powder mastic. Steel slag filler also showed better rutting resistance
than limestone filler (Li et al., 2017), which was due to its stiffening effect and the chemical reaction
between alkaline components in steel slag fillers and asphaltic acid in binder. CCP was used by Bautista
et al. (2015) to produce mastic and G*/sinδvalue was shown to be higher than the threshold value
1.0 kPa in the superpave specification. Stiffness of mastic produced with CCP was found to mainly
depend on RV and D10. When fly ash was used at 60%, the performance grade of reference binder
was increased from PG 58 to PG 64 (Sobolev et al., 2014). High failure temperature, the temperature
corresponding to rutting factor at 1 kPa for unaged mastic, increased with the increase of hydrated
lime content (Das & Singh, 2017).
3.1.3. Creep and recovery
The widely used rutting factor G*/sinδhas long been determined to not have a good correlation with
asphalt mixture rutting resistance (Bahia et al., 2000; D’Angelo, 2009; D’Angelo et al., 2007) since the
delayed elastic behaviour was not considered for polymer-modified binders in this parameter. Based
on evaluation of repeated creep recovery (RCR) tests, the viscous component of the creep stiffness
Gvwas determined to be a good estimation of accumulated permanent strain (Tan et al., 2010)anda
higher Gvvalue can be interpreted as better rutting resistance. Viscous portion of the creep stiffness
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 15
Figure 11. Relationship between F/A ratio and G*/sinδfor mastic with additives, (a) Sasobit; (b) Saswam (Qiu et al., 2013).
Gvcan be calculated using Equation (4). As an active mineral filler, hydrated lime was shown to have
stronger deformation recovery ability than fly ash, limestone and cement based on parameter Gv(t)
from RCR tests (Li et al., 2012). An exponential function prediction model for rutting performance of
mastic with different F/A ratio was obtained (Tan et al., 2010).
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
γ(t)=τ0
G0
+τ0
G1
⎛
⎜
⎝1−e
−tG1
η1⎞
⎟
⎠+τ0
η0
t
J(t)=1
G0
+1
G1
⎛
⎜
⎝1−e
−tG1
η1⎞
⎟
⎠+1
η0
t=Je+Jde(t)+Jv(t)
Gv(t)=1
Jv(t)
(4)
where γ(t)is the shear strain; tis the loading time (s); τ0is the constant shear stress (MPa); G0,G1
is the spring constant of Maxwell model and Kelvin model, respectively (MPa); η0,η1is the dashpot
constant of Maxwell model and Kelvin model, respectively (MPa·s); J(t)is the creep compliance; Jeis
the elastic component; Jde(t)is the delayed-elastic component; Jv(t)is the viscous component; Gv(t)
is the viscous component of creep stiffness.
Multiple stress creep recovery test (MSCR) was also employed to evaluate the high-temperature
performance of mastic and the enhancement effect of mineral filler was caused by the stiffening effect
of asphalt binder by evenly distributed mineral filler (Xing et al., 2019). This homogeneity of filler par-
ticle within the binder was confirmed by Kuity and Das (2015) using scanning electronic microscope
image analysis and this homogeneous distribution within the asphalt binder film was not affected
by the nature of possible surface charge of filler particles. The improved resistance to permanent
deformation with the addition of fillers was confirmed by Cardone et al. (2015) and the elasticity of
polymer-modified mastic was also enhanced after fillers were added. Non-recoverable compliance
was reduced with the increase of F/A ratio (do Vale et al., 2016; Fan et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018;
Zhang et al., 2019), which indicated that better permanent deformation resistance was obtained.
3.2. Low-temperature performance of mastic
Direct tension test proposed by SHRP program has been used to evaluate the tensile failure prop-
erties of mastic prepared by silica fillers at low temperature and it was shown that addition of silica
filler increased the tensile strength due to the strong adhesion between filler particles and binders
(Chen & Peng, 1998). Meanwhile, it was shown that excessive amount of fillers will significantly reduce
16 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 12. Comparison between mesoscopic characteristics of fillers and cohesive strength of mastic (Dan et al., 2014).
the low-temperature cohesive strength of asphalt mastic since filler agglomeration was created and
additional damage points were connected, leading to macroscopic cracking surfaces (Zheng et al.,
2017). Based on adhesion work and Young’s Equation, a quantitative test to evaluate the mesoscopic
strength of mineral aggregate contact surface (Zheng et al., 2013) was employed to determine the
cohesive strength of mastic at low temperatures and it was found that the mesoscopic characteristics
of mineral fillers have a significant influence on the low-temperature cohesive strength of mastic (Dan
et al., 2014) as shown in Figure 12.
An optimum filler concentration was also obtained based on tensile strength determined at low
temperatures (Zheng et al., 2017). Fatigue testing at −20°C on mastic by using direct tension test indi-
cated that there was an optimum filler dosage for quartz filler in terms of fatigue life (Wang et al.,
2012). Fracture tests performed at −30°C indicated that toughness value was significantly increased
with the addition of 20% hydrated lime (Lesueur & Little, 1999), which might be due to the strong inter-
active binder layer formed around hydrated lime particles. It is interesting to note that hydrated lime
has been treated as inert filler at temperatures below −20°C, but hydrated lime-treated mastic still
showed greater elongation to break than untreated mastic (Little & Petersen, 2005). Crack tip open-
ing displacement from DENT tests increased with the increase of hydrated lime concentration (Das &
Singh, 2017), which indicated its strong low-temperature cracking resistance.
Bending beam rheometer (BBR) test was originally developed to assess asphalt binder’s capabil-
ity to resist low-temperature cracking based on its creep behaviour at low temperatures (Bahia et al.,
1992). It was later used to evaluate mastic cracking performance at low temperatures (Romeo et al.,
2016; Tan et al., 2010; Yan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2005) and it was found that creep stiffness was
increased (Kai et al., 2018;Lietal.,2017;Liuetal.,2009; Moon et al., 2014;Qiuetal.,2013; Romeo et al.,
2016; Tan et al., 2010; Tao et al., 2019; Yan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2005)andm-value was decreased
(Kai et al., 2018;Qiuetal.,2013; Tao et al., 2019) with the addition of fillers, which indicated weaker
low-temperature resistance. This deteriorated low-temperature cracking resistance might be due to
the increase in fixed asphalt and decrease in free asphalt with increasing filler concentration (Tao et al.,
2019). The relationship between creep stiffness S and F/A ratio can be described by an exponential
function (Tan et al., 2010). A linear relationship (see Figure 13) between creep stiffness S and filler
content was also reported by Cheng et al. (2015) for mastic with limestone powder. Cardone et al.
(2015) believed that increase in creep stiffness is independent of the filler type for unmodified mas-
tics, whereas the stiffening depends on the filler mineralogy and polymer type for polymer-modified
mastics, which was caused by the physical–chemical interaction between the filler and bitumen.
A lower m-value indicates a lesser capability to release stress and thus weaker low-temperature
cracking resistance. For base and foamed asphalt mastics, m-value decreased with the increase of F/A
ratio and the m-value of foamed asphalt mastic was always lower than base asphalt mastic (Wen et al.,
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 17
Figure 13. Creep stiffness decrease with the increasing filler content(by the weight of asphalt) (Cheng et al., 2015). Note:
DA =diatomite asphalt mastics; MA =mineral powder asphalt mastics.
Figure 14. (a) m-value at different silica fume content (F/A ratio =1.0); (b) m-value at different F/A ratio (silica fume content =7%)
(Kai et al., 2018).
2018). Despite the strong effect of filler type on creep stiffness S, low variability was observed on the
effect of filler type on m-value (Romeo et al., 2016;Yietal.,2016). If F/A ratio was fixed at 1.0, the
optimum silica fume content was found to be 7% and m-value was reduced with the increase of F/A
ratio if silica fume content was fixed at 7% (see Figure 14) (Kai et al., 2018). Based on Mori-Tanaka
scheme of homogenisation for asphalt-filler (matrix-inclusion) system where fillers were assumed as
rigid inclusions arbitrarily distributed in asphalt matrix, it was found that volume fraction of filler has an
effect on the creep properties of mastic (Lackner et al., 2005). Filler shapes have no significant influence
on low-temperature creep and filler type and concentration have no effect on the creep compliance
reduction.
3.3. Eects of mineral ller on mastic ageing
The effects of mineral filler on mastic ageing have been evaluated by ring and ball (R&B) softening
point (Cong et al., 2012; Lesueur et al., 2016), per cent retained penetration (Cong et al., 2012), mass
loss (Cong et al., 2012), DSR (Xie et al., 2016), viscosity ageing index (VAI) (Abutalib et al., 2015), Fourier
transform infrared spectrum (Xie et al., 2016), gel permeation chromatography (GPC) (Xie et al., 2016)
and BBR (Tarefder et al., 2016).
Hydrated lime has long been recognised to have the capacity to improve the mastic ageing resis-
tance (Das & Singh, 2017; Kollaros et al., 2017; Lesueur et al., 2013; Lesueur & Little, 1999; Little &
Petersen, 2005; Plancher et al., 1976). The mechanism lies in the fact that polar molecules of asphalt
binder neutralised by hydrated lime remain strongly absorbed to hydrated particles, which prevent
them from further reacting during binder chemical ageing (Lesueur et al., 2013). No effect on binder
18 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Tab le 4 . Effect of diatomite on short-term ageing of mastic (Cong et al., 2012).
Diatomite content (%) Mass loss (%) PRP (%) T(◦C)AI
0 0.138 78.3 4.7 0.0185
5 0.117 81.1 4.6 0.0179
10 0.108 82.9 4.4 0.0116
15 0.096 86.7 4.1 0.0097
Figure 15. Bending beam rheometer test results: (a) stiffness of mastics; (b) increase in stiffness compared to unaged samples
(Tarefder et al., 2016).
ageing was observed for limestone and granite filler obtained from pulverised aggregates-based soft-
ening point tests (Lesueur et al., 2016). Hydrated lime was confirmed to have stronger ability to reduce
binder ageing than hydraulic lime and Portland cement. Increment of softening point (T), together
with ageing index (AI) and per cent retained penetration, was used to demonstrate that diatomite can
control the oxidation of asphalt binder (Cong et al., 2012), as shown in Table 4. This restriction effect
of diatomite was probably caused by the absorption of low molecular group and low polar aromatic
molecules into its porous structure (Cheng et al., 2015;Songetal.,2011). With the addition of 4% silica
fume, the oxidative ageing was reduced by more than 50%, with a VAI of 30.51 (Abutalib et al., 2015).
The definition of VAI can be seen in Equation (5) and AI has also been defined using rutting factor
before and after ageing (Das & Singh, 2017) as shown in Equation (6). It should be noted that nano-
silica is supposed to be more effective on interaction with asphalt binder due its high SSA. However,
better ageing resistance of silica fume than nano-silica was observed probably due to the reduction
of agglomeration commonly observed for nano-slica.
VAI =(ηaged −ηunaged)/ηunaged (5)
AgingIndex(AI)=(G∗/sinδ)aged/(G∗/sinδ)unaged (6)
BBR test results showed that stiffness was reduced with the incorporation of mica due to the
increase of uncoated fines, whereas the rate of increase in stiffness was also decreased with the addi-
tion of mica (Tarefder et al., 2016) as shown in Figure 15. It can be concluded that the speed of ageing
was lowered after the addition of mica.
Fly ash was also believed to improve the ageing resistance of mastic due to the binder polymer-
filler synergy (Sobolev et al., 2013). It should be noted that when excessive amount (60%) of fly ash will
accelerate the ageing of mastic. Fatigue factor ageing index and rutting factor ageing index results
from DSR testing indicated that the addition of mineral fillers can reduce the extent of UV ageing and
UV ageing has a greater effect on fatigue resistance of mastic (Xie et al., 2016).
As stated earlier, mineral fillers from limestone and granite have no effect on binder ageing (Lesueur
et al., 2016). However, gritstone and especially limestone fillers were also shown to delay age harden-
ing through absorption of polar components (Wu & Airey, 2011). The contradiction was believed to
be due to the lack of suitable ageing methods for mastics (Lesueur et al., 2016; Xing et al., 2020). Mas-
tic has a higher viscosity and its thickness of rotating film might change during rolling thin film oven
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 19
Figure 16. Ageing pans with baking paper interlayers (Xing et al., 2020).
test (RTFOT), which will in turn affect its exposure to oxygen during the ageing process. A 5 h pressure
ageing vessel (PAV) ageing was proposed to replace the commonly used RTFOT ageing (Lesueur et al.,
2016). The PAV ageing process was further modified by introduction of a thin interlayer in the ageing
pans (see Figure 16) to avoid the deposition of mineral fillers to the pan bottom and thus the F/A ratio
will not be changed (Xing et al., 2020). Recycled cellulose ashes can increase the ageing resistance
of asphalt mixture by 45.3% to 48.6% based on Cantabrian wear losses for mixtures evaluated in the
study (Movilla-Quesada et al., 2017).
3.4. Anti-ageing mechanism
Strong absorption of about 4–6 wt.% asphalt binder onto the hydrated lime particles has been con-
sidered as the cause of reduced ageing effect (Plancher et al., 1976). The reaction took place between
hydrated lime and the acids, anhydrides and 2-quinolones of the asphalt binder (Petersen et al., 1987).
Heavy fractions of asphalt binder were absorbed by mineral filler and the stiffness and glass transition
temperature was reduced (Moraes & Bahia, 2015). GPC was used by Moraes and Bahia (2015)tomoni-
tor the changes of molecular size distribution for binders before and after ageing (see Figure 17)andit
was found the rate of production of large molecular size fraction of binders can be decelerated with the
addition of mineral fillers, which indicated that binder ageing can be engineered by proper selection
of fillers. Moraes and Bahia (2015) also pointed out that diffusion and adsorption mechanisms affect
the ageing rate of asphalt materials. Han (2011) proposed that the filler can prolong the diffusion path
of oxygen molecules in the asphalt, which plays a role in retarding the oxidation of asphalt and oxygen
diffusivity was reported to decrease as the filler dosage was increased. Wu and Airey (2011) concluded
the ageing properties of mastic was affected by mineral fillers through catalysing oxidation of bitu-
men components, absorbing oily components and adsorbing polar fractions. The absorption of polar
fraction can delay the asphalt ageing.
3.5. Eects of ller on interfacial adhesion
Moisture damage of asphalt mixture or stripping often involves the breaking of adhesive bond
between aggregate and asphalt binder. Adhesion can often be classified into active adhesion and
passive adhesion (Tarrer & Wagh, 1991). Active adhesion refers to binder coating ability on aggregates
during mixing operation whereas passive adhesion refers to the sticking capability of binder on aggre-
gate surface under external factors like water and traffic. The interaction between asphalt binder and
mineral filler has a significant role on the adhesion between binder and aggregates with the formation
of structural asphalt and free asphalt (Tan & Guo, 2013), as shown in Figure 18. Higher temperature and
finer filler will lead to stronger interface interaction. There exist good correlations between free binder
content and mastic stiffness from BBR and between free binder content and stiffening capability from
20 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 17. Example of GPC for determination of binder molecular size distribution (Moraes, 2014).
Figure 18. Schematic diagram of interaction between filler and binder (Tan & Guo, 2013).
ring and ball were reported (Mogawer & Stuart, 1996). Meanwhile, fracture energy at low temperature
was found to increase with increasing filler concentration/reducing free asphalt content (Chen & Peng,
1998).
To separate structural asphalt from free asphalt, an absorption–separation test for asphalt binder
on surface of mineral fillers was developed and the influenced thickness of interfacial interaction was
determined to be around 1 μm by using atomic force microscope (Guo, Tan, Yu, et al., 2017). The
detailed phase structure of asphalt around the mineral particle can be seen in Figure 19.Itwasthe
polar fractions of binders that were mainly absorbed on the filler surfaces, the magnitude of which was
mainly determined by the SSA of fillers (Guo et al., 2017). The stiffness of free asphalt and absorbed
asphalt was 0.3–0.85 and 5–8 times of the original asphalt binder, respectively. To quantify the inter-
facial interaction between binder and mineral filler, three parameters, including Luis Ibrarra-A and K.
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 21
Figure 19. The division of three phase structures in AFM morphology image (Guo, Tan, Yu, et al., 2017).
Ziegel-B, C, were proposed by Guo, Tan, Hou, et al. (2017) and it was found that K. Ziegel-C can effec-
tively characterise the effects of temperature, filler components and SSA on interfacial interaction. The
determination of interaction parameter, K. Ziegel-C, is shown in Equation (7). An ultrasonic technique
(Ramanathan et al., 1991) was designed to measure the asphalt-aggregate adhesion and the measured
adhesion forces were of the order of 107Nm−2. Surface free energy method (Alvarez et al., 2012; Diab
et al., 2014) has also been used to measure the adhesion between binder and aggregate. Cohesive
bond of mastics with nanosized hydrated lime was observed to be higher than that of mastics with
regular hydrated lime (Diab et al., 2014).
C=1
ϕ
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
1−2.5
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
0.22ϕasphaltene
G∗
m(ω) +(0.162 −0.219RV)(ϕ −86.2RV −4.1MBV)+[9.06 −2.57G∗
m(ω)]
(5.078 −9.481RV +0.392MBV −0.436ϕCaO)ln 1+e
ϕ−86.2RV−4.1MBV
−2.57G∗
m(ω)+9.06 +3.65 ⎫
⎪
⎬
⎪
⎭
⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
(7)
where ϕis the volume fraction of filler; ϕasphaltene is the content of asphaltene in binder (%); G∗
m(ω) is
the complex modulus of asphalt binder (Pa); RV is the Rigden voids of filler (%); MBV is the methylene
blue value of fillers (g/kg); ϕCaO is the CaO content of filler.
Calcium-based fillers were reported to have superior active and passive adhesion values than silica-
based fillers (Choudhary et al., 2018). Pasandín and Pérez (2015) concluded that application of fillers,
especially grey Portland cement can increase the passive adhesion and application of natural fillers will
reduce the active adhesion. It should be noted that besides mineral composition, texture or poros-
ity might play a dominant role on adhesion. Both positive (Zhang et al., 2018) and negative (Zhang
et al., 2019) effects of red mud addition on adhesion properties were reported, whereas mixed effects
(Alvarez et al., 2012) of sandstone, basalt and limestone filler addition on adhesion performance have
22 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 20. Micromechanical model of mastic: (a) Four finite element model; (b) Interface model; (c) Physical dimension of particles
(Hesami et al., 2014b).
also been reported. To study the binder–filler interface in mastic, micro-mechanical finite element
models as shown in Figure 20 were developed and it was found that interfaces between binder–filler
were more affected by angular and smaller fillers as compared with round and coarse ones (Hesami
et al., 2014b), respectively. In addition, mastic with high filler dosage showed the highest level of
influence with changing interfacing properties.
3.6. Fatigue resistance of mastic
Fatigue performance of asphalt mixture strongly depends on the properties of binder and filler, and
the interaction between them (Riccardi et al., 2017; Smith & Hesp, 2000). Due to the high stiffness
of aggregates, cracks normally propagate along the asphalt film or within the mastic in asphalt mix-
ture (Faheem et al., 2008). Asphalt mixture properties were significantly changed after the addition of
fillers, which has a stiffening effect on the binder and cracks propagation in mastic can be interrupted
(Liao et al., 2011). Thus, it seems reasonable to predict fatigue performance of mixtures based on that
of mastic rather than asphalt binder. As a matter of fact, G*sinδ, a Superpave parameter developed
for binder fatigue performance evaluation, has a low correlation with asphalt mixture fatigue perfor-
mance (Bahia et al., 2001; Bahia et al., 2001; Faheem et al., 2008; Liao et al., 2011). G*sinδwas tested at
low stress/strain levels in the linear viscoelastic range and the non-linear viscoelastic behaviour was
not considered under fatigue (Bahia et al., 2001;Liaoetal.,2011). To overcome the deficiency of fatigue
factor G*sinδ, a 50% drop of G* from its initial value has been traditionally used to determine the fatigue
life of binder/mastic (Kim et al., 2003;Smith&Hesp,2000; Wen & Bahia, 2009). However, fatigue life
corresponding to complete fracture has also been proposed under the controlled stress mode of load-
ingasshowninFigure21 (Liao et al., 2011). A 20% deviation from the initial linear trend of dissipated
energy ratio (DER) has also been used to define fatigue life (Riccardi et al., 2017), as shown in Figure
22. The calculation of DER is presented in Equation (8).
DER =n
i=1Wi
Wn
=πσi(t)εi(t)sinδtdt
Wn
(8)
where Wiis the dissipated energy of the at the ith loading cycle. σi(t)is the stress at the ith loading
cycle; εi(t)is the strain at the ith loading cycle; δtis the phase angle at the ith loading cycle.
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 23
Figure 21. Definition of fatigue life for mastic (Liao et al., 2011).
Figure 22. DER versus number of cycles (Riccardi et al., 2017).
Smith and Hesp (2000) concluded that fatigue life of mastic increased with decreasing filler particle
size since microcracks were pinned under slow cracking propagation (Smith & Hesp, 2000). Mastics pre-
pared with smaller particle size was confirmed by Xing et al. (2019) to have longer fatigue life, but the
initial shear strain had a more profound effect on fatigue life. Based on fatigue factor G*sinδ,mastics
with coarse and medium particle size showed better fatigue cracking resistance than those with fine
particle size (Aburkaba et al., 2012). Fatigue life of mastic was found to decrease with the increase of
filler concentration using a time sweep test under strain control loading mode (Underwood, 2016). do
Vale et al. (2016) confirmed that higher F/A ratio will lead to lower fatigue life of mastics by using con-
tinuum mechanics. However, fatigue resistance of mastic was also reported to increase with increased
dosage of filler (Faheem et al., 2008). Airey et al. (2006) stated that fatigue performance of mastic was
mainly affect by filler concentration but by filler type on a very limited scale.
Hydrated lime was found to be more effective than limestone filler at enhancing mastic fatigue life
(Kim et al., 2003). Faheem et al. (2008) reported that limestone filler has better fatigue resistance than
granite filler as shown in Figure 23, which might be caused by the better affinity of limestone filler to
binder than that of granite filler to binder. The increase in filler content was found to compromise the
fatigue performance of mastic and the presence of fillers worked as an interference element within
the continuous asphalt phase (Mazzoni et al., 2017). By modifying direct tension test (Montepara et al.,
2011), Romeo et al. (2016) believed that fracture performance of mastic mainly depends on the binder
24 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 23. Fatigue life of limestone and granite filler mastic (Faheem et al., 2008).
itself but the influence of filler properties is very limited. However, filler composition has a tremendous
impact on the cracking pattern of mastic (Romeo et al., 2014), which was reviewed by Digital Image
Correlation System.
It should be noted that the application of DSR on fatigue resistance evaluation of mastic is not
without concerns. For instance, hyperbolid-shaped specimen was employed to assess the fatigue per-
formance of mastic to prevent the adhesion/interface failures between mastic and DSR shearing plates
(Hospodka et al., 2018). To capture the evolution of linear viscoelastic properties of mastic during
fatigue tests, annular shear rheometer with hollow cylinder mastic specimen was developed (Buan-
nic et al., 2012). To incorporate large particle size in asphalt mortar, column shaped specimens with 10
mm height and 6 mm diameter were prepared for DSR with new clamp systems (Mo et al., 2012).
For composite materials with particulate materials like fillers, the toughening mechanism involves
crack front pining, particle bridging, crack-path deflection and matrix cracking (Qin & Ye, 2015). The
crack-pinning theory was first proposed by Lange (1970). In crack front pinning, particles like min-
eral fillers can work as an impenetrable obstacles causing cracks to bow out until it breaks away from
the pinning positions and thus consume extra energy, see Figure 24. Evans (1933) believed that the
increase of fracture energy of brittle mastic was due to the interaction between the moving crack front
and the filling phase based on this crack-pinning theory. It was also believed that the volume fraction
of filler was the main factor responsible for the increase in fracture energy but not the particle size,
which was confirmed by Rodríguez et al. (1996). The contribution to microcracking resistance by fillers
was due to the lower rate of damage evolution under strain controlled fatigue testing even though
binders were stiffened (Kim et al., 2003). Smith and Hesp (2000) believed that crack-pinning mecha-
nism indeed appeared to govern the toughening of mastic during the fatigue cracking process. During
the slow crack propagation process, the size of the second-phase dispersion affects the mastic fatigue
life. A theoretical model (see Equation (9)) was proposed by Underwood (2016) to describe the damage
evolution of asphalt mastic during the fatigue process. It was believed that linear viscoelastic, nonlinear
viscoelastic and damage all contributed substantially to the observed fatigue behaviour and a unique
damage characteristic curve was found regardless of the test conditions.
S=t
r,final
t
r,ini −1
2(γ R)2dC
dS α
dt
r(9)
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 25
Figure 24. Schematic of crack-pinning mechanism (Smith & Hesp, 2000).
where Sis the damage accumulated during one loading cycle; Cis the pseudo secant modulus; Sis
the internal state variable that quantifies the microstructural changes; γRis the pseudo strain; αis the
damage evolution rate; t
r,final-t
r,ini is the time interval; t
ris the strain-dependent reduced time.
4. Effect of mineral filler on the performance of mixture
Tunnicliff (1962) hypothesised that mineral fillers provided additional contact points for the aggregate
system and they can be treated as a continuation of aggregate structures. Meanwhile, mineral fillers,
suspended in asphalt binder, produced high viscosity mastic. It should be noted that the suspendibil-
ity of filler in binder relies on its fineness and density (Lee, 1964). Fillers probably assume a dual role in
asphalt mixture: a large fraction of fillers remain particulate in the asphalt matrix to form mastics while
a small fraction contributes to the loading bearing network by filling the voids created by coarse par-
ticles (AL-Saffar, 2013; Harris & Stuart, 1995; Kollaros et al., 2017). Mogawer and Stuart (1996)reported
that tests on SMA mixtures, including draindown, rutting, low-temperature cracking, workability and
moisture susceptibility, cannot discriminate good fillers from bad fillers. This contracted the percep-
tion that SMA mixtures have a large quantity of fillers and they should play a significant role on mixture
performances. However, performances of SMA mixtures and their mastics increased with the increase
of filler particle size at a fixed F/A ratio regardless of filler type (Muniandy et al., 2013). Kavussi and Hicks
(1997) mentioned that there is a great correlation between mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures
and the adhesion of fillers to asphalt. Zulkati et al. (2012) believed that performances of asphalt mix-
ture were affected by the presence of mineral filler in three ways: OAC, workability during mixing and
compaction and resultant asphalt-filler mastics as part of the mixture.
Marshall mix design method has often been used to determine OAC (Dehdezi et al., 2013; Mogawer
& Stuart, 1996; Muniandy et al., 2013; Zulkati et al., 2012). For Marshall mix design methods, OAC was
selected to meet the specification requirements, like Marshall stability (MS), flow value, voids in total
mixture and voids filled with asphalt, but for SMA mixtures, OAC was usually selected to produce
4% air voids and less than 0.3% draindown (Muniandy et al., 2013). OAC determined by Marshall mix
design method was found to be distinctly higher than that by Superpave Gyratory compaction method
(Neubauer & Partl, 2004).
Hydrated lime and kaolin with high SSA and asphalt absorption than granite were found to have
higher OAC, which supported that notion that there exists a strong correlation exists between OAC
and asphalt absorption (Zulkati et al., 2012). Fly ash was reported to require higher OAC than cement
and stone dust due to its higher bitumen absorption (Kar et al., 2014). Due to its rough surfaces and
thus high absorption, using seashell fillers was also reported to increase OAC (Arabani et al., 2014).
26 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 25. OAC at different filler concentration (Sharma et al., 2010).
Higher OAC due to binder absorption was again observed for mixtures with volcanic-cinder filler at
high concentration (5–8%) (Mehari, 2007). Waste concrete dust and brick dust were found to have
almost the same OAC as conventional filler like fine sand with stone dust (Sutradhar et al., 2015). RHA
was observed to have higher OAC than stone dust and slag probably due to its lower density and thus
larger SSA (Akter, 2018). OAC was stated to be slightly increased with the increase of ACP filler due to
the tiny pores on the surface of ACP, which will absorb a certain quantity of binder and thus increase
OAC (Liu et al., 2019).
OAC has often been reported to decrease with the increase of filler concentration since less binder
is needed to create the same amount of mastic to lubricate the aggregates (Huang et al., 2007;Sharma
et al., 2010), as shown in Figure 25. OAC for mixtures with borogypsum was lower than that for mixtures
without bogogypsum (Kütük-Sert & Kütük, 2012). OAC was decreased up to a minimum value and
then was increased with the increase of filler concentration (Mehari, 2007). At given F/A ratio, OAC
was found to increase with the decrease in fill particle size (Muniandy et al., 2013).
4.1. High-temperature performance of mixture
4.1.1. Marshall stability
MS and flow value have been used to predict asphalt mixture performance in the Marshall mix design
method (AASHTO T 245, 2000). MS refers to the maximum force recorded during load and flow value
refers the deformation corresponding to the maximum force.
Dehdezi et al. (2013) found a strong correlation (R2=0.89) between MS and SSA and high stiffness
and long cracking path were observed for mixtures prepared with high SSA. Kar et al. (2014) performed
Marshall tests on asphalt mixtures with three fillers, cement, stone dust and fly ash and the descending
order of MS and ascending order of flow value are both cement, stone dust and fly ash. The optimum
filler dosage was determined to be around 5% in terms MS. Mistry and Roy (2016) also investigated
the feasibility of replacing hydrated lime with fly ash and it was found to have higher MS and lower
flow value than hydrated lime even though it has lower SSA values. Mehari (2007) found that volcanic-
cinder have higher MS than limestone and crushed stone and it should be noted that volcanic-cinder
does not possess the highest SSA among the three fillers. Thus it is safe to say SSA is not the only
factor affecting MS values of mixtures. Mehari (2007) also concluded that the addition of fillers will
increase the binder viscosity and thus increasing the MS values. However, excessive amount of fillers
may extend the asphalt binder and thus higher binder content and lower MS values will be obtained.
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 27
Figure 26. MS versus rice husk substitution ratio (Sargın et al., 2013).
Excessive amount of fillers will also deteriorate the voids in mineral aggregates (VMA) and bleeding will
thus often occur on the pavement surface at high temperature due to the reduced space for asphalt
expansion (Budiarto, 2017). Sutradhar et al. (2015) observed that MS values of waste concrete dust and
brick dust were higher than that of fine sand with stone dust due to their slightly higher OAC.
MS values of cullet glass and domestic glass waste fillers were relatively lower than that of limestone
filler, but which still meets the specification requirements (Saltan et al., 2015). Waste glass beads and
loam redbrick dust were found to be effective on improving the MS and flow value as compared with
traditional limestone powder (Ali, 2018). Meanwhile, MS and flow value were compromised by coal fly
ash. Improved MS and flow value for waste glass powder were also observed as compared with ordi-
nary Portland cement and lime stone powder (AL-Saffar, 2013). However, waste glass powder was also
found to have lower MS and higher flow value than ordinary Portland cement and limestone powder
fillers (Jony et al., 2011).
Addition of eggshell powder (ESP) as filler can improve MS as compared with those regular mixtures
(Erfen et al., 2015; Kiruthiha et al., 2015). MS was also found to be significantly reduced with the addition
of ESP (Masued, 2019). When using RHA as a substitute for limestone filler, it was found that mixtures
with 50% RHA and 50% limestone had the best MS (Sargın et al., 2013) as shown in Figure 26. Maximum
MS was observed for RHA followed by stone dust and slag as filler materials (Akter, 2018). MS was
seen to increase approximately 65% by replacing ordinary Portland cement with RHA (Al-Hdabi, 2016).
Kütük-Sert and Kütük (2012) found that MS of asphalt mixture prepared with borogypsum was lower
than that of control mixtures and it can be used for binder course of heavy traffic roads since it showed
a rigid behaviour.
4.1.2. Dynamic stability
DS can be defined as the number of load repetitions to induce 1 mm rutting depth during the last 15
min of 1 h testing. DS of asphalt mixture with cement fillers was found to be 1169 repetitions per mm
and the variable coefficient was as low as 4.8%, both of which meet the specification requirements
(Wang et al., 2018). The improvement of DS by replacing traditional fillers with cement was also con-
firmed by Wang et al. (2007) but the optimum substitution ratio was recommended to be 40%. Based
on the high-temperature performance requirements using DS and rutting depth, the optimum F/A
ratio was determined to be in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 (Ji et al., 2014). For SBS-modified asphalt mixture,
the rutting resistance of asphalt mixture was significantly increased with the substitution of limestone
filler by cement up to a certain dosage (Fan et al., 2019).
28 Y. CHEN ET AL.
Figure 27. OAC (left) and dynamic stability (right) versus ACP concentration (Liu et al., 2019).
As compared with limestone filler, DS was increased by 45–75% for the evaluated volcanic ash fillers
and its high-temperature performance was also better than diatomite (Chen, 2010). Meanwhile, vol-
canic ash fillers were used for SBS-modified asphalt mixtures, DS can be enhanced by 30% to 80%. This
particular enhancement of high-temperature performance for SBS-modified mixtures by addition of
volcanic ash might be due to the entanglement between the molecule chains of SBS and the nano-
sized inner pores of volcanic ash (Liu et al., 2018), which will expand the molecular elasticity of SBS
from binder to mixture.
ACP was reported to significantly increase DS with the increase of ACP content as shown in Figure
27 (Liu et al., 2019). It should be noted that OAC was increased as ACP substitution concentration was
increased. The adverse impact of high binder content on high-temperature performance was probably
offset by the strong interaction between binder and ACP filler due its micropore structure. Phosphorus
slag filler was shown to significantly increase mixture rutting resistance (Qian et al., 2013; Sheng et al.,
2017), which indicates the great economic and environmental potential of using waste phosphorus
slag in asphalt mixture.
By using asphalt pavement analyser, the addition of Ag lime filler can significantly reduce the rut-
ting depth of asphalt mixture, especially at high filler content (Huang et al., 2007). Both static creep and
dynamic creep tests showed that seashell filler can considerably reduce the permanent deformation
(Arabani et al., 2014). Both indirect tensile creep test and Hamburg loaded-wheel tracking test con-
firmed the superior permanent deformation resistance of hydrated lime as compared with limestone
filler (Mohammad et al., 2000). No statistical difference was observed on wheel tracking rutting depth
for cement, stone dust, hydrated lime and tire-derived fuel (TDF) filler (Choi et al., 2020).
4.2. Low-temperature performance of asphalt mixture
By using bending strain energy obtained from three-point bending tests, Cao (2013) evaluated the
effect of F/A on the low-temperature cracking resistance for limestone powder. Bending strain energy
was found to increase with increase of F/A up to 1.1–1.2 then begin to be reduced. Bending strain
energy has also been used to evaluate the low-temperature cracking of recycled fine aggregates pow-
der and it was found to be slightly reduced as compared with that of limestone powder (Chen et al.,
2011). By replacing mineral filler with ACP, the low-temperature cracking performance was remark-
ably increased in terms of increased maximum bending strain and breaking strength (Liu et al., 2019),
which was due to the stronger interaction between asphalt and filler and the higher binder content
for mixtures containing ACP. No improvement of low-temperature cracking resistance for phospho-
rus slag powder as compared with limestone powder was observed (Wang et al., 2018). For asphalt
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 29
mixtures with no or little ageing, the substitution of limestone powder by cement will slightly reduce
the low-temperature cracking resistance; for long-term aged asphalt mixture, cement will significantly
increase the brittleness of asphalt mixture and reduce the low-temperature cracking resistance (Fan
et al., 2019). Based on semi-circular bending tests at −10°C, the low-temperature cracking resistance
brake pad waste was found to be lower than that of limestone filler (Hu et al., 2017). Based on ther-
mal stress-restrained specimen tests, no statistical differences were found between mixtures prepared
with hydraulically active fillers, like Portland cement and cement kiln dust and the reference mixture
(Ekblad et al., 2013).
4.3. Fatigue cracking resistance of asphalt mixture
Fatigue cracking, which is also called alligator cracking, is one of the main distresses of asphalt pave-
ment. Mineral fillers, particularly those smaller than 0.075 mm, are believed to have a significant effect
on mixture fatigue cracking resistance. Superpave shear tester (20°C and 1 Hz) was employed by Kand-
hal and Lynn (1998) to determine the possible correlation between physicochemical properties of
fillers and the fatigue performance of asphalt mixtures. No statistically significant correlation was
found between G*sinδand any of filler properties, including RV, FM, D10, D30, D60, SSA, NBV and
German filler. Similarly, fatigue performance of asphalt mixture was also believed to be more sensitive
to wheel loading rather than the dosage or nature of mastic (Liao et al., 2011). Using IDT, Reyes and
Rincón (2009) found that strength was increased 58% by replacing 100% of fillers for lime, 22% by 50%
replacing fillers for fly ash and 5% by 75% replacing fillers for cement. Wang et al. (2011) concluded that
cement can be used to replace mineral fillers for large stone asphalt mixes in terms of fatigue resistance
using IDT. Toughness index (see Equation (10)) was decreased with the increase of filler concentration
(from 2% to 10%), which indicated that mixture brittleness was increased with the increase of filler con-
centration and mixture fatigue cracking resistance could be potentially compromised (Huang et al.,
2007). Diab and Enieb (2018) found that the fracture energy from IDT generally increased with the
increase of filler concentration and limestone filler had better cracking resistance than hydrated lime
and cement bypass dust powders at 1.52 F/A ratio. The IDT fatigue life was increased as the concen-
tration of sealshell filler increased up to 100% replacement (Arabani et al., 2014). Lower fatigue slope
(Mohammad et al., 2000) and longer cycles (Little & Petersen, 2005;Mohammadetal.,2000)tofailure
from indirect tensile fatigue tests validated the superior fatigue performance of hydrated lime. Port-
land cement and fly ash type C, as active fillers, can improve both the IDT strength and fracture energy
for foam-stabilized asphalt mixtures (Saleh, 2006).
TI =Aε−Ap
ε−εp
(10)
where TI is the toughness index; Aεis the area under the normalised stress–strain curve up to strain
ε;Apis the area under the normalised stress–strain curve up to strain εp;εis the strain at the point of
interest; εpis the strain corresponding complex modulus of asphalt binder (Pa); g to the peak stress.
By conducting three-point fatigue bending beam tests, Mohammed and Fadhil (2018) concluded
that Portland cement has better fatigue resistance than limestone and hydrated lime fillers. For asphalt
rubber mixture, the fatigue resistance will be compromised with the addition of mineral powder, espe-
cially at high binder content (He & Huang, 2015). By using four-point bending fatigue test, asphalt
mixture containing 80% Ni-Zn ferrite powder can extend the fatigue life by 133% if it is heated to 55°C
(Zhu et al., 2017), which indicates strong healing capability. Four-point bending fatigue test results
also indicated that brake pad waste can improve the fatigue resistance of asphalt mixture as com-
pared with limestone filler (Hu et al., 2017). Longer fatigue life of recycled fine aggregates powder as
compared with limestone powder was reported by using four-point bending fatigue tests (Chen et al.,
2011). By conducting fatigue tests with a UMATTA tester, fly ash showed substantially longer fatigue
life than control mixtures due to the stiffening and void filling effect of fly ash filler (Tapkin, 2008),
which worked as binder extender in the asphalt-mixture system.
30 Y. CHEN ET AL.
4.4. Moisture damage resistance of asphalt mixture
Moisture damage or moisture susceptibility is caused by the reduction of adhesion between binder
and aggregate due to the moisture interaction with binder-aggregate adhesion within the HMA mix-
ture. Based on retained MS, Fan et al. (2019) reported that the substitution of limestone filler by cement
can increase the water stability of asphalt mixture but excessive amount (over 50% substitution) of
cement can compromise the moisture resistance. Cement has also been shown to have higher retained
MS than stone dust and fly ash (Kar et al., 2014).
Choudhary et al. (2018) evaluated the moisture susceptibility of mixtures prepared with fillers from
waste materials, including glass powder, brick dust, red mud, carbide lime, rice straw ash, copper slag,
limestone slurry dust and ordinary Portland cement. It was found that carbide lime, Portland cement
and limestone slurry dust had the highest retained MS due to the presence of portlandite and calcite
materials in the composition. Rice straw ash and glass powder had lower retained MS due to the pre-
dominance of silica in their fillers. Brick dust had poor moisture resistance due to the high active clay
content and silica content. However, Al-Hdabi (2016) reported opposite results in terms of RHA hav-
ing better moisture resistance than Portland cement by using retained MS. Negative impact of glass
powder on moisture resistance of asphalt mixture was also confirmed by Tang et al. (2015). Only 9.7%
reduction in MS was reported for asphalt mixture with 7% boron waste as fillers (Gürer & Selman, 2017),
which indicates that it can be used in construction of wearing course.
TSR from freeze-thaw splitting tests has also been used to evaluate the moisture susceptibility of
asphalt mixtures. TSR was reported to be continuously reduced when F/A was increased from 0.8 to
1.80 (Ji et al., 2014). TSR of mixtures prepared with hydrated lime was higher than that of mixtures with
Portland cement and filler by approximately 7% and 10% (Mohammed & Fadhil, 2018), respectively.
If the substitution ratio of limestone powder by cement was less 2:2, the added cement can help to
increase the moisture resistance of asphalt mixture in terms of increased TSR (Fan et al., 2019). Cement,
an active alkaline material, can react with the hydroxyl acid in the asphalt binder, which will increase
the consistency of asphalt mastic and thus improve the water stability of asphalt mixture. Meanwhile,
a small amount of hydrated lime or cement added to asphalt mixture has also been reported to chem-
ically interact with asphalt binder and thus increase the adhesion between mastic and aggregates,
which will correspondingly increase the moisture resistance (O’Flaherty, 2015). Mixtures with circulat-
ing fluidised bed combustion fly ashes as components also showed great moisture resistance (Li et al.,
2009), which was due to its alkalinity nature caused by the high f-CaO content and active Na2Oand
K2O components.
Higher TSR value and thus better moisture resistance of recycled fine aggregate powder were found
by Chen et al. (2011) as compared with limestone filler, which is due to its higher SSA and thus higher
absorption of asphalt binder. Mixtures with 6% ESP (95.16%) as fillers has higher TSR than that of Port-
land cement (87.88%), which indicated that application of ESP in asphalt mixture can increase the
moisture resistance (Masued, 2019). TSR of mixtures containing phosphorus slag filler is around 95%,
much higher than that of mixtures with normal filler, which indicates that improved moisture resis-
tance of phosphorus slag filler was obtained (Qian et al., 2013). As shown in Figure 28, TSR increased
with the addition of brake pad waste filler under the same freeze-thaw cycles, which indicated that
brake pad waste can increase the moisture resistance of asphalt mixture (Hu et al., 2017). In addi-
tion, fillers, like ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (Al-Hdabi & Al Nageim, 2017), TDF fly ash (Choi
et al., 2020) and seashell fillers (Arabani et al., 2014), have also been reported to improve the mois-
ture resistance of asphalt mixtures. Both retained MS and TSR values of mixtures mixed with steel slag
were improved due to its high effective CaO content (Xiao et al., 2019), which was the reason for its
high alkalinity. It should be noted that high iron content in steel slag was adverse on the moisture
resistance.
The moisture stability can be sacrificed with the addition of ACP since the TSR value was reduced
from 89% to 75% when ACP substitution increased from 0% to 100% (Liu et al., 2019). The water sta-
bility of asphalt mixture was slightly compromised by replacing limestone (TSR =88%) with waste
ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 31
Figure 28. Effect of BPW filler on the ITS of asphalt concrete (Hu et al., 2017).
Note: 33LF-67BPW =33% limestone filler and 67% BPW powder.
beaching clays (TSR =83%) (Sangiorgi et al., 2016). Partial substitution of limestone powder by
recycled rubber tyre will reduce the moisture resistance due to the adhesion reduction between
asphalt binder and aggregate (Chen et al., 2015). As compared with brick dust, fly ash, recycled con-
crete waste aggregate dust and stone dust, lime dust showed the strongest resistance to moisture
damage (Kuity et al., 2014). Extremely low moisture resistance for brick dust was due to its acidic nature
caused by the presence of silica and thus low adhesion between binder and mastic.
To evaluate the effects of mineral filler on asphalt-binder interfaces, surface free energy approach
instead of traditional moisture susceptibility parameters, like retained MS and TSR, and filler char-
acterisation parameters, like particle size, the presence of detrimental materials and morphological
properties, was used by Alvarez et al. (2012) to assess the inclusion of fillers on moisture damage resis-
tance. Besides the filler type and concentration, Trautvain et al. (2015) reported that grinding units
for filler production has a significant effect on moisture resistance and mechanically activated mineral
fillers can improve the water stability by 14% to 21%.
5. Summary and conclusions
Mineral filler, a key component of binder–filler–aggregate composite system, has a significant effect
on the properties of mastic and mortar and pavement performance of asphalt mixtures. In this paper,
the physical and chemical properties of mineral fillers, including particle size distribution, SSA, void
characteristics, density and chemical composition, were summarised. Moreover, effects of mineral filler
on the physical and mechanical properties of mastic were analysed. Furthermore, pavement perfor-
mance of asphalt mixtures with the presence of fillers was evaluated as well. This review found that
mineral filler had a strong stiffening effect on both mastic and asphalt mixture, which was reflected
as the improved rutting resistance. Both positive and negative influences of filler on low-temperature
cracking resistance of mastic and asphalt mixture were observed. The moisture resistance of asphalt
mixture was shown to be filler specific, which was closely related to the interfacial interaction between
binder and filler. More expected findings are presented as follows,
•There exists an optimum range of RV for fillers to produce appropriate stiffening effect on asphalt
binder because high RV value will produce hard mastic and thus high cracking probability, whereas
low RV value will lead to soft asphalt mastic and construction issues;
32 Y. CHEN ET AL.
•MBV is a reliable parameter for determination of active clay content for fillers and moisture
resistance of asphalt mixture increased with decreasing MBV;
•Appropriate filler-asphalt ratio should be selected for a balanced mixture performance, particularly
among high-temperature performance, cohesion capacity, self-healing capacity and workability;
•The filler stiffening effect on binder or filler concentration can be divided into three stages: diluted
phase, intermediate phase and concentrated phase;
•G*/sinδfrom oscillating shear test, Gvfrom creep and recovery test and Jnr from MSCR test can all
be used to evaluate the rutting resistance of mastic with added filler;
•Excessive amount of fillers will reduce the low-temperature cracking resistance of asphalt mastic
due to filler agglomeration and additional damage points were connected, leading to macroscopic
cracking surfaces;
•Ageing retardation of fillers was probably caused by the absorption of asphaltic polar fraction and
the prolonged diffusion path of oxygen molecules in the asphalt;
•It was polar fractions of binders that were mainly absorbed onto filler surfaces and interfacial
interaction thickness can be determined by absorption-separation test;
•Cracking-pinning likely contributed to the toughening of mastic during fatigue cracking due to the
extra energy consumed from crack bowing between filler particles;
•OAC was reduced with higher filler concentration, lower SSA and binder absorption;
•Bleeding often occur on pavement surface with excessive filler content since space for binder
expansion in asphalt mixture was reduced;
•Fillers with high alkalinity, high SSA and thus high asphalt binder absorption will exhibit strong
moisture resistance for asphalt mixture;
For any traditional or new type of fillers, a comprehensive review of its performance on both mastic
and mixture should be completed before a decision can be made on its application in asphalt mix-
ture. The optimum filler-asphalt ratio should be determined based on the balanced performance. In
the future, more efforts should be made to investigate the interfacial interaction behaviour between
binder and filler to understand the mechanism of how mastic or mixture properties were affected by
the added fillers.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, Chang’an University under
Grant CHD300102219215; China Postdoctoral Science Foundation under Grant 2013M542312 and 2014T70897.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities [grant number
CHD300102219215]; China Postdoctoral Science Foundation [grant numbers 2013M542312 and 2014T70897].
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