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Spor Bilimleri

Authors:

Abstract

Physical Activity Measurement Methods
Spor
Bilimleri
Dr. Seda Yalçın
Editör:
Alanında
Uluslararası Araştırmalar V
SPOR BİLİMLERİ ALANINDA ULUSLARARASI ARAŞTIRMALAR V
Editör: Dr. Seda Yalçın
Genel Yayın Yönetmeni: Yusuf Ziya Aydoğan (yza@egitimyayinevi.com)
Genel Yayın Koordinatörü: Yusuf Yavuz (yusufyavuz@egitimyayinevi.com)
Sayfa Tasarımı: Eğitim Yayınevi Grafik Birimi
Kapak Tasarımı: Eğitim Yayınevi Grafik Birimi
T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı
Yayıncı Sertifika No: 47830
ISBN: 978-625-6382-13-8
1. Baskı, Kasım-Aralık 2022
Baskı Cilt
Bulut Dijital Matbaa Sanayi Ticaret Limited Şirketi
Musalla Bağları Mah. İnciköy Sok. 1/A Selçuklu / KONYA
Matbaa Sertifika No: 48120
Kütüphane Kimlik Kartı
SPOR BİLİMLERİ ALANINDA ULUSLARARASI ARAŞTIRMALAR V
Editör: Dr. Seda Yalçın
396 s., 165x240 mm
Kaynakça var, dizin yok.
ISBN: 978-625-6382-13-8
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Karatay, Konya, Türkiye
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Sok. B Blok, No: 16/B, Safakent, Karatay, Konya, Türkiye
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Kitabevi Şubesi: Eğitim Kitabevi, Şükran mah. Rampalı 121, Meram, Konya, Türkiye
+90 332 499 90 00
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bilgi@kitapmatik.com.tr
İÇİNDEKİLER
FİZİKSEL UYGUNLUK VE EUROFİT TEST BATARYASI ...................................... 5
Serkan KAYA
SPORCULARIN ILAÇ KULLANIMI VE DOPİNGLE
MÜCADELESİNDE ECZACILARIN ROLÜ ......................................................... 25

SPORDA FAİR PLAY ......................................................................................... 33
Eyyüp 
ENGELLİLERDE SPOR TARİHİNE GENEL BİR BAKIŞ .....................................45

FİZİKSEL AKTİVİTE ÖLÇÜM YÖNTEMLERİ ..................................................... 59

‘‘KAFEİN VE SPORTİF PERFORMANS’’ .......................................................... 81

ALGILANAN GÜÇ VE GÜÇ KAYNAĞI KAVRAMININ
SPOR YÖNETİCİLERİ AÇISINDAN ELE ALINMASI .......................................... 91

FUTBOLUN FİZYOLOJİK TALEPLERİ ............................................................101

SERBEST ZAMAN FAALİYETLERİNİN SOSYAL TABAKALAŞMA
AÇISINDAN ELE ALINMASI ........................................................................... 115

β-BLOKER MADDELER, SPORCULARDA KULLANIMI
VE EĞZERSİZ KAPASİTESİ ÜZERİNE ETKİLERİ ...........................................133

GELENEKSEL SPORLARDA VE E-SPORDA
ZİHİNSEL ANTRENMAN TEKNİKLERİ ........................................................... 143

FUTBOLDA PSİKOLOJİK BECERİ .................................................................. 153

‘‘UYKU VE SPORTİF PERFORMANS’’ ...........................................................167

SPOR MERKEZİNE ÜYE OLAN BİREYLERİN SPORDA
YARALANMA KAYGILARININ İNCELENMESİ ................................................ 177

SPORDA LİDERLİK ........................................................................................189

SPORDA İLETİŞİM VE ETKİLİ İLETİŞİMİN ÖNEMİ ........................................201

DAYANIKLILIK SPORCULARINDA DEHİDRASYONUN
PERFORMANS ÜZERİNE ETKİLERİ .............................................................. 215

SPOR ÖRGÜTLERİNDE SPORTİF BAŞARI, YÖNETSEL VE
MALİ PERFORMANS KAVRAMLARINA İLİŞKİN BİR İNCELEME ................227
1, 
TÜRK FUTBOLUNUN UNUTULMAZ DÖNEMİ:
1992-1993 SEZONU VE KOCAELİSPOR .....................................................239

SPOR EKONOMİSİ ......................................................................................... 257

SAĞLIKLI BESLENMEYE İLİŞKİN TUTUM İLE SPORA BAĞLILIK:
SPOR LİSESİ ÖĞRENCİLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR ARAŞTIRMA ............................269

ÖZEL GEREKSİNİMLİ ÖĞRENCİLERE YÖNELİK TUTUMLARIN
İNCELENMESİ: SPOR LİSESİ ÖĞRENCİLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR ARAŞTIRMA .....285

TURİZM REKREASYONU KAPSAMINDA GOLF VE BEACH GOLF TURİZMİ ....297

BALİSTİK ANTRENMANLARIN MOTOR BECERİLER ÜZERİNE ETKİSİ .......311

SPORCU BESLENMESİ NEDEN ÖNEMLİ? ....................................................323

SPORDA MOTİVASYON .................................................................................. 337

FUTBOLDA TARAFTARLIĞI FANATİZM VE HOLİGANİZM ...........................349

SPORCULARDA Y DENGE TESTİ: NEDEN VE NASIL UYGULANIR? ..............361

ZORBALIĞIN SPOR SEYİRCİLERİ AÇISINDAN ELE ALINMASI:
FUTBOL ÖRNEĞİ ........................................................................................... 37 3

FUTBOL OYUN STRATEJİSİNDE PERFORMAS,
FİZYOLOJİK VE TAKTİKSEL YETERLİLİK ...................................................... 385

FİZİKSEL AKTİVİTE ÖLÇÜM YÖNTEMLERİ
1
GİRİŞ
       
  
    
       
        







          
  


          

        
       
        
 
60 


       
        
        

   


          


       

       


     

        

     

 

          
         

        
         


 
KAH

 

TERMİNOLOJİ

    
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

        
 

egzersiz 
        



       

         
         






2

  



     
         
          

     

62 



TOPLAM ENERJİ HARCAMASININ BİLEŞENLERİ


         
       
       
       
         

Dinlenme Enerji Harcaması
 
         
           

  
   ür      

DEH’e Etki Eden Faktörler
        



Yaş
           


63

Cinsiyet
 
      
         
         
       


Vücut Kompozisyonu
       
          

         


Vücut Ölçüsü
    
        



OBJEKTİF ÖLÇÜM YÖNTEMLERİ
KALORİMETRE
    


        
 
         
     

  2       
        
2          
 2      
          2

64 
ÇİFT İŞARETLİ SU YÖNTEMİ

     

          
        



           
  2      
   

          

AEH (kkal/gün)=0.9 × TEH (kkal/gün) − DEH (kkal/gün)



         

AEH (kcal/gün) =toplam EH (TEH; kcal∕gün) − Dinlenme EH (DEH; kcal∕gün)
  



        

       

FİZİKSEL AKTİVİTE SEVİYESİ (FAS)


        
         


        
       
65

        




         
           
        
   

FAS=TEH∕DEH


METABOLİK EŞDEĞER

22
2 
 

        
     
       

 
        

         


         







        


66 
NABIZ İZLEME
        
   
       


Enerji Harcamalarının Ölçülmesi
   2    
   2 
      
    


        
       
 
           
  

       2  
     




    Esnek-KAH     
  

Egzersiz Yoğunluğunu İzleme
        

        
       2 
  
2


        
        

67

HAREKET SENSÖRLERİ
Adımsayarlar (Pedometreler)

        

  

        

        
        
       

       
         



 
 
 
 
 
 >
        





         

        
        
        
 


  

68 
        



      


İvmeölçerler (Akselerometreler)
       
          
   


         



         




        
       
      


        
         
         


         
  
          

.
       


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






     

 
       

          
        





 
  
          
 


        
         

       
ü
        
    



Birleşik Yaklaşımlar

  



70 

  





     2   
       
          
       




       

Sensörlü Kol Bantları
          

          

 

SÜBJEKTİF ÖLÇÜM YÖNTEMLERİ
      
        
         
        
         
 
         

       
        
         

      

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

          
        




       

      
       






      




        
       
      

         




2
          




        
          

72 





   
           
         

      

   

     
   
       

Fiziksel Aktivite Kayıtları veya Günlükleri
        

         
           


         




        

    


Multimedya Aktivite Hatırlama (MAH)
    
        
        


73

 
        


       
      





       
          


Fiziksel Aktivite Anketleri (FAA)

  
        
          
  
        
         

         

     
         
        
        




       
         
        
        


74 

 
•      

• 

• 

• 

•  •     

•  • 
•  •     

•  • 

•     
  

SONUÇ
        
       


 

        
         
       




        
        

           
       
         
        



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
  

         
   
  

    

        
         

       
        

76 
KAYNAKÇALAR

Research quarterly for
exercise and sport, 80

    Applied Physiology, Nutrition,
and Metabolism, 36
Sports medicine, 33
Sports
medicine, 33
            
Progress in cardiovascular diseases, 57
              
British journal of sports medicine, 43
                 

Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 32

Journal of applied physiology, 75
            
European journal of clinical nutrition, 59
    
Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 71
       
 European journal of
clinical nutrition, 50

          
Journal of applied
physiology, 96
     
American journal of preventive medicine,
36

Journal of Applied physiology, 99
   British journal of
Nutrition, 87
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
    
PLoS One, 8
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Public health reports, 100
            
Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 37
           
Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care, 10
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     Medicine and science in sports and
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
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  

The American journal of clinical nutrition, 89
              
European journal of applied physiology, 98
               
    Medical & biological
engineering & computing.
  

The American journal of clinical nutrition, 85

        Nutrition in the Prevention and
Treatment of Disease
Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of
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Journal of sports sciences, 29
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          Journal of
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Frontiers in
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European journal of
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    
International journal of obesity, 38
                
Journal of applied physiology,
84
          


Obesity Reviews,
13
     


The lancet, 388

  
Journal of the American Dietetic association, 105

Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 71


78 

Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14


    Medicine and science in
sports and exercise, 32

         International
journal of sports medicine, 24

Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 33
Human energy requirements. A manual for planners and
nutritionists.
     
 Medicine and science in sports and exercise,
40
         
Clinical cardiology, 13
    Assessment of physical activity among children and
adolescents: a review and synthesis. Prev Med, 31

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35
   
    Medicine and science in sports and exercise,
33
            
American Journal of Human Biology, 24
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 62


The American journal of clinical nutrition, 58

     Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32


European
journal of clinical nutrition, 63

Research quarterly for
exercise and sport, 80
        

New England Journal of Medicine, 341

                
The American journal of clinical nutrition, 56

         
PLoS medicine,
4
79

  
Archives of disease in childhood, 93
     
          Health Education &
Behavior, 39
Sports medicine,
37
         
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 10
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Critical reviews in food
science and nutrition, 33
               
Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 42
    

International journal of sports medicine, 27

Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37


Medicine and science in
sports and exercise, 30

       
European journal of clinical nutrition, 50

          Archives of disease in
childhood, 93

 European journal of sport science, 11 

            
Pediatric exercise science, 19
         Journal of School health,
61
 
Medicine and science in sports and
exercise, 25

American journal of
epidemiology, 121
International journal
of obesity, 32
       
Obesity research, 9

         
British journal of sports medicine, 37
80 
           
Medicine and science in sports and
exercise, 35


American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory,
Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 286

Medicine and
science in sports and exercise, 32
       
     
International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity,
14
               

      
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,
40

Medicine and science
in sports and exercise, 30
Sports medicine, 34

           
Research quarterly for
exercise and sport, 72


Canadian journal of applied physiology, 30
              
          International
Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 6

             
International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 9


   International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, 11

The
American journal of clinical nutrition, 55
              
Medicine
and science in sports and exercise, 46
  European journal of
applied physiology, 105
       Current
Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care, 7
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Article
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Background The prominence of sedentary behavior research in health science has grown rapidly. With this growth there is increasing urgency for clear, common and accepted terminology and definitions. Such standardization is difficult to achieve, especially across multi-disciplinary researchers, practitioners, and industries. The Sedentary Behavior Research Network (SBRN) undertook a Terminology Consensus Project to address this need. Method First, a literature review was completed to identify key terms in sedentary behavior research. These key terms were then reviewed and modified by a Steering Committee formed by SBRN. Next, SBRN members were invited to contribute to this project and interested participants reviewed and provided feedback on the proposed list of terms and draft definitions through an online survey. Finally, a conceptual model and consensus definitions (including caveats and examples for all age groups and functional abilities) were finalized based on the feedback received from the 87 SBRN member participants who responded to the original invitation and survey. Results Consensus definitions for the terms physical inactivity, stationary behavior, sedentary behavior, standing, screen time, non-screen-based sedentary time, sitting, reclining, lying, sedentary behavior pattern, as well as how the terms bouts, breaks, and interruptions should be used in this context are provided. Conclusion It is hoped that the definitions resulting from this comprehensive, transparent, and broad-based participatory process will result in standardized terminology that is widely supported and adopted, thereby advancing future research, interventions, policies, and practices related to sedentary behaviors.
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Background: The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 provides an up-to-date synthesis of the evidence for risk factor exposure and the attributable burden of disease. By providing national and subnational assessments spanning the past 25 years, this study can inform debates on the importance of addressing risks in context. Methods: We used the comparative risk assessment framework developed for previous iterations of the Global Burden of Disease Study to estimate attributable deaths, disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and trends in exposure by age group, sex, year, and geography for 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks from 1990 to 2015. This study included 388 risk-outcome pairs that met World Cancer Research Fund-defined criteria for convincing or probable evidence. We extracted relative risk and exposure estimates from randomised controlled trials, cohorts, pooled cohorts, household surveys, census data, satellite data, and other sources. We used statistical models to pool data, adjust for bias, and incorporate covariates. We developed a metric that allows comparisons of exposure across risk factors—the summary exposure value. Using the counterfactual scenario of theoretical minimum risk level, we estimated the portion of deaths and DALYs that could be attributed to a given risk. We decomposed trends in attributable burden into contributions from population growth, population age structure, risk exposure, and risk-deleted cause-specific DALY rates. We characterised risk exposure in relation to a Socio-demographic Index (SDI). Findings: Between 1990 and 2015, global exposure to unsafe sanitation, household air pollution, childhood underweight, childhood stunting, and smoking each decreased by more than 25%. Global exposure for several occupational risks, high body-mass index (BMI), and drug use increased by more than 25% over the same period. All risks jointly evaluated in 2015 accounted for 57·8% (95% CI 56·6–58·8) of global deaths and 41·2% (39·8–42·8) of DALYs. In 2015, the ten largest contributors to global DALYs among Level 3 risks were high systolic blood pressure (211·8 million [192·7 million to 231·1 million] global DALYs), smoking (148·6 million [134·2 million to 163·1 million]), high fasting plasma glucose (143·1 million [125·1 million to 163·5 million]), high BMI (120·1 million [83·8 million to 158·4 million]), childhood undernutrition (113·3 million [103·9 million to 123·4 million]), ambient particulate matter (103·1 million [90·8 million to 115·1 million]), high total cholesterol (88·7 million [74·6 million to 105·7 million]), household air pollution (85·6 million [66·7 million to 106·1 million]), alcohol use (85·0 million [77·2 million to 93·0 million]), and diets high in sodium (83·0 million [49·3 million to 127·5 million]). From 1990 to 2015, attributable DALYs declined for micronutrient deficiencies, childhood undernutrition, unsafe sanitation and water, and household air pollution; reductions in risk-deleted DALY rates rather than reductions in exposure drove these declines. Rising exposure contributed to notable increases in attributable DALYs from high BMI, high fasting plasma glucose, occupational carcinogens, and drug use. Environmental risks and childhood undernutrition declined steadily with SDI; low physical activity, high BMI, and high fasting plasma glucose increased with SDI. In 119 countries, metabolic risks, such as high BMI and fasting plasma glucose, contributed the most attributable DALYs in 2015. Regionally, smoking still ranked among the leading five risk factors for attributable DALYs in 109 countries; childhood underweight and unsafe sex remained primary drivers of early death and disability in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Interpretation: Declines in some key environmental risks have contributed to declines in critical infectious diseases. Some risks appear to be invariant to SDI. Increasing risks, including high BMI, high fasting plasma glucose, drug use, and some occupational exposures, contribute to rising burden from some conditions, but also provide opportunities for intervention. Some highly preventable risks, such as smoking, remain major causes of attributable DALYs, even as exposure is declining. Public policy makers need to pay attention to the risks that are increasingly major contributors to global burden.
Chapter
Knowledge of energy requirements throughout the life cycle and during various physiological conditions and disease states is essential to the promotion of optimal human health. Since available instruments for measurement of dietary intake have demonstrated considerable misreporting, investigators have focused on measurement of energy expenditure, which can be accurately measured. In an effort to estimate energy requirements, one can measure total energy expenditure or the components of total energy expenditure which include resting energy expenditure and energy expended in physical activity. Because of the high cost and time needed for measurement of energy expenditure, clinicians often rely heavily on prediction equations to estimate energy requirements. However, it is important to keep in mind that these equations often do not account for variables such as body composition, race, age, or the effect of disease states.
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Pedometers are simple and inexpensive body-worn motion sensors that are readily being used by researchers and practitioners to assess and motivate physical activity behaviours. Pedometer-determined physical activity indices are needed to guide their efforts. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review the rationale and evidence for general pedometer-based indices for research and practice purposes. Specifically, we evaluate popular recommendations for steps/day and attempt to translate existing physical activity guidelines into steps/day equivalents. Also, we appraise the fragmented evidence currently available from associations derived from cross-sectional studies and a limited number of interventions that have documented improvements (primarily in body composition and/or blood pressure) with increased steps/day. A value of 10 000 steps/day is gaining popularity with the media and in practice and can be traced to Japanese walking clubs and a business slogan 30+ years ago. 10 000 steps/day appears to be a reasonable estimate of daily activity for apparently healthy adults and studies are emerging documenting the health benefits of attaining similar levels. Preliminary evidence suggests that a goal of 10 000 steps/day may not be sustainable for some groups, including older adults and those living with chronic diseases. Another concern about using 10 000 steps/day as a universal step goal is that it is probably too low for children, an important target population in the war against obesity. Other approaches to pedometer-determined physical activity recommendations that are showing promise of health benefit and individual sustainability have been based on incremental improvements relative to baseline values. Based on currently available evidence, we propose the following preliminary indices be used to classify pedometer-determined physical activity in healthy adults: (i) 12 500 steps/day are likely to be classified as ‘highly active’.
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Over the last 20 years, heart rate monitors (HRMs) have become a widely used training aid for a variety of sports. The development of new HRMs has also evolved rapidly during the last two decades. In addition to heart rate (HR) responses to exercise, research has recently focused more on heart rate variability (HRV). Increased HRV has been associated with lower mortality rate and is affected by both age and sex. During graded exercise, the majority of studies show that HRV decreases progressively up to moderate intensities, after which it stabilises. There is abundant evidence from cross-sectional studies that trained individuals have higher HRV than untrained individuals. The results from longitudinal studies are equivocal, with some showing increased HRV after training but an equal number of studies showing no differences. The duration of the training programmes might be one of the factors responsible for the versatility of the results. HRMs are mainly used to determine the exercise intensity of a training session or race. Compared with other indications of exercise intensity, HR is easy to monitor, is relatively cheap and can be used in most situations. In addition, HR and HRV could potentially play a role in the prevention and detection of overtraining. The effects of overreaching on submaximal HR are controversial, with some studies showing decreased rates and others no difference. Maximal HR appears to be decreased in almost all ‘overreaching’ studies. So far, only few studies have investigated HRV changes after a period of intensified training and no firm conclusions can be drawn from these results. The relationship between HR and oxygen uptake (V̇O2) has been used to predict maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max). This method relies upon several assumptions and it has been shown that the results can deviate up to 20% from the true value. The HR-V̇O2 relationship is also used to estimate energy expenditure during field conditions. There appears to be general consensus that this method provides a satisfactory estimate of energy expenditure on a group level, but is not very accurate for individual estimations. The relationship between HR and other parameters used to predict and monitor an individual’s training status can be influenced by numerous factors. There appears to be a small day-to-day variability in HR and a steady increase during exercise has been observed in most studies. Furthermore, factors such as dehydration and ambient temperature can have a profound effect on the HR-V̇O2 relationship.
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This review includes an historical overview of the techniques for measuring energy expenditure (EE). Following this overview, the ‘gold standard’ method of measuring EE, the doubly labelled water (DLW) method, is emphasised. Other methods, such as direct calorimetry, indirect calorimetry systems, heart rate and EE relationships, questionnaires and activity recall, motion sensors, combined heart rate and motion sensors for the estimation of EE are then highlighted in relation to their validation against the DLW method. The major advantages and disadvantages for each method are then considered. The preferred method to determine EE is likely to depend principally on factors such as the number of study participants to be monitored, the time period of measurements and the finances available. Small study participant numbers over a short period may be measured accurately by means of indirect calorimetric methods (stationary and portable systems). For periods over 3–4 days, EE should ideally be measured using the DLW method. However, the use of motion sensors is very promising in the measurement of EE, and has a number of advantages over the DLW method. Furthermore, if used correctly, both heart rate and questionnaire methods may provide valuable estimates of EE. Additional studies are needed to examine the possibility of improving the accuracy of measurement by combining two or more techniques. Such information, if confirmed by scientific rigour, may lead to an improvement in the estimation of EE and population-based physical activity levels. The accurate measurement of physical activity and EE is critical from both a research and health prospective. A consideration of the relevant techniques used for the estimation of EE may also help improve the quality of these frequently reported measurements.
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Accurate physical activity quantification in preschoolers is essential to establish physical activity prevalence, dose-response relationships between activity and health outcomes, and intervention effectiveness. To date, best practice approaches for physical activity measurement in preschool-aged children have been relatively understudied. This article provides a review of physical activity measurement tools for preschoolers, an overview of measurement of preschoolers’ physical activity, and directions for further research. Electronic and manual literature searches were used to identify 49 studies that measured young children’s physical activity, and 32 studies that assessed the validity and/or reliability of physical activity measures with preschool-aged children. While no prevalence data exist, measurement studies indicate that preschool children exhibit low levels of vigorous activity and high levels of inactivity, boys are more active than girls, and activity patterns tend to be sporadic and omnidirectional. As such, measures capable of capturing differing activity intensities in very short timeframes and over multiple planes are likely to have the most utility with this population. Accelerometers are well suited for this purpose, and a number of models have been used to objectively quantify preschoolers’ physical activity. Only one model of pedometer has been investigated for validity with preschool-aged children, showing equivocal results. Direct observation of physical activity can provide detailed contextual information on preschoolers’ physical activity, but is subjective and impractical for understanding daily physical activity. Proxy-report questionnaires are unlikely to be useful for determining actual physical activity levels of young children, and instead may be useful for identifying potential correlates of activity. Establishing validity is challenging due to the absence of a precise physical activity measure, or ‘criterion’, for young children. Both energy expenditure (EE) and direct observation have been considered criterion measures in the literature; however, EE is influenced by multiple variables, so its use as a physical activity ‘criterion’ is not ideal. Also, direct observation is inherently subjective, and coding protocols may result in failure to capture intermittent activity, thereby limiting its utility as a physical activity criterion. Accordingly, these issues must be taken into account where EE or direct observation are used to validate physical activity instruments. A combination of objective monitoring and direct observation may provide the best standard for the assessment of physical activity measurement tools. Ideally, the convergent validity of various physical activity tools should be investigated to determine the level of agreement between currently available measures. The correlational approaches commonly employed in the assessment of physical activity measures do not reveal this relationship, and can conceal potential bias of either measure.