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Abstract

We assess the relationship among haze-fog, aerosol and meteorological conditions, and analyze the chemical compositions and sources of aerosol particles, as well make some suggestions for aerosol control strategy. Present-day haze and fog in China are both dependent on atmospheric aerosol loading and weather conditions. The secondary aerosol formation and changes, which dominate the total aerosol mass and are highly influenced by meteorological conditions, characterized the regional haze feature in East China. In the Huabei Plain, which suffers from intense haze and fog, secondary organic aerosols are found to have similar role like sulphate, contributing to aerosol mass during both new particle formation and aging stages. The organic aerosol mix with inorganic ones to form hygroscopic particles earlier at ~70% relative humidity (RH), but which have a small hygroscopic growth factor. The hygroscopic aerosol particles would also make the PM 2.5 mass monitoring at China exhibiting unrealistic high concentration under high RH stage. About 70% of these particles are internally mixed with two or three different aerosol components. Most mineral particles are covered with visible coatings, including fly ash, soot and metal particles, leading to have more secondary aerosol formed on their surface. This complicates haze formation in China. Under high aerosol particle concentrations, greater numbers of cloud droplets with relative small-size are observed in low clouds relative to high clouds; and the associated aerosol impact on cloud microphysical processe is different in less polluted areas. At low supersaturation most of hygroscopic particles larger than 150 nm form cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), and the impact of aerosol chemical composition on CCN activation is significant. There is a high aerosol concentration in China relative to other areas in the world, except for urban South Asia. These particles form under complex conditions and interact with clouds, resulting that present-day haze and fog in China both are not natural phenomenon. Haze and fog reduces surface radiation, making the atmosphere more stable, resulting in continuous coagulation, condensation, accumulation of aerosol, and more CCN activation, leading to serious and maintained haze-fog events. The heavy and persistent haze-fog between 6 and 16 January 2013 in East China was caused by both high aerosol loading and singular static weather conditions. We need to have adequate scientific judgment on the complexity and expectation of aerosol emission reduction in China. The government needs to make informed decisions and implement laws to maintain the health of its people, but this is not easy when we strive for economic growth. There is no easy solution to control aerosol sources, but the government should spare no effort to cut aerosol and their precursor's gas emission. Regional pollution control is also very critical; a strong policy and protocol needs to be enforced by the central government to drive provincial leaders to make the necessary changes to ensure better air quality and quality of life for the population.
2013 58 13 期:117 8 ~ 1187
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引用格式: 张小曳, 孙俊英, 王亚强, . 我国雾-霾成因及其治理的思考. 科学通报, 2013, 58: 1178–1187
Zhang X Y, Sun J Y, Wang Y Q, et al. Factors contributing to haze and fog in China (in Chinese). Chin Sci Bull (Chin Ver), 2013, 58: 1178–1187,
doi: 10.1360/972013-150
中国科学杂志社
SCIENCE CHINA PRESS
专题
:
认识雾霾
我国雾-霾成因及其治理的思考
张小曳*, 孙俊英, 王亚强, 李卫军, 张蔷, 王炜罡, 权建农, 曹国良, 王继志,
杨元琴, 张养梅
中国气象局大气化学重点开放实验室, 中国气象科学研究院, 北京 100081;
山东大学环境研究院, 济南 250100;
北京市人工影响天气办公室, 北京 100086;
中国科学院化学研究所, 北京 100190;
西安建筑科技大学环境学院, 西安 710055
* 联系人, E-mail: xiaoye@cams.cma.gov.cn
2013-01-30 收稿, 2013-03-22 接受, 2013-04-09 网络版发表
国家重点基础研究发展计划(2011CB403401)和中国气象科学研究院气溶胶创新团队项目资助
摘要 通过分析雾和霾与气溶胶的联系、维持机制、污染物构成及如何治理等问题, 指出我
国现今雾-霾问题的主因是严重的气溶胶污染, 但气象条件对其形成、分布、维持与变化的作
用显著. 二次气溶胶(通常占我国小于 10 μm气溶胶质量浓度的一半以上)形成与变化受气象
条件影响大, 导致我国霾呈区域性分布的特点. 在我国霾最为严重的华北区域, 新粒子形成
和老化阶段均有有机气溶胶的贡献, 与有机物混合后的气溶胶潮解点提前, 吸湿增长因子变
. 干气溶胶粒子吸湿增长会使在高相对湿度下观测的 PM2.5 质量浓度虚高; 有约 70%
气溶胶粒子与其他类型气溶胶内混合, 高浓度矿物气溶胶与污染气体发生非均相化学反应使
更多二次气溶胶形成, 也使我国雾-霾问题更为复杂. 还发现受气溶胶影响的低云较高云中
云滴数多但有效半径小, 高浓度气溶胶影响的云雾形成机制明显不同于低污染状况, 在低过
饱和条件下大量大于 150 nm 粒子活化为云雾凝结核, 且化学组成对活化有明显影响. 由于我
国气溶胶浓度水平在世界范围内较高, 仅次于南亚城市, 远高于欧洲和美洲的城市与城郊区
, 且具有上述变化特点并与云雾的相互作用复杂, 导致我国当今的雾和霾都已不是完全的
自然现象, 人为气溶胶粒子不仅对霾有贡献, 还作用于云雾的形成. -霾形成后会使到达地
面的辐射减少, 大气层节稳定度增加, 有利于气溶胶不断积聚、凝结和增长, 在达到过饱和状
况下还产生更多云雾滴, 形成恶性循环的持续性雾-. 异常的静稳天气和居高的气溶胶浓
度共同造成了 2013 16~16 日我国中东部大范围、持续性雾-. 对治理雾-霾污染的长
期与艰巨性要有充分的科学判断, 建议政府对能源结构调整作出抉择, 且要不遗余力地对近
期可以削减的污染源加大控制力度. 污染控制需要区域共同参与, 应有国家政策和机制的强
力驱动.
关键词
PM2.5
气溶胶化学组成
污染来源
控制对策
2013 1月多次严重影响我国中东部地区的雾-
霾天气, 2月份依旧来势汹汹, 深锁多城. 到底是
什么形成了雾和霾? 为何雾-霾出现难驱散? 随着人
类活动的加剧, -霾是否也产生了新的变化? 本文
主要基于国家重点基础研究发展计划(973 计划)
国大气气溶胶及其气候效应气溶胶--辐射反馈
1179
过程及其与亚洲季风相互作用的研究在我国气溶胶
各化学成分的浓度及其与全球的对比、新粒子形成、
气溶胶在环境大气中的的转化及变化过程、吸湿增
长、混合和非均相化学反应、活化为云雾凝结核等方
面的研究, 分析和总结了我国雾-霾成因与特点.
通过 2013 16~16 日我国中东部雾-霾期间气象
条件的定量分析, 指出异常的静稳型天气对雾-霾形
成的作用. 通过我国各区域气溶胶化学组成分析,
别是通过解析北京 PM1的来源, 讨论了我国气溶胶
污染控制所可能面临的问题.
1 现今的雾和霾, 都已不是完全的自然现
, 气溶胶污染是背后的主因
雾和霾是自然界两种天气现象. 根据气象学上
的定义[1], 霾是大量极细微的干尘粒等均匀地浮游在
空中, 使水平能见度小于 10 km 的空气普遍混浊现象,
这里的干尘粒指得是干气溶胶粒子. 当空气中水汽
较多时, 某些吸水性强的干气溶胶粒子会吸水、长大,
并最终活化成云雾的凝结核, 产生更多、更小的云雾
, 使能见度进一步降低, 低于 1 km 时被定义为雾,
而能见度在 1~10 km 时则被定义为轻雾.
由于干气溶胶粒子和云雾滴都能影响能见度,
所以, 能见度低于 10 km , 可能既有干气溶胶的影
(即霾的贡献), 也可能有雾滴的影响(即雾的贡献).
霾和雾在一天之中可以变换角色, 甚至在同一区域
内的不同地方, 雾和霾也会有所侧重. 一般情况下,
老百姓看到的我国区域性能见度低于 10 km 的空气
普遍浑浊现象被称为-天气.
没有干气溶胶粒子就不能形成霾, 没有气溶胶
粒子参与在实际大气中也无法形成雾, 在过去, 当人
类活动较弱时, 这些气溶胶粒子主要源于自然过程,
在大气当中被视为背景气溶胶.
但是, 随着人类活动的加剧, 这一现象在我国近
二三十年出现了显著变化. 通过对我国能见度与气
溶胶关系的分析发现, 我国近二三十年中东部区域
霾问题的日益严重, 主要是由人为排放的大气气溶
胶显著增加所致[2]. 在一定的气象条件下, 又由于大
量气溶胶粒子还可以活化为云雾凝结核(CCN)[3,4],
参与云雾的形成. 这就意味着, 当今不论是霾还是雾,
其背后都有大量与人类活动有关的气溶胶粒子参与
(例如: PM2.5), 都已经不是完全的自然现象. 减少雾-
霾天气所带来的影响, 必须对这种变化背后的大气
气溶胶污染给予特别重视.
2 我国雾-霾成因
2.1 -霾加剧与我国居高不下的气溶胶粒子浓
度水平有关
我国气溶胶质量浓度水平在世界范围内较高[2],
其中硫酸盐气溶胶年均浓度在我国城市和城郊区域
分别约为每立方米空气 34 16 μg, 有机碳分别为 30
18 μg, 硝酸盐分别约为 15 8 μg, 铵约为 12 6
μg, 元素碳为 8.6 3.4 μg. 这样的浓度水平仅次于
南亚城市, 而在欧洲的城市和城郊区域, 硫酸盐年均
浓度分别约为每立方米空气 4.7 3.3 μg、有机碳是
6.0 2.8 μg、硝 酸 盐 为 4.1 2.1 μg、铵 为 2.2 1.3
μg元素碳为 3.7 1.3 μg, 均远低于我国[2]. 我国气
溶胶浓度较高与人口众多和经济快速发展导致的人
为污染源排放量大密切相关[5,6].
2.2 二次气溶胶形成与变化受气象条件影响大导
致了我国霾呈区域性分布的特点
在我国 PM10 质量浓度中有约 35%是矿物气溶胶
的贡献, 3.5%为黑碳, 15%为有机碳气溶胶[2],
总有机碳中约有 60%为二次有机碳气溶胶[7], 故一次
排放的有机碳约贡献了 PM10 6%. 由于矿物气溶胶
中的大部分源于自然源并可视为背景气溶胶[8,9],
一次气溶胶粒子通常粒径较大、质量浓度较高, 但数
浓度低, 对霾的贡献有限, 其变化主要受排放强度的
控制[10].
我国陆地众多污染源排放到大气中大量的气
[5,6], 这些气体经过大气化学反应在大气中最终一
部分转化为气溶胶粒子(称为二次气溶胶粒子), 一部
分生成臭氧(因其不影响能见度在雾-霾问题中不做
讨论). 二次气溶胶形成方式主要有 3: 一是直接
从气体变为气溶胶粒子(这些新形成的气溶胶粒子粒
径通常在 30 nm 以下); 二是新粒子形成后通过碰并、
集聚等过程形成一些更大的粒子(粒径通常在
100~200 nm); 三是通过凝结等过程进一步形成一些
粒径更大的粒子(多数在 300 nm, 一般不超过 1000
nm, PM1)[11]. 通过对我国 16 个站点两年的分析发
PM10 质量浓度中有超过 50%是二次气溶胶[2],
北京夏季此比例可达 80%[10]. 除传统研究认识硫酸
盐对新粒子形成有贡献外[12,13], 在我国华北区域观
2013 5 58 13
1180
测发现不论在新粒子形成以及随后的老化阶段二次
有机气溶胶的贡献均很大[14]. 通过对比排放和气象
条件对区域霾形成的贡献, 发现一次排放的气溶胶
与排放强度关系密切, 天气条件却控制着区域中占
多数的二次气溶胶的形成及总体 PM10 的浓度变化,
导致了人们通常看到的雨过天晴后的一两天空气变
得浑浊, 能见度逐渐变差的空气普遍浑浊现象(即霾)
具有跨省、连片的区域性特征[10].
2.3 气溶胶粒子吸湿增长会使观测的不确定性
加大
当空气中水汽较多时, 某些吸水性强的干气溶
胶粒子(硫酸盐、硝酸盐、铵盐和部分可溶性有机气
溶胶)会吸水、长大. 在我国华北区域的观测发现
湿后的气溶胶粒子粒径会增大 20%~60%[15], 使得在
相对湿度大时观测的 PM2.5 质量浓度虚高, 因其不
完全是气溶胶粒子的贡献, 还有水分的影响. 国际气
溶胶科学界在做气溶胶研究时通常是在相对湿度小
40%的状况下监测和对比干气溶胶粒子浓度[16].
通过室内实验研究还发现苯甲酸等芳香类有机物与
无机盐混合的气溶胶可以在相对湿度 70%时就开始
吸湿增长, 但高湿条件下粒子增幅和理论值相比变
[17], 这会导致气溶胶滞空时间加长, 光学特性变
, 使与霾有关的 PM2.5、能见度和气溶胶光学厚度
观测的不确定性加大, 也会影响公众的感觉.
2.4 气溶胶粒子混合与非均相化学反应使雾-
更为复杂
气溶胶粒子在大气中多以混合状态存在, 还会
发生非均相化学反应[18,19]. 对气溶胶单粒子分析发
现我国华北区域中 70%的气溶胶与 2种或 3种其他来
源气溶胶内混合[20]. 低温条件下 O3SO2在矿物气
溶胶表面存在协同效应使二次硫酸盐生成速率随着
温度降低出现先加快后减慢的趋势, 直接影响大气
中二次硫酸盐生成总量[21]. 矿物气溶胶还与 2~3
酸性气体反应, 在表面形成液膜, 抑制了新粒子形成,
但促使更多的硫酸盐和硝酸盐在其表面转化形成[22],
自身也更易吸湿参与云雾形成. 矿物气溶胶因非均
相反应形成的酸性界面还加强了前体物表面吸附和
化学反应易形成更多的二次有机气溶胶, 研究发现
酸性液态表面对气液反应过程有一定的催化作用,
同时氧化剂的存在可以显著地提高反应速率, 促进
二次有机气溶胶的形成[23], 使我国雾-霾问题更为
复杂.
2.5 大量人为气溶胶粒子活化为云雾凝结核使现
今的雾已非完全的自然现象
在大气中相对湿度达到过饱和时一部分气溶胶
粒子会活化为 CCN, 形成云雾滴, 使能见度进一步
降低. 在我国华北区域的飞机观测显示, 因有气溶胶
的作用低云中云滴数多于高云但云滴的有效半径减
, 高浓度气溶胶作用下的云雾形成明显区别于海
洋和污染较少的其他陆地区域[24]. 观测还发现在低
过饱和度(0.1%)条件下大量大于 150 nm 吸湿性粒子
活化为云雾凝结核[3,4], 且不仅气溶胶数谱分布、其化
学组成等对活化也有相对明显的影响[4]. 在泰山观测
到的不同过饱和度下的气溶胶及 CCN 月平均分布
(1)为雾的数值预报提供了输入和检验. 有关分析
方法详述见文献[25].
2.6 -霾还导致大气层节稳定度增加有利其维
持和发展
形成之后的雾-霾会使更多的太阳辐射反-散射
回空间, 使到达地面的辐射减少, 大气层结稳定度增
1 2010 9~10 月在泰山(海拔 1500 m)观测到的月平均气溶胶数(CN)谱和云雾凝结核(CCN)
1181
[26], 使得每日正常排放和二次转化的气溶胶粒子
进一步在近地层大气中集聚、凝结、并形成更多的
云雾滴, 造成能见度进一步降低. 更多云雾滴还会在
一天当中残留与下一天的汇合, 形成恶性循环, 造成
在下一次天气过程之前, 连续数天雾-霾污染维持与
加剧.
2.7 异常的静稳天气和高气溶胶浓度造成了 2013
16~16 日我国中东部持续性雾-霾天气
在一段时期变化不大的气溶胶排放不是 2013
16~16 日形成雾-霾的触发因子, -霾形成与气象
条件密切相关. 以北京为例, 一个表征气象条件是否
有利大气污染形成的污染气象条件指数(Plam)[10,27]
值在 16日凌晨就上跳至 80 左右直到 8日深夜(
2), 预示着气象条件有利于大气气溶胶集聚和凝结.
2008 年奥运前气溶胶污染很严重的 6月份, Plam 指数
平均值也是 80 左右[10]. 2013 19日之后 Plam
数值维持在 110~130 之间长达 5 d 直到 13 日深夜,
14~16 日凌晨之间稍有回落但仍在 80~90 之间,
成近几年少见的静稳型天气. Plam 指数主要基于风
速、风向、相对湿度、大气凝结函数、大气稳定度等
计算得出[10,27]其值越高指示了气象条件越有利于更
多的二次气溶胶形成、集聚、凝结和变化, 可视为定
量反映静稳型天气程度的污染气象条件的指数.
在较干净天气下 Plam 值通常在 40 以下, Plam 指数超
80 易出现雾-霾天气[10].
对比 2013 16~16 日之前和期间的欧亚地区
地面天气图(3), 发现持续性雾-霾期间的气象条件
与前期最大的不同是中纬度地区经向型环流较弱,
13 8时的天气图上(3(b))看不到明显的冷空气
主体, 而南方暖湿气流相对增强, 我国中东部地区处
于弱的均压区, 大气层结稳定、静风或风力小. 而前
期这些地区的降水有利于地面浅层水汽蒸发, 使近
地面空气的相对湿度加大、湿空气饱和凝结, 有利于
-霾天气的形成.
在异常的静稳型天气和高气溶胶浓度的共同作
用下, 2013 16~16 日我国中东部 PM2.5 质量浓度
平均值远高于前期(4). 对于北京而言, 特殊的地
理条件(西北多山, 无风条件下不利于污染物扩散)
区域污染物输送也对此次雾-霾有所贡献.
2 2013 11日北京时间 24:00 , 3小时北京的 Plam 指数值变化
3 欧亚地区地面天气图
(a) 2013 12日北京时间 08 ; (b) 2013 113 08 . 图中蓝线为等压线, D 代表低气压, G 代表高气压
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4 2013 11~5 日和 6~16 日中国气象局大气成分观测网-CAWNET 获得的 PM2.5 质量浓度(µg m3)平均值对比
3 我国大气气溶胶的化学组成和来源及控
制对策思考
3.1 我国不同区域气溶胶化学组成
() 整体状况及矿物气溶胶. 2006 2007
年在我国 16 个观测站、31次、24 小时干 PM10
滤膜气溶胶样品的分析发现(5), 矿物气溶胶(包括
沙尘、城市逸散性粉尘和煤烟尘等)是中国大气气溶
(PM10)中含量最大的组分, 约占 35%. 在西北地区,
这一比例高达 50%~60%, 在位于四川盆地的成都、
湖北金沙、广东番禺、河北固城和浙江临安等地,
物气溶胶所占比例也在 35%~40%之间. 硫酸盐和有
机碳气溶胶(OC)是另外两个含量较大组分, 分别约
15%. 3类气溶胶贡献了我国 PM10 质量浓度的
70%. 硝酸盐约占 7%, 铵盐除了在中国西北沙漠
区域和青藏高原只占约 0.5%, 在其他地区所占的
比例约为 5%, 元素碳气溶胶(也被称为黑碳)只占约
3.5%.
() 硫酸盐气溶胶. 在我国西部人类活动较少
的区域(例如西北沙漠边缘的敦煌站和青藏高原的拉
萨站), 硫酸盐的比例最低(4%~6%), 表明燃煤污染
, 在这些站点硫酸盐浓度水平通常在 2~10 µg m3
之间, 其中拉萨的硫酸盐浓度约在 2~3 µg m3之间.
在我国其他区域硫酸盐的比例在 10%~20%之间变动,
城市站硫酸盐浓度较高的包括郑州(43.9~46.3 µg
m3)、西安(46~48 µg m3)、成都(38~42 µg m3)、河
北固城(35 µg m3)和广东番禺(25~28 µg m3).
国城市大气中硫酸盐浓度较高与我国能源结构中煤
一直占有超过 70%的比例有关, 燃煤源是中国区域
性雾-霾天气形成的一个主要的贡献者. 在我国遥远
背景站硫酸盐所占 PM10 比例最大, 例如在我国最西
北的阿克达拉本底站硫酸盐占 28%, 在西南海拔
3583 m 的香格里拉本底站为 20% (5), 这与这些站
点气溶胶总体浓度低, 矿物气溶胶份额不大有关.
() 碳气溶胶. 包括有机碳和元素碳气溶胶两
. 有机碳在遥远背景站点和人类活动较少的区域
站点所占比例较大(5), 例如在阿克达拉、香格里
拉、拉萨、敦煌、龙凤山有机碳所占比例一般都超过
20%, 在香格里拉甚至高达 37%, 除了与这些区域其
1183
5 中国气象局大气成分观测网-CAWNET 在我国不同区域的站点 PM10 中各化学组成所占比例
中间是观测站点分布图及 9个我国霾的分布区域, 其中红圈划出的是我国 4个最严重的霾分布区[2]
他类型气溶胶相对较少有关外, 生物质燃烧和植物
自然释放对有机碳气溶胶的贡献也起了很大作用.
元素碳气溶胶所占的比例在我国各个区域变化不大,
通常在 2%~5%之间. 碳气溶胶除了源于生物质燃烧
, 燃煤和燃油的贡献也很大[5].
() 硝酸盐气溶胶. 与硫酸盐类似, 在敦煌和
拉萨硝酸盐所占比例很小, 分别为 1%3%, 表明燃
煤和源于机动车的燃油排放贡献小. 在我国其他区
域硝酸所占比例在 5%~9%之间. 我国城市中浓度较
大的出现在郑州、西安和河北固城(17.0~23.9 µg m3),
成都、广东番禺和大连的浓度在 10~16 µg m3之间.
城市大气中的 NOx多来自人类活动使用的化石燃料
燃烧, 如汽车等流动源、工业窑炉等固定源. 由于近
几十年中国经济的高速发展, 化石燃料的用量连年
攀升, 使得 NOx等污染物的排放量也在逐年升高[28],
虽然环境保护部在新建电厂推广低氮燃烧技术”(
制燃烧温度, 降低 NOx的生成量), 但多数城市还没
有完全实现燃煤脱氮, 加之各大城市机动车保有量
不断上升, 导致了我国硝酸盐气溶胶浓度也较高.
() . 在我国西部人类活动较少区域(例如
敦煌、拉萨、香格里拉、阿克达拉和皋兰山)铵的比
例通常低于 5%, 与这些区域氨气排放少, 大气中硫
酸根也少有关, 在我国其他区域铵的比例一般在
5%~6%之间. 我国城市大气中铵的浓度也相对较高,
这与我国大城市人口众多和废物处置量大[5], 以及城
市大气中较高的硫酸盐和硝酸盐浓度水平, 以及较
2013 5 58 13
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高的大气氧化能力有关[10].
估算出的中国地区 NH3的主要排放源是废物处
(9672.1 Gg)和农业过程排放(3622.5 Gg). 其中,
于大牲畜牛(18.5%)、猪(14.0%)及数量众多的家禽
(16.2%)和农田施用氮肥后土壤的排放量(12.9%)
[5]. 由于 NH3主要来源于农业过程和动物排放的有
机质分解, 故中国地区 NH3的排放强度分布和其他
主要源于燃烧过程的污染物情况稍有不同, NH3
排放量较大的分别是山东、河南、四川、河北等省,
和上述地区的家禽和家畜饲养量高, 农田面积较大
及化肥施用量也较高有关, 这也就是为什么这些区
域站点的铵浓度较大的原因(郑州(16.6 µg m3)、成 都
(12.9 µg m3)、固城(13.2 µg m3)). 我国西部地区和
海南的排放量则相对较小.
3.2 我国背景气溶胶(主要是矿物气溶胶)浓度与
欧美城市总体气溶胶浓度水平相当
总体而言, 我国气溶胶浓度水平较高, 与硫酸
盐、有机碳、元素碳、硝酸盐和铵有关的污染源主要
可归为 3大类: 一是燃煤, 二是燃油, 三是与居民的
各项活动有关的排放. 维持现有经济发展和社会活
动要削减哪个来源都不是件轻松的事情.
特别需要提及的是在亚洲大陆, 尤其是在我国
仅矿物气溶胶的质量浓度就与欧美国家城市区域气
溶胶总和相当或更高[2]. 在我国华北城市和西北城郊
区域其质量浓度年平均值为每立方米空气中 80~85
μg, 从包括长三角的南方城市区域到东部和东北部
的城郊区域, 矿物气溶胶浓度下降, 但也在 20~40 μg
之间, 这持续且动态拉高了我国大气气溶胶的背景
浓度. 在欧美和东亚到东南亚城市区域矿物气溶胶
的质量浓度通常在 10~20 μg之间, 在其城郊区域质
量浓度一般在 10 μg以下, 远低于我国. 由于矿物气
溶胶和污染气体可以发生非均相化学反应, 使我国
的雾-霾问题变得复杂, 加之其贡献出较高的背景气
溶胶浓度, 指示出对我国污染控制的效果人们应有
充分的心理预期[29].
3.3 我国大城市污染源解析: 以北京 PM1的来源
解析为例
我国大城市气溶胶污染如何控制, 是全国污染
控制的关键, 对其来源的解析是基础. 以北京为
[29], 北京 PM2.5 中大多是直径小于 1 μm (也称为
PM1)的粒子, 其中最大的组分为有机碳气溶胶,
40%, 排在第二的组分是硫酸盐气溶胶, 16%,
主要来自燃煤. 第三大组分为硝酸盐气溶胶, 约占
13%, 即有机动车燃油的贡献, 也有燃煤的影响.
要来自城市居民活动和城郊农业等排放的氨气也很
容易形成更多的硫酸盐和硝酸盐. 北京 PM1中还有
一个占 11%的组分即元素碳, 它与有机碳的来源基
本一致. 来自城市道路开挖、未覆盖道路、建筑工地、
工业烟尘和城市外矿物粉尘的输入, 北京大气中还
有大量矿物气溶胶粒子, 主要分布在 2.5~40 μm粒径
之间, PM1中也有约 7%源于矿物气溶胶.
基于排放源清单[5]对上述各种化学组分来源的
分析显示, 北京 PM1中来自工业燃煤和生活燃煤的
排放各贡献约 18%14%, 机动车贡献了 23%, 居民
日常生活及其他活动占了约 19%(6), 它们是北京
细气溶胶污染最重要的来源, 包括煤炭燃烧、汽车和
工业燃油排放, 加油、装修和油漆涂料使用过程中的
排放, 还有大量来自燃烧天然气的贡献. 生物质作为
燃料和在露天的燃烧也贡献了约 4%, 其他的工业
活动贡献了约 3%, 还有约 7%来自矿物气溶胶粒子
贡献.
3.4 对我国燃煤、燃油和与居民生活密切相关的
各种污染源控制的长期和艰巨性应有充分的
科学判断
和全国情况类似, 北京的气溶胶污染源归根到
6 北京 PM1来源
1185
底也为 3: 一是燃煤; 二是燃油; 三是与居民的各
项活动有关的排放. 对于燃煤源的削减关键是调整
能源结构, 我国现今一次性能源消费的 70%以上仍
靠煤炭, 2050 年的测算显示到时仍有 50%的一次
能源消费来自煤炭, 调整能源结构需要政府抉择、
任重道远. 节能降耗是建议立即采取和常抓不懈的
措施.
削减燃油排放控制机动车的排放是关键, 除了
可削减其自身的排放物外, 还可以极大地减弱大气
氧化性, 减少二次气溶胶粒子的形成. 但我国机动车
保有量仍在攀升, 机动车使用确实为居民生活和经
济发展带来诸多益处, 大幅削减机动车需要综合的
政策调整, 因素错综复杂. 控制机动车保有量大幅增
, 提高油品质量、调高机动车排放标准、提高长时
间商业运营车辆的档次减少其排放、加快淘汰和
换代老旧车辆、不断发展公共交通是当今可以采取的
措施.
控制与居民生活紧密相关的各种污染源排放更
是长期的挑战. 机动车燃油排放以及燃煤排放中生
活和商用燃煤排放都与居民的活动息息相关, 此外
建筑用和居民用油漆、装修、汽车加油过程、城市垃
圾处理和居民做饭等都涉及居民的活动. 我国北京、
上海、广州这些拥有上千万人口的超大城市, 以及伴
随着城市化进程发展的中小城市居民活动持续增加,
这些都给污染控制带来巨大挑战.
综上所述, 对我国大气污染治理的长期性和
艰巨性要有充分的科学判断. 由于我国矿物气溶胶
本底浓度与欧美国家城市区域气溶胶总和相当或更
, 应理解即使我国的控制措施百分之百实现, 也很
难稳定地达到欧美国家的空气质量水平, 及时制定
适用于我国人群及健康的 PM2.5 空气质量标准也很
重要.
3.5 除细气溶胶粒子之外, 对直径为 2.5~10 μm
甚至更大气溶胶粒子的控制也不容忽视
与城市逸散性粉尘有关的排放源, 主要是煤烟
尘及城市本身的建筑工地、未覆盖道路、道路开挖没
有及时回填、道路没有及时清扫产生的矿物气溶胶,
以及我国因地处亚洲并接近亚洲粉尘源区, 来自
城市之外输入的矿物粉尘, 都对我国城市的矿物气
溶胶有所贡献[2], 这要求对粗粒子的控制力度也不能
放松.
3.6 污染控制要区域共同参与, 要有国家政策和
机制的强力驱动
我国的霾主要分布在 9个区域[2], 在这些区域中
能见度变化较为类似、污染物相互传输, 其中有 4
是区域性霾问题最大的区域(见图 5中心站点分布图
红圈所示): (1) 华北平原, 包括京-津快速发展的经
济区以及河北、山东、河南. 关中平原因能见度变化
类似也归在此区; (2) 华东区域, 以长三角快速发展
的经济区为主体, 涵盖湖北、安徽、江苏、上海和浙
; (3) 华南区域, 以珠三角快速发展的经济区为主
, 包括广东和广西; (4) 西南区域, 主要是四川盆
. 对于雾-霾背后的大气气溶胶污染控制需要区域
各省共同参与才能真正奏效, 区域联合防治是相对
成本低, 环境收益大的举措.
以燃煤控制为例, 北京经过数轮大气污染治理,
大型的燃煤工业点源脱硫、脱硝已经走在全国前列,
商业用煤基本已被天然气替代, 利用优质煤炭集中
供暖和采用天然气供暖也走在全国前列, 对还残存
的工业、商业和居民燃煤排放的控制处于挖潜和攻坚
阶段. 而北京以南的天津每年的燃煤量约为北京的 3
倍、河北约是北京的 10 , 这些省市还包括山东和
河南的污染控制措施需要进一步加大, 只有这样才
能从根本上改善一个区域的空气质量和减少雾-霾天
. 国家对各省主要领导人政绩考核指标调整, 以及
各省经济发展方式转变的政策和机制是有效实现区
域联控的关键, 建议将 PM2.5 控制纳入省、市领导人
考核的约束性指标. 政府部门、科研院所、企业乃至
全社会力量的共同参与也至关重要.
4 结语
建议科学界广泛开展科普宣传, 让公众充分了
解雾-霾污染背后的科学规律, 政府要不遗余力地加
大污染源控制和削减工作, 并做好雾-霾天气的预报,
全社会不惊慌、不泄气、齐努力来应对当今已经有大
量污染物参与的雾-霾天气.
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Factors contributing to haze and fog in China
ZHANG XiaoYe1, SUN JunYing1, WANG YaQiang1, LI WeiJun2, ZHANG Qiang3,
WANG WeiGang4, QUAN JianNong3, CAO GuoLiang5, WANG JiZhi1,
YANG YuanQin1 & ZHANG YangMei1
1 Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China;
2 Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China;
3 Beijing Weather Modification Office, Beijing 100086, China;
4 Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China;
5 School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi’an 710055, China
We assess the relationship among haze-fog, aerosol and meteorological conditions, and analyze the chemical compositions and sources
of aerosol particles, as well make some suggestions for aerosol control strategy. Present-day haze and fog in China are both dependent
on atmospheric aerosol loading and weather conditions. The secondary aerosol formation and changes, which dominate the total
aerosol mass and are highly influenced by meteorological conditions, characterized the regional haze feature in East China. In the
Huabei Plain, which suffers from intense haze and fog, secondary organic aerosols are found to have similar role like sulphate,
contributing to aerosol mass during both new particle formation and aging stages. The organic aerosol mix with inorganic ones to form
hygroscopic particles earlier at ~70% relative humidity (RH), but which have a small hygroscopic growth factor. The hygroscopic
aerosol particles would also make the PM2.5 mass monitoring at China exhibiting unrealistic high concentration under high RH stage.
About 70% of these particles are internally mixed with two or three different aerosol components. Most mineral particles are covered
with visible coatings, including fly ash, soot and metal particles, leading to have more secondary aerosol formed on their surface. This
complicates haze formation in China. Under high aerosol particle concentrations, greater numbers of cloud droplets with relative
small-size are observed in low clouds relative to high clouds; and the associated aerosol impact on cloud microphysical processe is
different in less polluted areas. At low supersaturation most of hygroscopic particles larger than 150 nm form cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN), and the impact of aerosol chemical composition on CCN activation is significant. There is a high aerosol concentration
in China relative to other areas in the world, except for urban South Asia. These particles form under complex conditions and interact
with clouds, resulting that present-day haze and fog in China both are not natural phenomenon. Haze and fog reduces surface radiation,
making the atmosphere more stable, resulting in continuous coagulation, condensation, accumulation of aerosol, and more CCN
activation, leading to serious and maintained haze-fog events. The heavy and persistent haze-fog between 6 and 16 January 2013 in
East China was caused by both high aerosol loading and singular static weather conditions. We need to have adequate scientific
judgment on the complexity and expectation of aerosol emission reduction in China. The government needs to make informed
decisions and implement laws to maintain the health of its people, but this is not easy when we strive for economic growth. There is no
easy solution to control aerosol sources, but the government should spare no effort to cut aerosol and their precursor’s gas emission.
Regional pollution control is also very critical; a strong policy and protocol needs to be enforced by the central government to drive
provincial leaders to make the necessary changes to ensure better air quality and quality of life for the population.
haze, fog, PM2.5, aerosol chemical composition, sources of aerosol, control
doi: 10.1360/972013-150
... The SCB is one of the most populated and geographically complex regions in China, and is one of the four regions with the most serious regional air pollution in China (Zhang et al., 2013). Compared to other regions, most of the pollutants that cause HP come from within the basin due to the special terrain features . ...
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... Concentrated urban distribution, large population density, and an extensive economy and energy consumption structure dominated by fossil fuels in the Sichuan Basin ( Figure 1) lead to large primary pollutant emissions, and aerosol optical depth (AOD) has remained at a high level for a long time [33]. The SCB is one of the four regions with the most serious air pollution in China [34]. The annual AOD from 1980-2016 showed a significant upward trend located in the SCB compared to the significant downward trends observed in the whole of Europe and the eastern United States [35]. ...
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