Fig. 2. A typical example of the solar-energy facility system adopted in the cold northwest of China, with (A) individual solar-energy house units in a clustered facility, and (B) the south-facing roof covered with transparent plastic film, trenches for plants mulched with plastic film, and the north wall built with stones

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From Jianming Xie, Jihua Yu, Baihong Chen, Zhi Feng, Jie Li, Cai Zhao, Jian Lyu, Linli Hu, Yantai Gan
and Kadambot H.M. Siddique, Facility Cultivation Systems “设施农业”: A Chinese Model for the Planet.
In: Donald L. Sparks, editor, Advances in Agronomy, Vol. 145, Burlington: Academic Press, 2017,
pp. 1-42.
ISBN: 978-0-12-812417-8
© Copyright 2017 Elsevier Inc.
Academic Press
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Not for reproduction, distribution or commercial use.

CHAPTER ONE
Facility Cultivation Systems
“设施农业”: A Chinese Model for
the Planet
Jianming Xie*, Jihua Yu*
,1
, Baihong Chen*, Zhi Feng*, Jie Li
†
,
Cai Zhao
‡,§
, Jian Lyu*, Linli Hu*, Yantai Gan
¶
,
Kadambot H.M. Siddique
k
*College of Horticulture, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
†
College of Life Science and Technology, Honghe University, Honghe, Yunnan, China
‡
Key Lab of Aridland Crop Science of Gansu Province, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
§
College of Agronomy, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
¶
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Swift Current Research and Development Centre, Swift Current,
SK, Canada
k
The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
1
Corresponding author: e-mail address: yujihua@gsau.edu.cn
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. Concept and Definition 4
3. Infrastructure 5
3.1 Roof Structure 7
3.2 North Wall 7
4. Heat Storage and Release 9
4.1 Color Plates (Films) Systems 10
4.2 Shallow Soil Systems 10
4.3 Radiation on the Ground 11
4.4 Water-Heat Pumping Systems 11
5. Seedbed Preparation and Fertigation 12
5.1 Drip Irrigation 13
5.2 A“Closed”Fertigation System 15
5.3 Use of Organic Manures and Amendment 15
6. Supplemental Lighting 16
7. Monitoring and Controlling Systems 17
7.1 Monitoring Microclimates Within Each House 17
7.2 Centralized Controlling System for the Clustered Facility 18
8. Main Characteristics 18
8.1 Exploration of Locally Available Resources 19
8.2 Increased Water Productivity 19
8.3 Reduced Environmental Footprints 25
8.4 Enhanced Ecological and Socioeconomic Benefits 25
Advances in Agronomy, Volume 145 #2017 Elsevier Inc.
ISSN 0065-2113 All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2017.05.005
1
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9. Current Issues/Problems and Suggested Research 27
9.1 Structure Stability and Durability 27
9.2 Fertility and Environmental Concerns 28
9.3 Long-Term Stability of Soil Fertility 30
9.4 Life-Cycle Assessment 31
9.5 Plant Pests 31
9.6 Heavy Metals 33
9.7 Phthalate Esters 34
10. Conclusions 35
Acknowledgments 36
References 37
Abstract
One of the greatest challenges in highly populated countries such as China and India is
how to secure food supplies for the ever-growing human population. Farmland for
agriculture has been declining due to fast urbanization that competes for land availabil-
ity between agriculture and other economic sectors. In many arid regions such as north-
west China, there are vast areas of nonarable or barren land. An overwhelming question
is: can those nonarable or barren lands be used for cultivating crops for human food?
Through a series of experimentation over years, an innovative cultivation system has
been developed recently in China where clustered solar-energy, plastic-roofed,
engineered facilities are built on nonarable to produce fresh vegetables year round, sea-
son after season. This cultivation system is called “facility agriculture,”“she-shi nongye”in
Chinese pinyin or 设施农业in Chinese characters. Using the facility cultivation system
adopted in the northwest areas of China as an example, we provide readers with a gen-
eral sense of the concept and definition of the “Made-in-China”cultivation system. We
highlight recent developments in infrastructure and design, features and functionality,
and vision and potential. We discuss some of the key scientific findings on the long-term
viability and sustainability of this unique agricultural model. This industry is still in its
infancy, so we cover some issues and problems facing the industry and suggest some
key research areas for the near future. In 2014, the cropping area using the facility cul-
tivation system reached 4.1 million ha, producing about 85% of all vegetables con-
sumed in China and creating about 70 million jobs for rural communities. Thus, this
industry has a vital role in ensuring food security while enhancing socioecological sus-
tainability. The facility cultivation system is considered a revolution in Chinese agricul-
tural history. We believe that this system has the potential to be adopted in other
countries.
1. INTRODUCTION
In highly populated countries such as China, India, and some African
regions, a large part of the rural population lives on small-scale, self-sufficient
family farms (Verschelde et al., 2013). These small farms produce most of the
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food for the respective local markets (FAOSTAT, 2014). In recent years,
however, the quality of the farmland has been deteriorating (Fergusson,
2013) due to intensified cropping and/or poor land management
(Powlson et al., 2011). Crop yields have either reached a plateau or are
declining. An added pressure is the rapid urbanization that increases compe-
tition for land use between agriculture and other economic sectors. Thus,
small farms are facing the unprecedented challenge of producing sufficient
quantities of food to satisfy the needs of the ever-increasing population with
less land availability.
An innovative agricultural system has been developed in China that uses
the marginal, barren, or nonarable land to produce high-quality foods. The
fast-evolving cultivation system is called “facility agriculture.” In Chinese
pinyin, it is known as “she-shi nongye” or 设施农业in Chinese characters.
Solar energy is the only energy source in the facility system even in the cold
winter. Based on the concept of circular agriculture, the facility cultivation
makes a full use of crop residues, livestock and poultry manures, and other
agricultural waste to manufacture cultural substrates that are used for crop
cultivation. The facility system is highly productive and profitable (Zhang
et al., 2015), and playing a vital role in ensuring food security and enhancing
socioecological sustainability. In northern China, for example, the facility
cultivation system uses about 15% of the marginal land to generate about
12 million jobs and 30% of agricultural increment income (Yang et al.,
2016). The facility system is considered a revolution in Chinese agricultural
history, and we believe that this system has the potential to be adopted in
other countries. There are vast areas of marginal, barren, or nonarable land
in many arid zones on the planet that could use this system, such as north-
west China (Yang et al., 2016), northern Kazakhstan (Schnittler, 2001),
northern Australia (Smith, 2014), and Africa (Pearson, 2006). Historically,
maintaining vegetation and ecological function on barren land has been a
huge challenge, let alone any attempt to produce nutritious food for
human needs. This innovative system may start to fill this gap.
In this review, we use the facility cultivation system adopted in the cold
northwest areas of China as an example to provide readers with a general
sense of the concept and definition of the “Made-in-China” cultivation sys-
tem. We highlight recent developments in infrastructure and design, features
and functionality, and vision and potential. We discuss some of the key sci-
entific findings on the long-term viability and sustainability of this unique
agricultural model. This industry is still in its infancy, so we cover some
issues and problems facing the industry and suggest some key research areas
for the future.
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2. CONCEPT AND DEFINITION
We define the facility system as “A cultivation system with a cluster of
locally constructed, solar-powered plastic greenhouse-like cultivation units
for the production of high-yielding, high-quality fresh produce (vegetables,
fruits, and ornamentals) in an effective, efficient, and economical manner.”
This definition emphasizes that (i) the individual cultivation units are
“clustered” in the same facility landscape at a manageable scale, (ii) solar
is the only energy source supplied to the individual house units of the clus-
tered facility, (iii) the system is established on nonarable or barren land where
traditional agriculture is not possible, and (iv) the greenhouse-like facilities
are constructed using materials that are often available locally (detailed in
Section 8.1). A typical cluster comprises individually operated solar-energy
house units, with all units connected to a centralized controlling center
(Fig. 1). Each house unit is powered by solar energy without any additional
Drip irrigation
Water
reservoir
Water
meter
Hydro
valve
Hydro
valve
Centralized
control center
Outdoor weather
station
Individual
solar house
Monitoring
meters
Data
transmission
Water
source
Water
pump
Fig. 1 A typical facility cultivation system where individual cultivation house units are
connected to a centralized controlling center. Each house unit is powered by solar
energy only without additional supply of industrial power even during the cold winters.
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supply of industrial power even during the cold winter. Notably, the facility
system is distinct from conventional, sophisticated greenhouses, glasshouses,
or plant factories.
Many scholars have attempted to define the facility cultivation system.
Some define it as “protected agriculture” (Teng et al., 2016), “protected
cultivation” (Kang et al., 2013), or “solar greenhouse production systems”
(Song et al., 2012), while others define the system as “controlled-
environment agriculture” (Sharan, 2009), “industrialized agriculture”
(Shao and Ran, 2010), or “modern industrialized viticulture” (Thomas,
2010). A lack of a generalized, scientific definition has encouraged some
researchers to call this system “Chinese solar greenhouses” (Tong et al.,
2014), “sunken solar greenhouse” (Huang et al., 2013), or “Chinese
energy-saving solar greenhouse” (Sun et al., 2013b). These latter defini-
tions, albeit sharing some similar concepts, do not capture the uniqueness
of the system.
Our definition is based on an in-depth review of more than 168 recently
published articles both in English and Chinese on this subject. We intend to
describe the system in a more scientific and precise manner. The large var-
iation in defining facility cultivation systems is because (i) this industry is
evolving rapidly, so a concrete definition is yet to be developed, and
(ii) the scope, advantages and disadvantages, and issues and problems asso-
ciated with facility systems are not clearly understood. By integrating several
sources of information, we have identified the following key components of
the facility cultivation system: (i) infrastructure and functionality of the clus-
tered facility, (ii) microclimate conditions within each individual house unit,
such as heat storage and release, seedbed preparation, and monitoring and
controlling systems, (iii) quantity and quality, and timing and marketing
of the products produced in the facility, and (iv) the effects on ecological
viability and socioeconomic sustainability.
3. INFRASTRUCTURE
The most important component in the facility system is the infra-
structure of the individual solar-energy house units that are connected
to the centralized controlling center (Fig. 1). There are some “models”
of clustered facilities reported in the literature, with some more advanta-
geous than others in terms of features and functionalities. A typical exam-
ple of the clustered facility adopted in the cold northwest is shown in
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Fig. 2 where a number of individual house units are clustered together
(Fig. 2A). Each house unit is east–west oriented with the south-facing
roof covered with transparent thermal plastic film and with a solid north
wall (Fig. 2B). Straw mats or thermal insulation blankets are spread over
the roof during the night in winter (December–February) to maintain the
internal temperature.
Each unit has an internal thermal environment, independent from the
other units. The building span and height directly influence the light pen-
etration into the unit (Fig. 2B). The south roof shape influences the amount
of beam radiation, while the thickness and configuration of the north wall
influence the solar-energy storage during the day and release during the
Fig. 2 A typical example of the solar-energy facility system adopted in the cold north-
west of China, with (A) individual solar-energy house units in a clustered facility, and
(B) the south-facing roof covered with transparent plastic film, trenches for plants
mulched with plastic film, and the north wall built with stones.
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night. The interior temperature during the day is adjusted using a narrow
ventilation system installed on the roof.
The specifics of the house units play a unique role in maximizing solar
energy penetration to the unit (Tong et al., 2013). Below, we highlight the
two most important components of a house unit: (i) roof structure and
(ii) north wall.
3.1 Roof Structure
An individual house unit in a clustered facility comprises an arched roof with
a span ranging from 60 to 100 m long, 8 to 10 m wide, and 4 to 5 m high
(Fig. 3). The north wall is usually constructed using stones and soil (Fig. 3A
and B). The house unit is supported by a steel frame covered with fog-
resistant plastic films (ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 mm in thickness). The
south-facing roof has an appropriate angle, enabling the best performance
of light transmittance during the day (Fig. 3A). A tilting roof with adjustable
tilt angle improves the efficiency of energy absorption and utilization (Zhang
et al., 2014). In the tilting roof structure, the inclination of the roof angle can
be adjusted during the day for different climatic conditions. The dip angle of
the tilting roof can be adjusted to match solar altitudes. During the night,
heat curtains (usually made from straw mats or clothing materials) are rolled
over the roof to help maintain temperature (Fig. 3B).
The mechanical behavior of the plastic film, such as thickness and span,
elastic modulus and pretension, and load on the structure, all have a direct or
indirect impact on light penetration. The film behavior also affects the tol-
erance (withstanding) to wind, snow, and hail. The film dimension (length,
width, and thickness) is a key factor affecting load-bearing properties, dura-
bility, and function appropriation (Ding et al., 2013). A film that is 0.2 mm
thick can prevent disasters caused by heavy hail or snow falling on the roof,
while high film tension is required for wind resistance.
3.2 North Wall
The structure of the north wall influences the temperature inside the house
unit. Wall temperatures decrease from the inner to outer layers of the wall.
On a normal day, heat flux decreases gradually from the inner to the outer
layers, and the heat in the outer layers mainly releases to the outside of the
house unit.
Depending on the availability of materials at local sites, the north wall can
be built with various materials, such as clay bricks (Wang et al., 2014a), crop
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straw mixed with cohesive materials (Wang et al., 2011a), common bricks
with styrofoam outside (Xu et al., 2013b), fly ash air block bricks (Xu et al.,
2013b), clay blocks mixed with cement mortar (Chen et al., 2012), rammed
earth wall (Guan et al., 2013), or raw soil incorporated with concrete blocks
(see also Section 8.1). The north wall is usually insulated with one or two
layers of plastic film insulation (Tong et al., 2014). Heat storage efficiency
of the north wall is related to the thermal properties of the wall. For example,
Heat curtain
(A)
(B)
Reflection
Solar radiation
Back roof
3:1 marl
Crop straw
Plastic film
Straw mat
Cover material
Plants
Soil
Air
Thermal
dissipation
Back
roof Cover
material
Plants
10.0 m
Soil
1.5 m3.0 m
1.0 m
42°
2.4 m
2.0 m
3.3 m
5.1 m
Thermal insulation
Packing
layer Walkway
North wall
Fig. 3 A diagram of a section of the cultivation house unit in the clustered facility with
(A) the south-facing roof having an appropriate angle, enabling the best performance of
light transmittance in daytime, and (B) the heat curtains (straw mats or clothing blan-
kets) rolled down the roof to maintain the inside temperature at night.
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a north wall built with clay bricks (0.6 m thick) insulated with polystyrene
boards (0.1 m thick) performed similarly to a soil wall (3.0 m thick); both
have greater heat absorption and storage than a wall made using hollow con-
crete blocks (Wang et al., 2014a). In areas where barren land or raw soil is
available at the local site, the soil wall is most popular because of little cost
and easy to build. In northern China, about 95% of the house units in the
facility system have solid soil walls (Zhang et al., 2013).
A typical soil wall is conceptually divided into three layers from inner to
outer (Wang et al., 2014a): energy-storing layer (inner layer), thermal tran-
sitional layer (middle layer), and thermal insulating layer (outside layer).
A thicker thermal transitional layer increases the stability of heat supply to
the house during the night (Zhang et al., 2013). It has been suggested that
the north wall should be constructed using “phase-change material” to opti-
mize heat storage and exchange (Guan et al., 2012). For example, mixing
paraffin with N-butyl stearate (5:5 w/w), a phase-change compound mate-
rial absorbed by rice husk, increased the air temperature inside the house and
decreased the temperature fluctuation compared with the reference unit
built with bricks (Wang et al., 2011a). In this case study, the lowest air tem-
perature in the unit built with the phase-change materials was 1.7°C higher
than the unit built with bricks, and the highest air temperature in the exper-
imental unit was 2.4°C lower than that in the reference unit. This suggests
that the north wall built with phase-change materials can reduce the tem-
perature fluctuation, beneficial to plant growth in the winter growing
season.
4. HEAT STORAGE AND RELEASE
Solar radiation is absorbed by the north wall during the day and
released during the night. Excess incoming heat on a clear day around noon
may damage plant growth, while insufficient thermal conductivity on the
north wall will make it hard to maintain the inside temperature at night
(Wang et al., 2014b). During the cold winter in northwest China, limited
thermal and heat capacity, insufficient heat energy accumulation and stor-
age, and the slow heat-releasing capacity of the north wall present challenges
for maintaining the unit temperature at night. Therefore, some heat storage-
releasing systems are necessary to provide supplementary heat to plants
during the night (Yang et al., 2014a). Such a system enables unused energy
during the day to become an active energy source during the night. Various
types of heat storage-releasing systems have been researched in recent years,
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such as an underground rock-bed (K€urkl€u et al., 2003), phase-change mate-
rials for the north wall (Li et al., 2014), thermal mass storage with water sur-
face (Fang et al., 2014), a shallow ground-sourced heating system (Fang
et al., 2012), and a water-heat pumping system (Sun et al., 2013a). Some
of the heat storage-releasing systems commonly used in northwest China
are highlighted below.
4.1 Color Plates (Films) Systems
The efficiency of the heat storage-releasing function can be improved by
including double layers of black plastic film fixed on the north wall
(Yang et al., 2014a) or by installing heat-preserving color plates on the roof
(Sun et al., 2013b) along with the associated water tanks in the house unit.
During the day, the solar energy reaching the black plastic film or the color
plates is partly absorbed by water which is flowing through the bottom of the
wall, and this heat is transferred and stored in the water. During the night,
the heat is released into the house by circulating the warm water from the
water tank through preinstalled surface-open pipes in the house unit. Yang
et al. (2014a) found that the water tanks absorbed 68% of the solar energy
from the north wall, and about 65% of the stored heat in the system was
released during the night. This system helped increase inside air temperature
by 4.8°C compared to reference house unit. Those studies show that the
surface water storage-releasing system is simple to use, inexpensive to install,
and highly effective for increasing the night air temperature in facility cul-
tivation systems.
4.2 Shallow Soil Systems
In some areas, a heat storage-releasing system is established with shallow soil
(usually 0.6 m deep). During the day, the preinstalled heat storage device
absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat to the shallow soil. At night,
when the air temperature in the house drops to a low level, the heat is trans-
ferred from the shallow soil to the air. Furthermore, the shallow soil system
can be used to store the heat in noncropping periods (between cultivation
seasons) and release in the following cultivation period. In this system, ther-
mal energy is delivered by the heat exchange tubes (such as U-tube heat
exchangers) that are installed on the bare soil prior to planting crops. In a
case study, this heat storage-releasing could maintain the interior air temper-
ature 13°C higher than the outside temperature at night (2°C)
(Xu et al., 2014).
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4.3 Radiation on the Ground
In the solar-energy facility, both the north wall and ground surface serve as
recipients of the solar radiation entering the house unit. Usually, the amount
of radiation reaching the ground is higher than that on the wall. Thus, the
ground serves as the major recipient of solar radiation as well as the major
element in preserving energy. The radiation reaching the ground surface dif-
fers between locations within the same house unit; more radiation is distrib-
uted to the southern part than the northern part of the ground. Management
of the ground surface can influence heat utilization. In a case study, the south
part of the ground had 11.00 MJ m
2
of radiation, accounting for 62% of the
total radiation reaching the ground surface (Zhang et al., 2013). The amount
of solar energy reaching the ground depends on various factors, such as direct
solar radiation, isotropic diffuse solar radiation from the sky, atmospheric
transparency, transmittance of plastic film covered on the roof, and
shadowing of the load-bearing framework (Han et al., 2014). Some practices
can improve the use efficiency of solar energy on the ground, such as low-
ering the indoor ground level (0.5–1.0 m lower than the outside ground
level) (Zhang et al., 2013), optimizing the thickness of the north wall
(Xu et al., 2013a), applying black plastic film or other ground geotextile
to cover the ground prior to planting (Yuan et al., 2014), or using a
ground-sourced heat pump to coordinate heating and cooling processes
(Chai et al., 2014a).
4.4 Water-Heat Pumping Systems
A recently researched system is called “water-curtaining” system, where a
small section of the ground within the house unit is filled up with water and
the water surface is used as the heat-exchanging media. During the day,
water circulates and passes through the surface water curtains, excess heat
from the solar radiation is absorbed by the water body, and heat is stored
in the water simultaneously. During the night, the warm water circulates
and passes through water curtains and open water slots, and heat is released
to the air inside the house. A few case studies show that this system enables
the night temperature inside the house units to be maintained above the
freeze level in cold winter. However, the specifics of this system have
not been defined and the effectiveness for heat storage and release is incon-
sistent among facilities at the present time. More research is required
to determine whether this system can be used effectively in the cold
northwest areas.
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5. SEEDBED PREPARATION AND FERTIGATION
The facility cultivation system is primarily established on nonarable or
barren land in northwest China. No fertile soil is readily available on site and
cultivation largely depends on cultural substrates or “man-made soil.” In this
“soilless” system, seedbed preparation in each house unit is the key to
maintaining substrate fertility and providing nutrients to the plants. One
of the commonly used approaches in the substrate cultivation system
is trenching: trenches are made, edged with wood, bricks, or concrete
blocks, and filled with cultural substrate (Fig. 4A). Standard trenches are
Fig. 4 One of the commonly used approaches for crop cultivation in facility system—
trenching, where (A) trenches are made, edged with woods, bricks, or concrete blocks,
and filled with cultural substrate, and (B) plants are grown in trenches and the areas
between trenches are covered with ground geotextile.
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south–north oriented, 40–60 cm wide, 20–30 cm deep, 80–100 cm between
trenches, and a slope of 10 cm from north to south. Irrigation pipes are
installed, and the trenches are covered with plastic films (0.005–0.008 mm
thick) (Fig. 4B). The areas between trenches are usually covered with
ground geotextile to reduce soil evaporation and allow operators to walk
through for plant care activities.
Irrigation and fertilization are critical components for cultivation success.
Many practices have been developed over the years to maximize production
per unit of water and nutrient supplied to the facility. In this review, we
highlight some highly productive and profitable fertigation practices.
5.1 Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation is the most commonly used irrigation system in solar-energy
houses. Irrigation water is brought into each house either from municipal
sources or by water-providing companies (Fig. 1). Water is pumped through
a filter to the microdrip pipes that are installed before planting. A water
meter is installed to record the amount of water and nutrients provided
to plants in each drip pipe. Subsurface drip irrigation is most popular where
the microdrip pipes are installed under plastic cover during the entire grow-
ing season (Fig. 5A) and the bare ground between plant rows is also covered
with plastic films (Fig. 5B).
Many studies have shown that drip irrigation significantly increases crop
yield and enhances water use efficiency compared with conventional
flooding irrigation (Liu et al., 2013). Drip irrigation also reduces yield var-
iability (Fan et al., 2014) and increases nutrient use efficiency (Zhang et al.,
2011). In a case study with tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), total irrigation
during the growing season ranged from 185 to 366 mm, seasonal evapo-
transpiration ranged from 249 to 388 mm, and yield ranged from 99.6 to
151.8 metric tons per hectare (Liu et al., 2013). In cucumber (Cucumis
sativus L.), drip irrigation decreased water input by 43% and reduced fertil-
izer N use by 78% compared with conventional flooding irrigation (Zhang
et al., 2011).
However, it has been a challenge to provide a precise amount of irriga-
tion and fertilizer for optimal plant growth in facility cultivation systems.
This is mainly due to (i) the lack of modernized, automatic controlling sys-
tems for the frequency and quantity of fertigation to be applied, (ii) different
crops being grown in various house units in the same clustered facility,
(iii) the substrate differs from one operator to another, and (iv) the
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microclimate and macroenvironmental conditions vary with geographical
area. Facility operators may irrigate plants using a once or twice a week
schedule, soil moisture-based irrigation, or daily fertigation with a small dos-
age. In general, daily fertigation with a small dosage provides relatively pre-
cise fertigation, improves nutrient use efficiency, and increases productivity
per unit of input (Liang et al., 2014). In addition, frequent aeration to the
rooting zone under drip irrigation can positively impact crop yield and
WUE. In muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.), for example, an aeration of
25 cm deep to the rooting zone increased melon yield significantly com-
pared with the nonaerated control treatment (Li et al., 2016).
Drip pipes under
plastic cover
Plastic cover
between plant rows
Drip pipes under
plastic cover
Fig. 5 Subsurface drip irrigation used in facility cultivation systems with (A) microdrip
pipes installed under plastic cover and functioning during the entire growing season
and (B) the bare ground between plant rows mulched with plastic films or geotextile
to reduce evaporation.
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5.2 A “Closed”Fertigation System
In a facility built on nonarable or barren land, the prepared substrate can be
used in a “closed” system. The substrate, free from pathogen or weed seeds,
is bagged or completely wrapped in plastic film and placed in the prebuilt
trenches. Seeds are planted into the substrate by making a hole in the top
of the bag. Wrapping the substrate creates a “closed” system, enabling the
substrate to be isolated from the ground; this helps to reduce the incidence
of soil-borne diseases, and the radiation energy conserved near the ground is
used through the wrapped substrate. In a case study, the “closed” cultivation
system increased crop yield by 12% compared to the nonclosed planting
system (Yuan et al., 2013). The substrate cases may be recycled for several
growing seasons by adding new nutrient solution to the wrapped bag which
helps to reduce fertilizer loss to the ground.
In the “closed” system, the physical and chemical properties of the bag-
ged substrate change quickly over time, so a timely replacement of substrate
is necessary for continued cropping. Increasing cultivation years usually
deteriorates the physiochemical properties of soil substrate, manifested by
the increased bulk density, decreased porosity, and reduced nutrients
(Song et al., 2013) and reduced enzyme activity (Yang and Li, 2013).
The change in substrate properties ultimately affects plant growth and yield;
it is recommended that the soil substrate be replaced every a few years (Song
et al., 2013). This system requires some special setups in the house unit, and
more detailed research is needed to ensure the consistence and efficiency of
crop cultivation.
5.3 Use of Organic Manures and Amendment
Once constructed, the facility can be used for continuous production for
20+ years before a change of seedbed is needed. Continuous cropping
in the facility is a concern with regard to the accumulation of autotoxins,
secondary salinization and acidification, and groundwater pollution (see
Section 9). Numerous practices have been used to alleviate these issues, such
as crop rotation, application of microbial agents, and mixing chemical fer-
tilizer with manures. The use of animal manures has been shown to improve
soil quality and maintain soil productivity (Shang et al., 2012). Application
of organic manure at 150 kg N ha
1
mixed with inorganic fertilizer at
190 kg N ha
1
significantly increased grapefruit yield and enhanced nutri-
ent use efficiency compared to chemical fertilizer or organic manure alone.
15Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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Crop straw is typically recycled within the same house unit through a
“biological reactor.” The built-in straw biological reactor is formulated with
microbial agents, and the end product is used to raise the CO
2
concentration
and soil temperature in the facility. The straw biological reactors provide
amendments to the seedbed, whereas the microbial agents can suppress
soil-borne pathogens. In a 4-year study, a biological reactor established with
crop straw at 4 t ha
1
plus straw fermenting agent at 8 kg ha
1
plus com-
posted pig manure at 600 kg ha
1
with or without microbial agent at
4kgha
1
increased soil moisture and microbial biomass, promoted the car-
bon catabolic ability of microorganisms, and improved tomato yield com-
pared with the control treatment (Sun et al., 2014).
6. SUPPLEMENTAL LIGHTING
Supplemental lighting is generally not required in the facility systems
as there is sufficient lighting penetration and intensity for plant growth.
However, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) of blue, yellow, or red can be sup-
plied as supplemental lighting in situations where a plant species is highly
sensitive to lighting. A few studies have investigated supplementary light
effects and, in general, the results have shown that LED supplements can
enhance plant photosynthesis and increase crop yields in period of time with
cloudy days (Wang et al., 2014d). In tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) grown in
northwest China, supplementary lighting with LEDs improved the photo-
synthetic rate and biomass (Xue et al., 2014). In the particular study, light
radiation intensity increased in the 400–510 nm wavelength with blue
LED supplements, 510–610 nm wavelength with yellow LED supplements,
and 610–720 nm wavelength with red LED supplements. Blue LED supple-
ments led to the highest stem diameter index and root-to-shoot ratio in
tobacco.
When using supplementary lighting in the facility system, some light
source control systems are used to adjust the LED spectrum (Hu et al.,
2012). The monitoring system is usually designed in an attempt to match
plant requirements for optimal light and LED optic characters. Based on
plant species, different LED spectra can be employed to irradiate the plants
automatically. Also, to save input costs while enhancing environmental pro-
tection, the supplementary lighting system designers tend to use solar pho-
tovoltaic power supply in combination with digital control technology to
produce so-called intelligent LED light supplementary system (Wang
et al., 2014d).
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7. MONITORING AND CONTROLLING SYSTEMS
In the clustered facility, the microenvironmental conditions in each
house unit are monitored mostly by the individual operators, while the
entire cluster hierarchical system is controlled through a centralized control-
ling center (Fig. 1). Here, we briefly discuss some research findings in two
areas: (i) monitoring microclimates within each house unit and (ii) the cen-
tralized controlling system for the entire cluster of the facility.
7.1 Monitoring Microclimates Within Each House
Overall, the monitoring systems for facility cultivation have been develop-
ing rapidly and involve the application of sensors, data collectors, and infor-
mation transmission technologies (Yao and Liu, 2013). Some systems have
the capacity of adjusting the microclimatic conditions within a house unit
such as air temperature and humidity (Chen et al., 2013a) which optimizes
crop yield (Li et al., 2013a) and enhances product quality (Yan et al., 2012),
while other systems target on the improvement of water and nutrient use
efficiencies (Yuan et al., 2013) and enhancement of economic benefits
(Yao and Liu, 2013).
For example, a yield monitoring system has been developed by the Key
Laboratory of Modern Precision Agricultural System Integration Research
Institute (Li et al., 2013a). The system can measure and record the pheno-
logical characteristics of plant development and the associated environmen-
tal variables. With these variables, the system can adjust input quantities to
the crop. The system consists of data recording sensors, a data transmission
network, and a data manipulation terminal. The measured data are commu-
nicated through the wireless data transmission network and disseminated to
the terminal for manipulation and decision making. Some case studies have
demonstrated that this system is easy to install, convenient to use, and can
collect needed data reliably. Other similar systems have been developed
for monitoring crop yield in solar-energy plastic houses. A thermal model
was developed to measure photosynthetically active radiation in relation
to air temperature, planting date, and plant density in tulip (Tulip gesneriana
L.) (Li et al., 2011). Validated with data from some independent experi-
ments, the thermal model can predict several growth traits of tulip with high
R
2
values, such as plant height (R
2
¼0.97), stem diameter (R
2
¼0.98), and
flower yield (R
2
¼0.97).
17Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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7.2 Centralized Controlling System for the Clustered Facility
After due consideration of the complex nature of the clustered facility system,
a hierarchical control system is needed to connect the individual house units
for centralized management. A sophisticated monitoring system contains
coordinating controllers, specialized models, and remote monitoring and
warning functions (Chen et al., 2013d). Experiments have shown promise
for systems such as the Internet of Things (Li et al., 2013b), Internet of Objects
(Wang and Xu, 2016),cloud computing technology (Yan et al., 2012), and the
real-time early warning information dissemination system (Ma and Yu, 2014).
Of these, the Internet of Things is the most advanced monitoring system.
Usually, it contains a wireless, self-organized network, a cloud service plat-
form, intelligent decision-making devices, and a feedback control system
(Yan et al., 2012). This system has the potential to diagnose plant health
remotely, provide early warnings for disease and insect occurrence (Li et al.,
2013b), and provide timely recommendations for fertilizer, water, and pesti-
cides, as well as predict crop yield (Yan et al., 2012). Sensors are installed in
individualhouse units to monitor air temperature, relative humidity, soil tem-
perature, radiation or light intensity, and plant growth traits through the syn-
chronization of photography on plant leaves and stems. Data from the
individual sensors are sent to the server in the centralized controlling center.
Specialized software is used to analyze and manipulate the incoming data.
In several other cases, an automatic monitoring system has been
established based on the “single-chip and king-view” concept, where micro-
climatic data such as air temperature, relative humidity, and soil moisture are
measured using chip technology (Yang et al., 2014c). Through coordination
with the human–computer interface, the chip-based controlling system pro-
vides operators with timely signals for decision making in crop management.
These systems are important for providing early warning, increasing resource
use efficiencies, and increasing crop yields. Also, the chip-based monitoring
system can be used in studies on the traceability of products,which is required
for the consideration of product safety. However, the implementation of an
automatic system is expensive at present, and the functionality of the mon-
itoring system often lacks consistency, accuracy, and predictability.
8. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Unlike open-field crop production or traditional greenhouse and
glasshouse cultivation, the clustered facility cultivation system developed
in China has many unique characteristics which are highlighted below.
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8.1 Exploration of Locally Available Resources
Like many other populated, developing countries, China has limited arable
land for agriculture. It is widely acknowledged that an effective strategy for
agricultural expansion is to use the marginal, barren, or nonarable land.
There are vast areas of marginal and barren land in the northwest regions
of China including Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia (Jiang
et al., 2014). Traditional crop production on these lands is either not possible
or difficult to implement. The unique feature of facility cultivation systems is
that the clustered houses can be built on this barren or nonarable land to pro-
duce high-yielding, high-quality vegetables year round.
The clustered solar-energy houses are constructed mainly using locally
available materials. The structure of each house is supported by frames made
from wood, bamboo, or steel rods. The roofs are covered with plastic films,
and during cold winters locally made straw mats or thermal clothing blankets
are rolled down on the sloped roof for additional insulation. The north wall,
the most important component in the house unit for the heat storage-
releasing function, can be built using various materials, such as cement-
surfaced soil (Fig. 6A), stones or rocks (Fig. 6B), straw mats (Fig. 6C), hollow
concrete blocks (Fig. 6D), bricks or cement blocks (Fig. 6E), or steel-framed,
straw-stuffed blocks (Fig. 6F). Primarily, these materials are gathered locally.
The house units that are constructed with locally available materials offer
some unique benefits: (1) they are economically viable because the materials
used for construction can be obtained inexpensively or collected for free
such as stones and rocks available in nearby dessert areas and (2) the explo-
ration of locally available materials requires fewer transportation costs to the
building sites and offers environmental benefits.
8.2 Increased Water Productivity
Water scarcity has been a crucial factor limiting economic development in the
northwest region of China. It is estimated that the average freshwater avail-
ability is about 760 m
3
per capita per year, which is 25% below the interna-
tionally accepted threshold for water scarcity (Chai et al., 2014b). In many
areas of the Hexi Corridor of Gansu, annual precipitation ranges from
50 to 160 mm, while annual evaporation ranges from 1500 to 2600 mm
(Deng et al., 2006). Conventional farming relies on irrigation with water
stemming from the Qilian Mountains snowmelt. However, the permanent
snow cover on the Qilian Mountain has been moving upward at a rate of
0.2–1.0 m annually (Che and Li, 2005) and the corresponding snowmelt
water in the Corridor Valley has been declining at a rate of 0.5–1.8 m year
1
19Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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(Zhang, 2007). Some of the once-productive oases along the Silk Road are
shrinking. Additionally, most irrigation farms have been using the flooding
irrigation method with as much as 11,000 m
3
ha
1
in crop production, much
higher than plant requirements for optimal growth (Chai et al., 2016).
With the development of facility cultivation systems in the northwest,
many crop species can be produced in the clustered facility, such as
Fig. 6 The north wall, the most important component in the cultivation house unit for
the heat storage-releasing function, can be built using various locally available materials
such as (A) raw soil surfaced with cement, (B) stones or rocks, (C) straw mats, (D) hollow
concrete blocks, (E) bricks or cement blocks, and (F) steel-framed, straw-stuffed blocks.
20 Jianming Xie et al.
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cucumber, hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), muskmelon, tomato, and water-
melon (Citrullus vulgaris L.) (Table 1). Using the facility adopted in the Gansu
Hexi Corridor as an example, cucumber yielded as high as 168 t ha
1
,
hot pepper 102 t ha
1
, muskmelon 34 t ha
1
, tomato 177 t ha
1
,andwater-
melon 66 t ha
1
. These yield levels are substantially higher than those
obtained in traditional, open-field production in the same area.
Facility cultivation significantly improves irrigation WUE, defined as the
quantity of fresh produce per unit of irrigation water in kg product m
3
of
water (Chai et al., 2016). The irrigation WUE for tomato is as high as 65 kg
product m
3
of water (Table 1) which is significantly higher compared to
traditional, open-field tomato production (Wang et al., 2010).
Enhanced irrigation WUE in the clustered facility can be attributed to
the following:
(i) The surface or subsurface drip irrigation method replaces conventional
flooding irrigation, allowing soil water transformation and mobiliza-
tion to the rooting zones in a timely manner (Du et al., 2016; Yang
et al., 2014b).
(ii) Regulated deficit irrigation can be applied to plants at noncritical
growth stages (Chai et al., 2014a,b) and the amount of deficit irriga-
tion is based on the degree of soil water content for different crop
species/varieties and planting conditions (Chen et al., 2013b;
Wang et al., 2010).
(iii) The quantity and frequency of irrigation is coupled with fertilization
to promote maximum plant growth (Wang et al., 2016); more specif-
ically, a small amount of fertilizer along with drip water is applied to
plants at a high frequency (daily or every other day) by exerting the soil
buffer characteristic and reducing the time interval between successive
irrigations to match water and nutrition supplies to plant requirements
(Liang et al., 2014).
(iv) The total amount of irrigation applied to the plants is optimized using
plant growth model that predicts water requirements and evapotranspi-
ration. Using the example of Yang et al. (2016), tomato yield increased
with increasing ET, reaching maximum yield at an ET of 270 mm, and
the maximum WUE was obtained at an ET of 233 mm. This example
suggests that the suitable irrigation water for the solar-energy facility
tomato can be limited to 233 and 270 mm and the maximum tomato
yield can be obtained at a rate of 89% of the maximum evapotranspi-
ration or the highest WUE can be achieved at 77% of the maximum
evapotranspiration.
21Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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Table 1 Examples of Crop Yield and Irrigation Water Use Efficiency of Different Vegetables Produced in Facility Cultivation Systems
in Northwest China
Species
Scientific
Name Location Coordinator Year
Fresh
Yield
(t ha
21
)
Water
Use
(mm)
WUE
(kg m
23
of Water)
Production
Condition
Gross
Income
(USD
ha
21
)
a
Reference
Cucumber Cucumis
sativus
Jiuquan,
Gansu
39°750N,
98°520E
2016 167.8 452.4 37.8 Drip
irrigation
100,680 N/A
b
Cucumber Cucumis
sativus
Fangshan,
Beijing
39.7°N,
116.1°E
2011 140.8 349.0 40.3 Early spring 84,480 Liang
et al.
(2014)
Cucumber Cucumis
sativus
Fangshan,
Beijing
39.7°N,
116.1°E
2011 44.6 147.0 30.3 Autumn–
winter
26,760 Liang
et al.
(2014)
Cucumber Cucumis
sativus
Jiuquan,
Gansu
39°750N,
98°520E
2016 145.6 667.5 26.4 Drip
irrigation
87,360 N/A
b
Hot pepper Capsicum
annuum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2011–2012 87.8 562.3 15.6 Furrow
irrigation
65,850 Qiu et al.
(2011)
Hot pepper Capsicum
annuum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2011–2012 90.1 361.6 24.9 Drip
irrigation
67,575 Qiu et al.
(2011)
Hot pepper Capsicum
annuum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2011–2012 97.6 353.0 27.7 Furrow
irrigation
73,163 Yang
et al.
(2017)
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Hot pepper Capsicum
annuum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2011–2012 101.8 533.1 19.1 Drip
irrigation
76,313 Yang
et al.
(2017)
Muskmelon Cucumis
melo
Gaolan,
Gansu
36°190N,
103°60E
2013 29.8 154.0 19.3 Flooding
irrigation
26,827 Du et al.
(2016)
Muskmelon Cucumis
melo
Gaolan,
Gansu
36°190N,
103°60E
2013 34.0 123.3 27.5 Drip
irrigation
30,597 Du et al.
(2016)
Muskmelon Cucumis
melo
Dazan,
Shanxi
34°170N,
108°020E
2014 28.9 177.4 16.3 Nonaeration 25,992 Li et al.
(2016)
Muskmelon Cucumis
melo
Dazan,
Shanxi
34°170N,
108°020E
2014 32.4 186.0 17.5 Aeration 29,166 Li et al.
(2016)
Tomato Solanum
lycopersicum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2008 175.0 205.0 65.0 Avg of six
irrigation
treatments
48,750 Wang
et al.
(2010)
Tomato Solanum
lycopersicum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2010–2011 177.0 421.0 42.1 High ET 106,200 Qiu et al.
(2013)
Tomato Solanum
lycopersicum
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2010–2011 106.0 185.7 57.3 Low ET 63,600 Qiu et al.
(2013)
Tomato Solanum
lycopersicum
Xinxiang,
Henan
35°20N,
113°50E
2011 151.8 388.0 39.1 High ET 91,080 Liu et al.
(2013)
Continued
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Table 1 Examples of Crop Yield and Irrigation Water Use Efficiency of Different Vegetables Produced in Facility Cultivation Systems
in Northwest China—cont’d
Species
Scientific
Name Location Coordinator Year
Fresh
Yield
(t ha
21
)
Water
Use
(mm)
WUE
(kg m
23
of Water)
Production
Condition
Gross
Income
(USD ha
21
) Reference
Tomato Solanum
lycopersicum
Xinxiang,
Henan
35°20N,
113°50E
2011 99.6 249.0 40.0 Low ET 59,760 Liu et al.
(2013)
Watermelon Citrullus
vulgaris
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2008–2010 24.9 145.4 17.1 Winter
season
18,675 Yang
et al.
(2017)
Watermelon Citrullus
vulgaris
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2008–2010 66.4 178.1 37.7 Winter–
spring season
49,800 Yang
et al.
(2017)
Watermelon Citrullus
vulgaris
Wuwei,
Gansu
37°520N,
102°500E
2008–2010 49.7 207.8 24.3 Autumn
season
37,250 Yang
et al.
(2017)
a
Prices are converted from Chinese Yuan to USD (with an exchange rate of 1 USD¼6 Yuan) for each kg of fresh produces, for pepper $0.75, muskmelon $0.90,
cucumber and tomato $0.60, watermelon $0.75, and grapes $1.80.
b
Measured by the authors of the article.
Author's personal copy

(v) Improved agronomic practices are used for crop cultivation in the
facility—such as sowing seeds in a timely manner (Yang et al.,
2015), expanding row spacing to increase aeration among plants
(Chen et al., 2013c), pruning branches to increase light penetration
(Du et al., 2016), mulching the spaces between plants to reduce evap-
oration and control humidity (Chen et al., 2009), applying organic
manures to improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties
(Sun et al., 2012b), and optimizing the ventilation system to balance
CO
2
for plant photosynthesis and disease incidence (Yang et al.,
2017)—which has increased crop yields and enhanced WUE.
8.3 Reduced Environmental Footprints
Little information is available in the literature on the environmental foot-
print of a facility cultivation system. However, there are a few case studies
investigating the carbon footprint of the system. One study, using a full car-
bon cycle analysis, estimated that the carbon sink (i.e., net carbon flux) from
a solar-energy plastic cultivation system was 1.21 Mg C ha
1
year
1
or
about eight times more than a conventional open-field vegetable production
system (Wang et al., 2011b). This is primarily due to high plant yield that
converts more CO
2
from the atmosphere into plant biomass. In a similar
study, carbon emissions in the solar-energy vegetable cultivation system
decreased by up to 1.46 Mg C ha
1
year
1
compared with the conventional
open-field production system (Wu et al., 2015). These studies demonstrate
that a conversion of crop cultivation from the conventional open-field sys-
tem to the solar-energy plastic system can significantly increase carbon ben-
efits. It suggests that the facility cultivation system is a carbon-smart intensive
cropping system for mitigating carbon emissions in agriculture. However,
net carbon fluxes in the plastic cultivation system may vary considerably
with climatic regions (Chai et al., 2014a). Also, how carbon footprints
are estimated is often inconsistent among research groups. A more standard-
ized method may be required to accurately estimate the carbon footprint
from different cultivation systems.
8.4 Enhanced Ecological and Socioeconomic Benefits
Farming systems worldwide largely use intensified technologies aimed at
increasing food production, but these production systems usually have a
negative impact on ecosystem services. A more ecologically sustainable sys-
tem would increase agricultural productivity using less farmland and less
25Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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environmental impacts. Studies on the impacts of solar-energy facility cul-
tivation systems on ecosystem services are limited, but some case studies
show that this cultivation system offers some significant ecological benefits.
Compared with conventional open-field vegetable production, facility cul-
tivation enhances ecosystem sustainability through increased soil carbon
sequestration, lowered water consumption per unit of product, and
enhanced soil protection at regional scales (Chang et al., 2013). The facility
cultivation system also enables the production of more fresh vegetables per
square area of land (Table 1) which relies on solar energy without external
energy sources. Consequently, the facility cultivation system allows plants to
fix more CO
2
from the atmosphere while emitting fewer greenhouse gases
per unit of product. In a case study, plants grown in a solar-energy facility
fixed 3.6 t CO
2
ha
1
year
1
, retained 23 t soil carbon ha
1
year
1
, and had
fewer N
2
O emissions per unit of product (Chang et al., 2011). No additional
heating is provided to the facility system, even during winter, which trans-
lates a saving of 750 Mg ha
1
of energy compared with traditional, coal-
heated greenhouse production (Gao et al., 2010).
Economic benefits for the solar-energy facility are undoubtedly greater
in terms of production efficiency and the ratio of inputs to outputs compared
with fossil fuel-heated greenhouses or open-field production. In this review,
we analyzed the economic output of about a dozen studies with solar-energy
facility cultivation systems and found that the average gross income was
56,650 USD ha
1
year
1
(Table 1). On average, the facility cultivation of
vegetables can generate a net income of 10,000 USD ha
1
year
1
more than
that obtained in open-field production at the same geological site (Chang
et al., 2011). In many cases, the annual net profit from facility vegetable cul-
tivation can be 10–15 times greater than open-field vegetable production
and 70–125 times greater than open-field maize (Zea mays) or wheat
(Triticum aestivum) production (Gao et al., 2010). These studies suggest that
a transition from conventional open-field vegetable production to the solar-
energy plastic facility cultivation can result in significant economic benefits.
In the rural communities of highly populated regions, farmers produce
and consume vegetables and fruits that are mostly produced at local. The
solar-energy plastic facility enables local farmers to produce high-yielding
fresh vegetables and fruits year round and to secure off-season supplies. Such
a localized cultivation system creates jobs for the local rural communities in
the areas of harvesting (Fig. 7A), provision of vegetables for the wholesale
markets (Fig. 7B), transport to neighboring communities (Fig. 7C), and
retail marketing of the local products (Fig. 7D). This easily implemented
26 Jianming Xie et al.
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facility system is becoming an important agricultural infrastructure to satisfy
the growing demands for fresh vegetables and to provide significant socio-
economic benefits for rural communities.
9. CURRENT ISSUES/PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTED
RESEARCH
The Chinese facility cultivation system has been evolving rapidly in
recent years. This industry is still in its infancy and is facing some issues
and problems that require immediate attention. Below, we highlight some
key issues and problems and provide suggestions for future research.
9.1 Structure Stability and Durability
The individual solar-energy house units in the clustered facility are
supported by steel frames, and the roofs are covered with plastic film. In
many circumstances, the structure is poorly constructed and vulnerable to
Fig. 7 The facility cultivation systems enable the creation of jobs for the rural commu-
nities in the areas of (A) harvesting, (B) provision of vegetables for the wholesale
markets, (C) transport of fresh vegetables to neighboring communities, and (D) retail
marketing of the local products.
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extreme natural disasters, such as heavy snowfall, high winds, and heavy hail.
At present, relevant safety policies and standardized operational procedures
are lacking. There are reports of some house units collapsing under extreme
weather conditions. In many cases, the house structure is not well designed,
and the radiated light is not distributed evenly throughout the house floor,
leading to difficulties in maintaining temperatures for plant growth. During
cold winter nights, low temperatures often limit the growth and yield of
warm-season crops. It has been widely recognized that the improved design
of the house units needs to be defined. Gutter-connected, double-arched,
and semi-underground house units may improve structure stability and
durability (Gao et al., 2010). High heat insulation materials need to be devel-
oped so that the thickness of the north wall can be minimized to reduce con-
struction costs. The insulation efficiency of the north wall needs to be
enhanced. Expanding the cultivation space inside the house units may be
possible with improved house design, which should increase crop yields
per unit of house space.
The roof of the individual solar-energy house is covered with plastic
films. Light penetration and heat transmittance deteriorate as the plastic film
ages. It has been suggested that the plastic cover on the roof should be ren-
ewed every few years, but the exact durability of the structure for continuous
cultivation has not been well defined. The response of photosynthetic traits
and plant productivity to irradiation intensity differs among crop species and
cultivars, and cultivars with improved agronomic traits suitable for the solar-
energy facility system need to be developed (Gao et al., 2012a).
9.2 Fertility and Environmental Concerns
It has been a challenge to balance nutrient supplies and plant requirements in
the facility cultivation system, and often excess fertilizer is provided. For
example, a rate of 540 kg N ha
1
of inorganic fertilizer along with some ani-
mal manures is recommended for the winter–spring season cultivation of
cucumber (Wang et al., 2007). However, the actual rate of inorganic fertil-
izer applied to the crop often exceeds the recommendation, with as high as
1300 kg N ha
1
, 1400 kg P
2
O
5
ha
1
, and 881 kg K
2
Oha
1
recorded (Gao
et al., 2012b). Excess fertilization leads to the apparent recovery efficiency of
applied fertilizer N as low as 10% (Liang et al., 2014), while the nitrate-N
accumulated in the 0–100 cm soil profile postharvest increased by up to
240% (Gao et al., 2012b). These studies indicate an overall trend of an over-
supply of nutrients and a high accumulation of surplus nutrients in the
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facility soils. It is estimated that N fertilizer inputs in solar-energy facilities
may be three to five times more than needed for optimal growth. Over-
fertilization is largely attributable to: (i) the input of N nutrients occurring
through flooding irrigation—a conventional practice for vegetable
growers—where the quantity of N applied at each irrigation is over-
estimated by the operators, (ii) once a facility is built, continuous cultiva-
tion is expected and the unused nutrients left in the soil profile are rarely
considered when implementing a fertilizer management program for the
next crop, (iii) lack of an automatic monitoring system for the quantity
of fertigation, and (iv) operators target marketable yields more than produc-
tion costs.
Overfertilization causes several issues. First, excess fertilizer does not nec-
essarily lead to higher crop yields. In a three-crop per year plastic vegetable
cultivation system, the four rates of N fertilizer (0, 420, 640, and
840 kg N ha
1
) applied to tomato, Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa pekinensis),
and green soybean (Glycine max L.) resulted in similar yields (Zhang et al.,
2016). No yield response to the fertilizer rates was surprising, but it was due
to the soil containing sufficient nutrients left unused by previous crops. Also,
overfertilization often results in poor product quality (Wang et al., 2007).
Cucumbers fertilized with 22.5 t ha
1
of chicken manure plus
540 kg N ha
1
of N fertilizer in a facility cultivation system had less crispness
and flavor and reduced marketability than cucumbers produced in an open-
field production system with reduced fertilization.
Second, continuous cropping on the same site with overfertilization cau-
ses a large loss of N (Du et al., 2016) and reduces soil quality (Sun et al.,
2011). Nitrogen is applied to the soil through irrigation, and N excess to
plant requirements often accumulates in the soil profile or leaches to deeper
soils layers, polluting the groundwater (Xie et al., 2011). Soil–water inter-
actions are a complex matrix in solar-energy facilities, and the outcome of
fertigation may vary with factors such as crop species, the number of culti-
vated years, and amounts of nutrient supplied each season. Redundant water
and fertilizer application cause the rapid accumulation of alkali-hydrolyzable
nitrogen that triggers soil salinization (Liang et al., 2014), and over-
fertilization causes soil acidification over time (Cao et al., 2012). Also, over-
fertigation year after year may accelerate the alkaline status in some of the
facility soils (Song et al., 2012).
Third, overfertilization has significant environmental consequences
because nitrous oxide (N
2
O) and nitric oxide (NO
x
) are generally interre-
lated to soil N biogeochemical cycles. High N application stimulates
29Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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nitrification and denitrification processes, thus promoting N
2
O and NO
emissions. There is a linear correlation between greenhouse gas emissions
and the rate of N application in crops (Gan et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2016).
With the rapid development of solar-energy facility cultivation, fertilizer
management strategies specific to each crop species need to be established so
that crop productivity can be maximized and greenhouse gas emissions min-
imized. Future research should focus on determining the precise amounts of
fertigation for each crop species to be cultivated in the facility systems. It is
estimated that the present input rate of chemical N fertilizer could be
reduced by one-third without yield penalty (Zhang et al., 2016). Whether
or not this suggested reduction is possible requires further evaluation.
A “closed cultivation system” such as the one described in Section 5.2 could
be expanded so that the applied nutrients stay in the closed system without
leaching to deeper soil or underground water. There is a need to establish a
highly reliable, automatic controlling system for fertigation and standardized
procedures for fertigation.
9.3 Long-Term Stability of Soil Fertility
In the literature, reports on soil fertility and the stability for facility cultiva-
tion are limited. Our concern is that the year-round cultivation, season after
season, in the facility may make it difficult to maintain soil fertility. High
temperatures and high relative humidity inside the house units, compared
with outside climates, promote soil microbial activity. Stimulated microbial
activities ultimately accelerate soil carbon and nutrient cycling and decrease
the stability of soil fertility. Also, the chemical structure of some acids in the
soil, such as humic acids, becomes more complex with continuous cultiva-
tion season after season (Wu et al., 2016); this may affect soil biological prop-
erties and thus soil fertility.
Microbial biodiversity plays a significant role in maintaining soil fertility.
Increasing cultivation years in the facility system decreases microbial biodi-
versity (Yao et al., 2016). It is not known how to maintain or even enhance
microbial biodiversity in facility cultivation systems. Many strategies and
practices have been recommended for open-field crop production, but it
is not known whether similar strategies and practices can be used effectively
in facility systems. Long-term plastic-based facility cultivation has been
found to worsen the physiological status of the soil microbial community
and increase the stress of microorganism communities (Yao et al., 2016).
With high crop yields and more biomass returned to the soil in facility
30 Jianming Xie et al.
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cultivation, whether or not this will ultimately affect soil quality and long-
term productivity requires detailed investigation.
9.4 Life-Cycle Assessment
Life-cycle assessment (also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, or
cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess the environmental impacts
associated with all stages of a product’s life (i.e., from raw material extrac-
tion through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair
and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). A life-cycle assessment helps
to avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by compiling an
inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental rele-
ases, evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs, and
interpreting the results to make a more informed decision. There are many
studies that identify the life-cycle assessment for open-field production sys-
tems, but limited studies for facility cultivation. We suggest that the assess-
ment of environmental impacts of the solar-energy facility be focused on
the construction and maintenance of individual house units, the processes
of materials required for the facility establishment, the period of plant cul-
tivation, and the microclimates within each house unit in the clustered
facility.
In a study of tomato life cycle in plastic facility cultivation, the pro-
duction of 1.0 t of tomato fruits used 1740 MJ of energy and 51 m
3
of irri-
gation water (Wang et al., 2014c). The applied nutrients contributed 272 kg
to global warming, 2.2 kg to acidification, 0.25 kg to eutrophication,
0.16 kg to photochemical oxidation formation, and 24 kg to terrestrial
ecotoxicity. Also, high temperatures, high humidity, and often poor venti-
lation in the house units can cause serious plant pests which require addi-
tional pesticide-associated gas emissions. The steel and plastic films used
in the construction contribute greenhouse gas emissions. These facts
encourage deep thinking about the ecological assessment of a product pro-
duced through the facility cultivation chain. Detailed life-cycle assessments
should be employed to assess the ecological and environmental conse-
quences for facility cultivation systems.
9.5 Plant Pests
Once constructed, the solar-energy facility is usually used for crop cultiva-
tion for up to 20 years. Continuous cropping promotes the development of
soil- or root-borne pathogens. Given the high temperatures and high
31Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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relative humidity during the crop growing period, plant diseases are a major
factor challenging sustainable production year after year. In a recent visit to
Jiuquan county in the Gansu Hexi Corridor, where a large-scale facility cul-
tivation system is established on nonarable land, we observed several plant
diseases and other pests, such as severe late blight in tomato (Fig. 8A),
root-knot nematode (Fig. 8B), bacterial pith necrosis (Fig. 8C), melon fusar-
ium wilt in muskmelon (Fig. 8D), leaf spots and wilt (Fig. 8E), and fruit
deformity (Fig. 8F).
Fig. 8 Various types of plant diseases and pests are observed in facility cultivation sys-
tems, such as (A) severe late blight in tomato, (B) root-knot nematode, (C) bacterial pith
necrosis, (D) melon Fusarium wilt in muskmelon, (E) leaf spots and wilt, and (F) fruit
deformity.
32 Jianming Xie et al.
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Heavy fertilization in a continuous cropping facility increases the
amounts of p-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid, and benzoic acid in soil sub-
strates. Increased concentrations of soil phenols restricted the activities of
some disease resistance-related enzymes (Ma et al., 2005). For example,
the continuous cropping of cucumber in the facility for 5–7 years signifi-
cantly increased soil phenols and restricted the activities of some enzymes,
and consequently increasing plant root diseases.
The development of strategies and practices for controlling plant pests
has been recognized as a top priority for crop health management in facility
cultivation. Besides conventional chemical control methods, a number of
therapeutic modules have had some promising results in the control of cer-
tain pests, including the use of corona discharge with ozone during the day
to kill certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi; phototaxis to lure insects with
blue-violet LED and high power electrical shock to kill flying insects at night
(Wang et al., 2012); hyperspectral imaging technology to diagnose the
occurrence and severity of diseases for early action of control (Luo,
2014); monitoring the initial development of downy mildew and powdery
mildew on plants to provide a timely decision on spraying (Tian et al., 2010);
biofertilizer to minimize plant disease (Shen et al., 2015); knowledge expres-
sion and disease diagnostic techniques (Sun et al., 2012a); a disease diagnos-
ing and early warning robot to forecast disease development (Geng et al.,
2011); and a video monitoring system for disease management (Ma et al.,
2015a). However, none of these technologies have been widely used and
their effectiveness needs clarification in future studies.
9.6 Heavy Metals
Heavy metals, characterized by relatively high density and high relative
atomic weight with an atomic number greater than 20, are naturally present
in the soil, but anthropogenic activities increase the concentration of these
elements in amounts that are harmful to both plants and animals. Some
heavy metals, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, V, and Zn, are required
in minute quantities by organisms, whereas others such as Pb, Cd, and
Hg have no beneficial effect on organisms and are regarded as “threats.”
Heavy metal concentrations have been reported to be higher in some
facility soils than in open fields. Also, the target hazard quotient of heavy
metals through vegetable consumption is greater for facility-grown vegeta-
bles than for those grown in open fields. The heavy metals Cd, Pb, and Zn in
facility soils mainly originate from anthropogenic sources (Hu et al., 2014).
33Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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The heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides in facility cultivation systems con-
tributes to the increased heavy metal elements in end products. The empir-
ical data from 91 farm households at six facility cultivation systems showed
high concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in soil, and high Cd in leaf veg-
etables (Yang et al., 2016). The concentration of heavy metals in vegetables
increases with cultivation years (Chen et al., 2016). A high concentration of
heavy metals in end products carries risks for food safety and consumer
health.
We recognize that it is difficult to accurately assess heavy metal pollution
in facility soils because, in most cases, there is a lack of information on the
geochemical baseline concentrations or corresponding background values.
Nevertheless, we suggest that a series of studies is conducted to assess the
potential health risks of heavy metals through soil contact and the consump-
tion of vegetables produced under facility cultivation. Furthermore, various
methods could be employed to remediate metal-polluted soils. Physical and
chemical methods include encapsulation, solidification, electrokinetics, vit-
rification, vapor extraction, and soil washing and flushing. Bioremediation
can also be effective in some situations. Phytoremediation, an important
aspect of bioremediation, can be implemented in the nonproduction period
to treat polluted soils. Phytoremediation of heavy metal-polluted soils can
be achieved via different mechanisms, such as phytoextraction, phytos-
tabilization, and phytovolatilization. These methods need to be researched
for facility cultivation.
9.7 Phthalate Esters
Phthalates are the esters of phthalic acids, which are added to plastics to
increase their flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity. There is
no covalent bond between the phthalates and plastics, such that phthalate
esters can be removed by exposure to heat or high temperatures. In facility
cultivation systems, the roofs are covered solely with plastic film, and the
ground is mulched with plastics to prevent soil evaporation. In 2011, about
2.29 million tons of plastic film was used in facility cultivation in China
(Anonymous, 2012). Due to the ubiquity of plastics used in facility cultiva-
tion year after year, it is suspicious that there are health risks to farm operators
exposed to the pollutant for the long run. It is also a concern that the veg-
etables and fruits produced in the heavily plasticized facilities may contain
high levels of phthalates.
There are limited reports in the literature that investigate the concentra-
tion and amount of phthalates in vegetables/fruits and the soil. Most indicate
34 Jianming Xie et al.
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that the effect of plastic on phthalate concentrations in vegetables and soils
varies depending on factors such as the nature of the plastics used in the con-
struction of the facility (Fu and Du, 2011), the length of cultivation year and
biogeography (Chen et al., 2016), crop species and growing seasons (Wang
et al., 2015), and other conditions such as geographic location (Ma et al.,
2015b), soil type (Zhang et al., 2015), and fertilization (Chen et al.,
2016). The higher the concentration of the main phthalates such as di-(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate content in the plastic film, the thicker the film, the
lower the height of the solar-energy house units, and the younger the age
of the plastic roofs, the higher the concentration of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthal-
ate content in the vegetables. Increasing the thickness of the plastic film from
0.02 to 0.08 mm increased the di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate concentration
from 18 to 40 μgg
1
dry weight in bok choy (Brassica chinensis L.) and from
22 to 29 μgg
1
in celery (Apium graveolens L.). The concentration of
phthalates in vegetables can vary with growing season; a change of
spring–summer to summer–autumn growing seasons increases the phthalate
concentration (Zhang et al., 2015).
Little is known about the risk to human health. Some studies show that
the content of 2-ethylhexyl phthalate in vegetables and soil samples is greater
than recommended levels and carries risks to human health especially young
children (Ma et al., 2015b), while other studies show that the human health
risks are low as only a trace amount is detected in vegetables (Chen et al.,
2016). Some studies have shown that the noncancer risks of some phthalates
may be close to the limits (Wang et al., 2015), while other studies show no
risks to human health. Nevertheless, there is an increasing concern as facility
agricultural systems expand in China. People with the highest risk may be
the growers in facility systems where they are exposed to the plastics on a
daily basis. Dietary intake of vegetables and ingestion of soils at work bring
additional risks. We suggest that more systematic studies are undertaken
across various ecoregions to elucidate the risks to growers and consumers
associated with exposure to phthalates in vegetables and soils in the
plastic-based facility cultivation system.
10. CONCLUSIONS
Global climate change is significantly impacting the availability of land
for agriculture. There is added pressure in developing countries due to rapid
urbanization, which results in competition for the available land between
agriculture and other economic sectors. In the meantime, more food pro-
duction is required to meet the needs of the ever-growing population,
35Facility Cultivation Systems ‘设施农业’in China
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and this challenge is magnified in highly populated nations such as China and
India. It is fortunate that an innovative agricultural system has been devel-
oped in China, namely “facility agriculture.”
This system, unlike conventional greenhouse or glasshouse cultivation,
comprises a cluster of locally constructed, purely solar-powered plastic-
roofed greenhouse-like cultivation units for the production of high-yielding,
high-quality fresh vegetables in an effective, efficient, and economical man-
ner. This system has some unique characteristics: (i) the individual house
units are “clustered” with a centralized controlling center, (ii) the system
is established on marginal, barren, or nonarable land where traditional farm-
ing is not possible, (iii) the greenhouse-like facilities are constructed from
locally available materials and solar is the only energy source provided to
the individual cultivation units, (iv) the facility enables growers to produce
fresh vegetables year round in large quantities to satisfy local markets and
off-season demands, (v) crop yields and water use efficiency are significantly
higher than traditional open-field vegetable production, and (vi) the system
has an enhanced ecological service with significant socioeconomic benefits.
This model may have the potential to be adopted on marginal or barren land
in other regions of the world.
The system is rapidly evolving and is facing some issues and problems
that require urgent attention. Continuous cropping year after year with
the heavy use of inorganic fertilizer is causing concerns about input costs,
heavy metal pollution to the soil, loss of soil fertility and sustainability, loss
of nutrients to eutrophication such as underground water, and the subse-
quent health risks. Some inexpensively constructed facilities are vulnerable
to collapse due to heavy rain, snow, and wind, which may threaten oper-
ator’s safety. We suggest several key areas of research which will enhance
the sustainability of this unique cultivation system. Cooperative business
models that link individual small-scaled facilities can be expanded to enter-
prises in the future and managed under a unified production–market–
consumer chain. Agricultural extension services and relevant governmental
policies need to be developed to ensure the operation safety, economic
profitability, and environmental sustainability of the facility cultivation
system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of “State Special Fund for Agro-Scientific
Research in the Public Interest (201203001 and 201203002)” and “China Agriculture
Research Systems (CARS-25-C-07).” Some of the data and photos presented in this
36 Jianming Xie et al.
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chapter were provided by Ping Yang at Honghe University, Yunnan, China; Jiang Hong,
Yin Xue-yun, Yang Mao-yuan, and Zhang Guo-sen at the Vegetable Technical Service
Center of Suzhou District, Jiuquan; and Peng Zhi-Rong at the Wuwei Agricultural
Extension Service, Wuwei City, Gansu, China.
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