ArticlePDF Available

The relationship between wisdom and well-being: A perspective based on multiple orientations to well-being

Authors:

Abstract

Wisdom and well-being are universal human pursuits. The positive correlation between wisdom and eudaimonic well-being is generally recognized by researchers. However, the relationship between wisdom and hedonic well-being is still debated. Researchers have proposed the model of positive personality development and the developmental process model from the perspective of wisdom development to further explore the relationship between wisdom and well-being. Based on Chinese culture and research on wisdom and well-being, the present article proposes the developmental level model: With the growth of wisdom, the well-being of individuals varies in terms of sources, durations, and influences on physical and mental health. In the future, we should focus on solving two problems: 1) choosing and developing an appropriate tool for measuring wisdom and well-being, and 2) clarifying the causal relationship between wisdom and well-being.
心理科学进展 2019, Vol. 27, No. 3, 544–556
Advances in Psychological Science DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2019.00544
544
智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角*
傅绪荣 魏新东 王予灵 汪凤炎
(南京师范大学道德教育研究所, 南京师范大学心理学院, 南京 210097)
智慧与幸福是人类的普遍追求。智慧与自我实现幸福感(eudaimonia well-being)正相关得到研究者的
普遍认同。智慧与享乐主义幸福感(hedonia well-being)是何种关系, 仍在争论中。从智慧发展的角度, 学者提
出了积极人格发展观和发展历程观, 对智慧与幸福感的关系进行更深入地理论探讨。结合中国文化及智慧和
幸福感的研究进展, 提出发展水平观:随着智慧发展水平不断提高, 个体幸福感的来源、持续时间以及对身心
健康的影响存在差异。未来宜重点解决两个问题:(1)选择和编制适宜的智慧和幸福感测量工具; (2)澄清智慧
与幸福感的因果关系。
关键词 智慧; 幸福感; 积极人格发展观; 发展历程观; 发展水平观
分类号 B848
随着生活水平日益提高, 民众对美好生活的
追求更加强烈。幸福感(well being)遂成为心理学
关注的焦点之一。学界主要有两种视角:享乐主
义幸福感(hedonia well-being)和自我实现幸福感
(eudaimonia well-being) (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ward
& King, 2016; 杨慊, 程巍, 贺文洁, 韩布新,
昭宁, 2016)。享乐主义幸福感视角认为幸福是个
体的快乐体验及对生活的积极认知评价, 其测量
指标包括积极情绪和消极情绪的平衡及生活满意
(Diener, Scollon, & Lucas, 2003)积极情绪和消
极情绪是个体对生活品质的主观体验, 生活满意
度是个体对生活质量的整体认知和评价(Diener et
al., 2003)。自我实现幸福感视角认为不宜将幸福
感等同于表面的快乐体验, 而强调自我成长、人
生意义、自我潜能和卓越表现等更深刻的内涵
(Huta & Waterman, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff
& Singer, 2008; Waterman, 1993)自我实现幸福感
还包括社会性和道德的完善, 指个体致力于自
我、他人或社会的共同幸福(Keyes, 1998; Law &
Staudinger, 2016)。自我实现幸福感的测量指标多
收稿日期:2018-06-01
*
教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地 2016 年度重大项
(16JJD880026)
通信作者:汪凤炎, E-mail: fywangjx8069@163.com
涵盖心理幸福感和社会幸福感的内容 (Ryff, 1989;
Keyes, 1998)
在幸福感研究中, 其关键影响因素是研究者
关注的重点之一。从最初关注外在因素, 如社会
经济地位、性别、年龄等, 到后来的内在因素,
自尊、大五人格等, 但都没有获得令人信服的结
(Ardelt & Jeste, 2016)。若影响幸福感的关键因
素不能确定, 那么提高幸福感的方法就难以取得
实质性进展。在智慧研究领域, 研究者重点关注
的是智慧的功能。如果智慧对人类发展和追求幸
福生活没有太大益处, 那么研究和追求智慧就会
失去合理性(Baltes & Staudinger, 2000)
智慧是人类过上幸福生活的目的和手段(Baltes
& Staudinger, 2000)。孔子曾断言智者乐, 仁者
寿智慧、幸福和长寿是人类的普遍追求。学界
对智慧与幸福感的关系之争论从未停止。及时梳
理智慧与幸福感之关系的研究至少有两点意义:
(1)探讨影响幸福感的主要变量, 为提高个体的幸
福感和建设幸福社会提供启示; (2)梳理两者关系
之最新进展, 把握未来研究方向, 推动两个领域
的交叉研究走向深入。此文首先对智慧的定义与
测量进行介绍, 然后全面梳理智慧与幸福感之关
系的实证研究和理论发展; 最后提出智慧与幸福
感之关系的发展水平观, 并提两点展望:(1)选择
和编制适宜的智慧和幸福感测量工具; (2)澄清智
网络首发时间:2019-01-23 08:56:20
网络首发地址:http://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/11.4766.R.20190121.2149.034.html
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 545
慧与幸福感的因果关系。
1 智慧的定义与测量
智慧是一个相当复杂的概念, 目前关于智慧
的定义有很多种, 没有被学界一致认同的定义。
被广泛引用的智慧定义和测量工具主要是柏林智
慧模式(the Berlin wisdom model, BWM) ( Baltes
& Staudinger, 2000), 智慧的平衡理论(the balance
theory of wisdom) (Sternberg, 2013), 三维智慧理
(the three-dimensional wisdom model) (Ardelt,
2018), 智慧的英雄理论(the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of
wisdom) (Webster, Weststrate, Ferrari, Munroe, &
Pierce, 2017), 智慧的自我超越论(self-
transcendence wisdom) (Levenson, Jennings,
Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005)。本文据此总结以往研
究成果。
1.1 智慧的定义
柏林模式认为智慧是关于人生的重要且实用
的专家知识和判断, 也包括善良动机(good
intentions), 指个体的行动兼顾自我和他人的福祉
(Baltes & Staudinger, 2000)
Sternberg (1998, 2013)认为智慧指在积极伦
理价值观(positive ethical values)的指导下, 运用智
力、创造力和知识, 平衡个体内部(intrapersonal)
人际间(interpersonal)和个体外部(extrapersonal)
福祉, 及平衡长期和短期福祉, 从而实现在适应、
影响和选择环境等三方面的平衡, 最终实现共同
的善(common good)
Ardelt (2003, 2018)认为智慧是由认知、反省
和情感(仁慈)等三维整合而成的人格特征。反省指
多角度思考问题, 对他人和环境不求全责,
确地感知和有效地调节情绪, 接纳客观现实,
恕自我和他人。认知指辩证的看待现实处境,
识到自我的局限性, 人生无法预知和充满不确定
性。仁慈指对所有人都充满同情与仁爱, 也即增
进他人幸福的动机。
Webster (2010)认为智慧是个体有能力和意
愿应用重要人生经验, 推动自我和他人朝积极方
向发展。能力指决策、问题解决或其他智力形式;
意愿指主动采取智慧行动的愿望; 应用指实际的
行动。智慧是 5种关键特征的整合:幽默(Humor),
情绪调节(Emotion Regulation), 回顾与反省
(Reminiscence / Reflectiveness), 开放性(Openness),
经验(Experience)。由于每个成分的英文首字母合
成为英雄(H.E.R.O.(E.))这一英文单词, 因此这一
模型最近也被称为智慧的英雄理论(Webster et al.,
2017)
Levenson (2005)将智慧等同于自我超越,
指个体不再依赖外在特征(如物质、社会角色、成
就、名誉、人际关系等)显示自我存在, 而关注自
我的内心世界(interiority) 和精神性(spirituality),
强烈的感受着过去和未来的贯通感(connectedness)
自我超越也指消解自我和他人的界限而达到整体
合一的状态, 获得同情心, 深刻的认知能力和自
我整合。
近年来, 学界从研究视角和构成等方面对智
慧定义进行了概括和总结。Staudinger Glück
(2011)根据第一人称视角(first-person perspective)
和第三人称视角(third-person perspective), 将智
慧划分为一般智慧(general wisdom) 和自我智慧
(personal wisdom), 前者指个体为他人解决复杂
问题提供建议时表现出的智慧, 如柏林模,
者指个体在解决自己遇到的复杂问题时表现出的
智慧, 如三维智慧理论、智慧的英雄理论和智慧
的自我超越论。
从智慧的构成看, 上述定义都倾向于认为良
好品德和聪明才智的合金才是智慧的本质。有研
究以此为基础提出了智慧的德才一体理论,
为从素质的角度看,智慧是个体在其智力与知识
的基础上, 经由经验与练习习得的一种德才合一
的综合心理素质(陈浩彬, 汪凤炎, 2013)。个体一
旦拥有这种综合心理素质, 就能让其睿智、豁达
地看待人生与展现人生, 以及洞察生活中形形色
色的人与事; 当其身处某种复杂问题解决情境时,
就能让其适时产生下列行为:个体在其良心的引
导下或善良动机的激发下, 及时运用其聪明才智
去正确认知和理解所面临的复杂问题, 进而采用
正确、新颖(常常能给人灵活与巧妙的印象)、且 最
好能合乎伦理道德规范的手段或方法高效率地解
决问题, 并保证其行动结果不但不会损害他人和
社会的正当权益, 还能长久地增进他人和社会或
自己、他人和社会的福祉(汪凤炎, 傅绪荣, 2017)
智慧天然地蕴含的成分, 是其区别于智力和
创造力等概念的关键特征(Ardelt, 2003; Baltes &
Staudinger, 2000; Sternberg, 1998; 汪凤炎, 郑红,
2015)。在中国文化背景中, 通过考察普通民众的
546 27
智慧观证实了上述观点(陈浩彬, 汪凤炎, 2014; Li
& Wang, 2017)
1.2 智慧的测量
目前主要有两种智慧测量范式:表现法和自
陈式量表法, 前者主要用于测量一般智慧, 后者
用于测量自我智慧(Glück, 2017)表现法的测量程
序是, 首先呈现问题解决情境, 被试陈述对问题
情景的理解、给出建议或解决方案, 然后由评分
者根据事先制定的与智慧有关的评价标准, 对被
试的表现进行评定(Smith & Baltes, 1990; Mickler
& Staudinger, 2008; Grossmann, Na, Varnum,
Kitayama, & Nisbett, 2013)。如柏林模式提供如下
情境:一个 14 岁的男孩或女孩想立马离家出走,
请从一般角度思考他或她是如何想的以及该怎么
?” (Staudinger, Lopez, & Baltes, 1997)。评分标
准包括程序性知识和陈述性知识, 毕生发展的情
境知识, 秉持价值相对主义也承认存在普世价值,
认识到存在相对不确定性且能对不确定性进行有
效管理等 5方面, 前两个为基本成分, 后三个为
元成分。虽然表现法测量程序繁琐复杂, 不利于
大样本施测, 但测量的准确性相对较高(Glück,
2017)
自陈式量表法要求人们根据自己日常生活中
与智慧有关的行为和表现, 评定其对题项表述的
赞同程度, 间接测量智慧(Ardelt, 2003; Webster,
2007; Levenson et al., 2005)。有人认为, 自陈式量
表不能有效测量智慧(Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003)
对此, Ardelt (2004)反驳到:尽管用标准化自称式
量表很难甚至不能测量智慧本身, 但智慧的测量
可间接通过测量其潜在核心成分的指标变量而实
现。目前有多个测量智慧的自陈式量表, 如三维
智慧量表(three dimetional wisdom scale, 3D-WS)
自我评估智慧量表(self-assessed wisdom scale,
SAWS) 、成人自我超越量表(adult self-
transcendence inventory, ASTI) (Ardelt, 2003;
Webster, 2007; Levenson et al., 2005)自陈式量表
法更适合大样本施测, 但测量准确性稍差(Glück,
2017)
2 智慧与幸福感之关系的实证研究
为尽可能全面地收集文献, 本文主要在中国
知网、PsychINFO 在线数据库, 按照篇名和关键
词输入智慧智慧和幸福感智慧与生活满
意度智慧与积极情绪智慧与消极情绪
智慧与心理幸福感智慧与精神幸福感
慧与精神性等进行检索。检索的时间范围为 1970
2018 年。文献纳入和排除标准是:(1)正式期刊
的论文、论文集和学位论文, 不包括会议论文; (2)
第一手实证报告, 不包括转引的资料和理论综述
类论文; (3)如果学位论文同时发表在正式学术刊
物中, 则以后者为准。需要注意的是, 有的研究者
可能不认为某些概念隶属于幸福感的范畴, 如开
放性和心理感受性(psychological mindedness)。本
文筛选论文时, 依据论文的作者对幸福感的界
定。如果论文作者认为他们测量的是幸福感,
将其视为与论题有关而予以纳入。智慧的定义和
测量以前述 5种为准, 不在此列的研究予以排除。
最终得到符合标准的实证研究报告 22 篇。
2.1 智慧与自我实现幸福感正相关
亚里士多德认为人类的终极追求是自我实现
(eudaimonia)自我实现指个体认识到自我的真正
价值所在, 实现自己的潜能和美德, 最终获得丰
盛完满而充满活力的幸福人生(Ryan & Martela,
2016)以此为基础, 研究者提出自我实现幸福感,
认为不能简单的将幸福感等同于快乐, 而应关注
自我成长、人生意义和自我价值的实现(Huta &
Waterman, 2014; Ryan & Martela, 2016; Steger,
Kashdan, & Oishi, 2008)Law Staudinger (2016)
进一步指出自我实现幸福感不应只重视自我的幸
, 还应兼顾他人的幸福, 最终实现共同的幸福。
自我实现幸福感的测量工具多采用 Ryff (1989)
心理幸福感量表(psychological well-being scale,
PWBS), 该问卷由六成分构成:自我接纳、良好
的人际关系、环境掌控、自主性、人生目标感、
自我成长。不过这一工具相对忽视了自我实现的
社会性和道德内涵(仅良好的人际关系是社会性
的表现)人是社会性动物, 需解决许多社会问题。
Keyes (1998)从个体的社会性出发, 提出社会幸福
感的概念, 认为其包括社会整合、社会接纳、社会
贡献、社会自我实现、社会凝聚力, 由此编制了社
会幸福感问卷(social psychology quarterly)
研究多认为平衡自我、他人或社会的利益以
实现共同的善是智慧的关键特征(Ardelt, 2003;
Kekes, 1995; Staudinger & Kunzmann, 2005; Sternberg,
1998; Webster, 2010; 汪凤炎, 郑红, 2015)。如智
慧者重视自我发展, 但这种自我发展不是无节制
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 547
的索取物质享受、感官刺激和权力, 而是获得洞
察力和自我成长, 同时善于兼顾自我和他人的福
(Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003)智慧者和普通人一
, 渴望拥有幸福, 但这种幸福来自自我成长、
生意义和帮助他人(Webster, Westerhof, &
Bohlmeijer, 2012)
智慧与自我实现幸福感的内涵有所重叠。因
此不难推断, 两者之间应存在较高的正相关。研
究者多将自我实现幸福感作为智慧测量工具的预
测效标(Ardelt, 2003; Taylor, Bates & Webster,
2011)虽然智慧与自我实现幸福感的内涵有所重
, 但不意味着两个概念可互换。自我实现幸福
感产生于个体运用智慧素质成功的解决日常生活
中的存在性两难和冲突问题(Law & Staudinger,
2016)因此智慧也是获得自我实现幸福感的手段
(Baltes & Staudinger, 2000)如有研究发现自我反
省是智慧的必要组成部分(Ardelt, 2003; Glück &
Bluck, 2013; Law & Staudinger, 2016; Webster,
2003), 个体可通过自我反省获得自我成长的幸福
(Weststrate & Glück, 2017a)智慧与自我实现幸福
感之关系的实证证据见表 1
2.2 智慧与享乐主义幸福感的关系
2.2.1 智慧与享乐主义幸福感几乎 无关
西方哲学流行一种观点认为, 智慧
人类面临的现实困境和自我的渺小或局限性,
会感 乐。 通人 , 对现 持一
好的幻觉更易获得幸福(Bergsma & Ardelt, 2012)
还有研究者认为积极情绪对个体发展具有重要的
促进作用(Fredrickson, 2001) 。受这些观点影响,
Kunzmann Baltes (2003) 将积极情绪划为两类:
一类为快乐情, 如愉悦、兴、自豪 ; 另一类为
(affective involvement), 如感
力、兴奋感。虽然快乐情绪让人感觉愉悦和舒,
但可 自盲 乐观 , 会削 体洞 生意
义 和 人 类 处 境 的 动 机 和 能 力 , 阻 碍 智 慧 发 展
(Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003)。情绪卷入激发个体
索环境的动机, 高认知能 , 利于智慧发展
因此 , 有太 , 只会
多的自我卷入情绪。
Mickler Staudinger (2008)也认为一定程
1 智慧与自我实现幸福感正相关的证据
作者(年代) 文化
群体
年龄
跨度
测量智慧的
工具或范式
自我实现
幸福感的测量指标 相关系数
Staudinger et al. (1997) 德国人 19~87 BWM 开放性, 心理感受性 r开放性 = 0.42, r心理感受
= 0.28
Kunzmann & Baltes
(2003)
德国人 15~70 BWM 价值观:自我成长、洞察力、
增进友人福祉、社会贡献和
生态保护, 合作倾向
r自我成长= 0.20, r洞察力 = 0.23,
r友人福祉 = 0.20, r生态保护= 0.17,
r社会贡献 = 0.17, r合作倾向 = 0.16
Ardelt (2003) 美国人 52~87 3D-WS 控制感, 人生目标 r控制感 = 0.63, r人生目标 = 0.61
Webster (2010) 加拿大人、中国
人、印度人等
18~36 SAWS 价值观:自我成长、洞察力、
增进友人福祉、社会贡献和
生态保护, 生命态度
r自我成长 = 0.55, r洞察力 = 0.51,
r友人福祉 = 0.34, r 生态保护 = 0.39,
r社会贡献 = 0.26, r生命态度 = 0.23
Le (2011) 美国人 39~96 3D-WS 价值观:自我提升(权力、快
乐和成就), 开放性, 自我超
(仁慈和宇宙视野)
r自我提升 = −0.08, ns
r开放性 = 0.20, r自我超越 = 0.17
Ardelt (2011) 主体是澳大利
亚人
18~68 3D-WS 心理幸福感 r =040~0.49
Taylor et al. (2011) 同上 同上 3D-WS,
SAWS
心理幸福感 r3D-WS = 0.64, rSAWS = 0.46
Etezadi & Pushkar
(2013)
具体不详, 说英
语和法语
45~79 3D-WS 生活参与度, 感知控制 r生活参与= 0.35, r感知控制 = 0.40
Webster et al. (2012) 丹麦人 17~92 SAWS 心理幸福感 r = 0.44
Wink & Staudinger
(2015)
美国中产阶级 68~77 BWM 人格成长(开放性、心理感受
性、自我成长、自主性、人
生目标), 创生
r人格成长 = 0.57, r创生 = 0.34
Ardelt, Gerlach, &
Vaillant (2018)
美国人 平均 80 3D-WS 开放性 r = 0.31
548 27
的积极情绪有 于个体进 自我反省, 获得智慧,
但积 绪达 定水 , 我智 展的
用将 。此 , 还认 有自 慧的
善于进行批判性自我反省, 引起不愉快感。
还有研究认为, 虽然遭受重大人生挫折(如离
婚、重大疾病、丧子等)会伴随较长时间的消极
, 诡的 , 挫折
进了 的形 发展 , 智慧 乐联
系在一起(Weststrate & Glück, 2017a)此获得智
慧并不是一件轻松愉快的事情, 需要 一定
代价有研 究采 ASTI 测量智慧, 追踪参
战争的军人在退伍前的压力感知对十年后智慧的
影响, 发现在 争中体验 等压力感 退伍军人 ,
其智慧的得分要高于低压力和高压力的退伍军人
(Jennings, Aldwin, Levenson, Spiro, & Mroczek,
2006)Weststrate Glück (2017b)被试报告
如何应对重大人生挫折事件及学到的人生经验,
结果 对此 批判 我反 , 意义
感和 成长 , 更高 慧。 慧与
享乐主义幸福感几乎无关的证据见表 2
2.2.2 智慧与享乐主义幸福感中等正相
埃里克森 为智 是顺完成每个 生阶
的发 务而 年形 优秀 , 表现
体在 死亡 , 对人 刻认 超脱
怀(汪凤, , 2014, p.137)人生后期, 智慧
者继 力所 的事 , 社会 理和
机能 , 维持 生活 度。
影响, Ardelt (1997)认为虽然外在因素, 收入
受教育程度、社会地位和身体健康等对维持生活
满意 一定 , 其中 重要
因素。特别是正处于人生逆境、没有太多外在资
源可用的人, 更需要智慧来维持积极情感(Ardelt
& Edwards, 2016)研究发现在弱势群体中(老人
妇女、临终病人等), 智慧 积极情绪和生活满
度的关系更强(Ardelt & Edwards, 2016; Bergsma
& Ardelt, 2012)。因 , 究发现智慧与积极
绪和 满意 , 可能 于选 过良
教育 , , 他们
持幸福(Ardelt & Edwards, 2016)
自我实现幸福感(如控 人生 )
用。Etezadi Pushkar (2013)将控制感分为初级
控制 级控 , 前者 体直 用于
得控制感, 后者指调整自己的态度和感知以适应
环境。他们认为深刻地自我认知和应对外在环境
的能力, 使智慧者学到很多实用性知识, 提高了
问题解决能力, 进而获得更强的初级控制感。如
果初级控制失败, 对模糊性的忍耐力和灵活的处
置态度, 能使智慧者形成有效的次级控制策略,
避免挫败感和自我怀疑(Etezadi & Pushkar, 2013)
善于多角度思考问题, 渴望深刻地认识自我和世
界的动机, 善于反思等特征, 使智慧者赋予人生
事务以特定的意义和价值(人生目标感)因此智慧
者也是一个意义建构者(Etezadi & Pushkar, 2013)
早年积累的宝贵人生经验使智慧者有效地应对老
龄化带来的挑战, 获得控制感(Ardelt & Edwards,
2016)智慧者也能将关爱和感激作为人生目标而
获得另一种意义上的控制感。接纳和反思人生的
不幸, 加上较高的控制感, 使他们重新发现和建
构自己的人生目标和意义(Ardelt & Edwards,
2016)控制感和人生目标感可提高和维持较高的
积极情绪(Etezadi & Pushkar, 2013)。支持此假设
的证据见表 2
2.3 小结与评价
综上, 智慧与自我实现幸福感的正相关已得
到研究者的普遍认同。智慧与享乐主义幸福感是
何种关系, 尚在争论中, 其中两者呈中等正相关
的结论大体来自采用自我报告法测量自我智慧的
研究(测量工具主要为 3D-WS SAWS), 而两者
几乎无关的结论则主要来自采用表现法测量一般
智慧的研究(主要为柏林智慧模式)。这似乎暗示,
测量方法和测量内容的差异可能是造成结论不一
致的重要原因(Le, 2011; Zacher & Staudinger,
2018)。其一, 很多研究者质疑自我报告法测量智
慧的有效性, 归结起来该方法可能存在三个缺
陷:记忆偏差、自我认知不准确和社会赞许性
(Brienza, Fyh, Santos, Bobocel, & Grossmann, in
press; Zacher & Staudinger, 2018)。况且采用自我
报告法同时测量智慧和幸福感, 易产生共同方法
偏差, 而现有研究几乎未对此进行检验和控制。
正由于这两点, 智慧与享乐主义幸福感正相关虚
高的可能性难以排除。其二, 表现测量法测量的
是一般智慧, 而自我报告测量法测量的是自我智
(Staudinger & Glück, 2011)研究者对一般智慧
和自我智慧的本质差异还缺乏清晰地认识和系统
的实证研究(Zacher & Staudinger, 2018)目前还没
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 549
2 智慧与享乐主义幸福感的关系
研究者(年代) 文化
群体
年龄
跨度
测量智慧的
工具或范式
享乐主义
幸福感的测量指标 相关系数
智慧与享乐主义幸福感几乎无关
Wink & Helson (1997) 美国人 27~52 BWM 生活满意度和夫妻关系
满意度
r生活满意度 = 0.16, ns,
r夫妻关系满意度 = 0.02, ns
Kunzmann & Baltes (2003) 德国人 15~70 BWM 情绪形容词 r快乐情绪 = −0.17,
r消极情绪 = −0.13,
r情绪卷入 = 0.28
Mickler & Staudinger
(2008)
德国人 20~40
60~80
BWM 情绪形容词 r积极情绪 = 0.05~0.11,
ns, r消极情绪 = −0.02~0.04, ns
Le (2011) 美国人 39~96 ASTI 生活满意度 r = 0.09, ns
Grossmann et al. (2013) 美国人 25~90 智慧推理 积极情绪, 消极情绪,
际关系质量, 反刍, 生活
满意度, 人生叙事的情感
语言
r生活满意度 = 0.17, r积极情绪=0.01, ns,
r消极情绪 = −0.27, r人际关系质量 = 0.25,
r情感语言 = 0.19
Hu, Huang, Ferrari, Wang,
Xie, & Zhang (2018)
中国人 18~22 BWM 面部表情记录设备 r悲伤情绪 = 0.36
智慧与享乐主义幸福感中等正相关
Ardelt (1997) 美国人 58~82 3D-WS 生活满意度 r = 0.76, r = 0.70
Ardelt (2003) 美国人 52~87 3D-WS 一般幸福感和抑郁 r一般幸福感= 0.45,
r抑郁 = −0.59
Neff, Rude, &
Kirkpatrick (2007)
美国人 不详(
学生)
3D-WS 主观幸福感 r认知 = 0.11, ns,
r反省 = 0.47, r情感 = 0.35
Beaumont (2009) 加拿大人 18~35 ASTI 主观幸福感 r = 0.48
Le (2011) 美国人 39~96 3D-WS 生活满意度 r = 0.33
Bergsma & Ardelt (2012) 丹麦人 20~70 3D-WS 快乐情绪 r = 0.30
Webster et al. (2012) 丹麦人 17~92 SAWS 快乐情绪 r = 0.30
Zacher, McKenna,
& Rooney (2013)
美国人 16~74 3D-WS 生活满意度, 积极情绪,
消极情绪
r生活满意度 = 0.16,
r积极情绪 = 0.14, r消极情绪 = −0.29
Etezadi & Pushkar (2013) 具体不详,
英语和法语
45~79 3D-WS 积极情绪, 消极情绪 r积极情绪 = 0.34, r消极情绪 = −0.27
Wink & Staudinger (2015) 美国人 68~77 BWM 人格适应(宜人性、责任
心、低神经质, 环境控制、
积极人际关系、自我接纳)
r人格适应 = 0.25
Ardelt & Jeste (2016) 美国人 51~99 3D-WS 生活满意度, 一般幸福
, 积极情绪, 心理健康
r生活满意度 = 0.29, r一般幸福感 = 0.35,
r积极情绪= 0.34, r心理健康 = 0.33
Thomas, Bangen,
Ardelt, & Jeste (2017)
美国人 21~100 3D-WS 心理健康, 一般幸福感,
焦虑, 生活满意度
r心理健康 = 0.26, r一般幸福感 = 0.35,
r焦虑 = −0.27, r生活满意度 = 0.30
Ardelt et al. (2018) 美国人 平均 80 3D-WS 一般幸福感 r = 0.17
注:智慧推理是 Grossmann (2013)借鉴柏林模式开发的测量范式, 测量六个方面:站在冲突双方的立场上思考问题,
识到事态会发生改变, 灵活的预测能力, 认识到存在不确定性和知识的局限性, 寻找化解冲突的方法, 寻找共识。这与柏林
模式的三个元成分的内涵具有较大的一致性(Baltes & Staudinger, 2000)
有系统的理论解释一般智慧和自我智慧与幸福感
之关系的差异。
除关注引起智慧与享乐主义幸福感不一致结
论的原因外, 还应重视如下问题。(1) 样本缺乏文
化多样性。当前研究样本几乎来自北美和西欧,
针对其他文化人群的研究很少。(2) 自我实现幸
550 27
福感的理论基础和测量工具相对单一, 研究者多
采用 Ryff 的心理幸福感理论或测量工具。(3)探讨
智慧与幸福感的关系时, 应更重视幸福感的社会
性和道德内涵, 尤其是在集体主义文化中探讨两
者的关系。如智慧的中国人更可能因社会价值和
社会责任而感到幸福(陆洛, 2007; 曾红, 郭斯萍,
2012)。幸福感与道德密切相关, 但至今很少有测
量工具重视测量其中的道德内涵(Hirata, 2016)
道德也是智慧的核心部分(Sternberg, 2013; 汪凤
, 郑红, 2015)。因 此 , 探讨幸福感与智慧的关系
不能缺少对道德的关注。
3 从智慧发展的角度探讨智慧与幸福
感的理论关系
上面介绍智慧与幸福感的实证研究, 阐释了
研究者站在各自智慧理论的立场解释研究结果。
积极人格发展观和发展历程观有所突破, 从智慧
发展的视角重新思考智慧与幸福感的关系, 将理
论探讨推向深入。
3.1 积极人格发展观
Staudinger Kunzmann (2005)基于人格功能
将个体的人格发展路径划分为两类:人格适应
(Personality Adjustment) 和人格成长(Personality
Growth), 后者与智慧发展密切相关。
人格适应良好的人具有较高的社会能力、实
践能力和专业技能以及情绪稳定和可信赖的人格
特征, 这些特征伴随个体的年龄增长而增长(Law
& Staudinger, 2016)。社会成熟是人格适应的关键
指标。社会成熟指个体能适应其所处社会环境的
角色和社会规范的要求, 目的是获得感官享受、
权力和世俗成就(Law & Staudinger, 2016)大五人
格中的宜人性、责任心和神经质, 心理幸福感结
构中的自我接纳、环境控制和良好人际关系均属
人格适应的范畴(Law & Staudinger, 2016)人格适
应良好说明个体的社会化过程和结果令人满意。
当个体因年老而出现生理和心理机能丧失时,
展良好的各种实用技能和人格特征, 仍然有助于
他们维持和提高积极情绪和生活满意度, 但这与
智慧的发展几乎没有关系(Law & Staudinger,
2016)
人格成长指个体获得对自我、他人和世界的
洞察力, 复杂的情绪调节能力, 以及摆脱自我中
心性, 关注他人的利益和福祉。大五人格中的开
放性, 心理幸福感中的自我成长、人生目标感和
自主性, 以及心理感受性等是人格成长的关键
(Law & Staudinger, 2016; Staudinger &
Kunzmann, 2005)人格适应促使个体完成社会化
的常规任务, 遵循常规发展路径。人格成长需创
造性, 促使个体走上独特的发展道路。人格成长的
结果是形成自我智慧(Staudinger & Kunzmann,
2005)。但人格成长或智慧之路并非坦途, 需不断
地突破其所处社会文化环境的限制, 迎接各种挑
战。因此, 享乐主义幸福感不一定与人格成长或
自我智慧相伴, 也绝不是智慧者的终极追(Law
& Staudinger, 2016; Mickler & Staudinger, 2008)
3.2 发展历程观
Weststrate Glück (2017a)基于积极人格发
展观提出了智慧与幸福感之关系的发展历程观
(the developmental process model), 他们认为个体
深入反思自己经历的人生重大挫折事件是其智慧
发展的重要动因。随着重大挫折事件发生后的时
间演进, 个体可能会走上三条发展路径的其中一
条:无知得福路径、智慧得福路径和消极适应路
(如图 1)
1 智慧与幸福感之关系的三种发展路径
文献来源:Weststrate Glück (2017a)
走上无知得福路径的个体在经历重大人生挫
折后, 积极情绪和生活满意度短期内明显地下降,
但他们快速利用自我防御机制缓冲该事件的影响,
将积极情绪和生活满意度提到略高于原先的水
平。他们未深入分析, 而是用已有的意义结构解
释当前的一切, 未形成新的意义结构, 也就不能
产生智慧。随着时间推移, 这些人未从创伤性事
件中获益更多, 如幸福感。
走上智慧得福路径的个体, 在经历人生逆境
, 同样出现积极情绪和生活满意度短期内明显
下降, 但他们愿意深入思考人生和世界的根本问
, 获得新的认识和领悟, 改变原先的意义结构,
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 551
提高智慧水平。随着时间推移, 他们从逆境中获益
亦越来越多, 积极情感和生活满意度不断提高。
第三条路径——消极适应。走上此路径的人,
面对人生逆境, 自怨自艾, 既缺乏有效的适应能
, 也无从逆境中获得人生领悟的动机, 最终既
未获得智慧, 也未从逆境中恢复, 陷入一蹶不振
的状态中。随着时间推移, 个体的积极情感和生
活满意度一直维持于低水平状态。
3.3 小结与评价
积极人格发展观是首个从智慧发展的角度探
讨智慧与幸福感之关系的理论。但此观点目前受
到一些挑战。如积极人格发展观将自我智慧视为
人格成长的结果, 这潜在认为智慧是一种相对稳
定的人格特征。但现有研究表明, 智慧不仅具有
相对稳定性, 也受环境影响而表现出不稳定性
(Grossmann, 2017)。若只考虑智慧的相对稳定性
部分, 此批评不会对积极人格发展观造成太大的
困扰。但人格成长与人格适应果真是相互独立的
两条人格发展路径吗?Ardelt (2018)认为顺从
和保守之人(人格适应), 也有自我超越和仁慈特
(与人格成长和智慧有关); 开放性之人(人格成
)也会追求享乐、世俗成就和权力, 这与
Staudinger Kunzmann (2005)的预测相反。Ardelt
(2018)98 名美国男性 60 年的追踪数据中发现
了三条而非两条人格发展路径:(1)青年期的外向
(人格适应)影响老年期的享乐主义幸福感; (2)
青年期的开放性(人格成长)影响老年期的智慧形
; (3)童年期的生活质量、青少年期的学业和体
育表现以及青年期的情绪稳定性(均为人格适应)
影响中年期的创生和老年期的智慧(均为人格成
长的结果)以及享乐主义幸福感。可见, 人格成长
与人格适应的平衡发展对智慧和享乐主义幸福感
有重要影响(Ardelt et al., 2018)
发展历程观是新近提出的理论, 其有效性尚
需追踪数据的支持。该理论得以成立的前提是,
重大、消极、非正常的人生事件, , 离婚、失业、
死亡威胁、被遗弃等, 是智慧发展的催化剂
(Weststrate & Glück, 2017a; Weststrate, Ferrari,
Fournier, & McLean, 2018)。但这个前提对智慧发
展真有普适性吗?首先, 积极人生经历对智慧发
展也可能有积极作用。如在极度幸福和与世界融
为一体的高峰体验状态中, 个体的人生意义将产
生重大顿悟, 整个人生观发生改变(马斯洛, 1987,
pp.366–381), 这些改变本身也是智慧发展的表
现。Webster (2007)认为积极和消极的重大事件都
能促进智慧的发展。Weststrate (2018)也承认很
多被试认为积极事件也能促进智慧发展, 如首子
诞生。其次, 智慧不一定只产生于反思亲历的重
大人生事件, 观察或阅读他人的经历也可能会起
到积极作用。观察学习是人类的重要学习方式,
观察他人的经历, 可避免因错误的努力带来的损
失和痛苦(班杜拉, 2001, pp.47–144)Staudinger
(2001)认为反省自己的人生经历可促进自我智慧
和一般智慧的发展, 而反省他人的人生经历可促
进一般智慧的发展。另外, 有时重大人生挫折事
件是由个体的愚蠢所致, 智慧者可能会避免这些
错误, 从而不会经历太多重大创伤事件(Sternberg,
2006; Grossmann et al., 2013)
可见, 如果从人生事件的积极和消极效价以
及反思的直接性和间接性, 至少可将重要人生经
历分成四类:亲历的积极重要人生经历、亲历的
消极重要人生经历、间接获知的积极重要人生经
历、间接获知的消极重要人生经历。目前只有第
二类人生经历更受研究者的关注(Jennings et al.,
2006; Weststrate et al., 2018; Ardelt, 2005; Webster
& Deng, 2015)。如果智慧发展既可产生于重大的
消极人生事件, 也可来自积极事件或间接获知的
经验, 那么智慧与幸福感的关系还如图 1所示的
三种发展路径吗?智慧发展与人生经历本身可能
关系不大, 但如何解释和应对这些事件则对其智
慧能否生成或提高具有重要影响(Ardelt, 2005)
所以, 本文并不否定发展历程观在解释智慧与幸
福感之关系的有效性, 而是要指出重大创伤事件
可能只是探讨两者关系的背景之一, 是两者关系
在特定背景下的一种特定类型。在其他背景条件
下探讨智慧与幸福感的关系, 也许与发展历程观
的预测不同。
4 新观点和研究展望
4.1 新观点:发展水平观
基于积极人格发展观与智慧的德才一体
, 可建构出智慧与幸福感之关系的发展水平
观。积极人格发展观潜在地认为自我智慧是人格
成长的终点, 没有说明智慧可分为高低差异不同
的层次或水平。智慧的德才一体理论根据个体品
德和才能发展的高低差异, 将智慧分为小智慧、
552 27
中智慧和大智慧(汪凤炎, 郑红, 2014, pp.251–
254)如果单从智慧的相对稳定性来说, 人格成长
过程也可视为智慧的发展过程, 即个体的智慧从
小智慧发展到中智慧、大智慧的过程。
有研究认为自我实现幸福感比享乐主义幸福
感更优越、更值得追求(Ward & King, 2016)。这
表明幸福感也有层次之分, 且不同层次之间存在
质的差异。最近有研究提出, 享乐主义幸福感和
自我实现幸福感不能穷尽幸福感的所有内容(
晓波, 孙超, 汪凤炎, 2017)个体除生理和心理需
要外, 还有精神需要。当个体对自我和世界的觉
知和领悟达到物我皆忘, 内心深处体验到恬静、
平和、意义与价值感、希望与力量感时, 精神幸
福感油然而生(徐晓波等, 2017)。因此, 从幸福感
的来源看, 至少表现为三个不同的层次:来自物
质和生理需要的幸福感是最低层次, 来自自我实
(包括自我成长和社会贡献)的幸福感是中间层
, 因精神超脱而获得的幸福感是更高层次。强
调幸福感的层次性也更体现中国文化对幸福感的
理解, 如中国人的幸福感既有基本生活需要和人
际关系需要得到满足的感性之乐, 也有不断提高
自我的道德修养而达到境界的理性之乐,
更有独与天地精神相往来的超脱之乐和宁静和谐
的涅槃之乐(曾红, 郭斯萍, 2012)
由于智慧与幸福感都具有层次性, 根据智慧
德才一体理论可推测:智慧发展的水平差异
与个体幸福感的层次性相适应。随着聪明才智的
发展, 个体对自我和世界的认识更加深刻, 逐渐
看透人生幻象(Mckee & Barber, 1999), 发现人生
真谛和真正的价值追求, 同时在经验积累基础上
的问题解决能力也越来越高。而伴随道德修养的
不断提高, 个体性的小我不断升华, 逐渐从
自我中心脱离出来, 形成一个可包容更大、更多
人的社会性的大我(杨中芳, 2009, pp.312–334),
直至达到人合一的境界, 将自我和宇宙同
(Levenson et al., 2005)由此幸福感的来源也发
生变化。具体而言, (1) 处于智慧发展较低阶段的
, 能一定程度地发现人生的真正价值追求在于
自我成长和社会贡献, 但还不能完全脱离对物质
利益的追求。当面对自我和他人或社会的利益冲
突时, 较好的问题解决能力虽有助于他们兼顾自
我和他人或社会的长期和短期福祉, 但由于其道
德修养所限, 其根本动机在于自己的福祉。此阶
, 他们可获得自身物质需要得到满足和一定程
度的自我成长带来的幸福感。(2)智慧发展中等程
度的人, 对人生的认识更加深刻, 追求自我成长
和社会贡献的动机更加强烈。不断发展的问题解
决能力让他们更善于平衡自我和他人或社会的长
期和短期福祉, 由于道德修养的提高, 其根本动
机是为他人和社会做贡献。此一阶段的幸福感主
要来自对高尚人生意义的追求和社会价值的实
现。(3)智慧发展到最高层次的人, 对人生和世界
的认识最深刻, 能超越物我的二元对立, 达到天
人合一的超道德境界。发展最完善的问题解决能
力使他们最善于平衡自我和他人或社会的福祉,
但其根本动机已经与自我和他人或社会无关,
为他们已经没有自我与他人或社会的对立。此阶
段的幸福感主要来自精神的超脱和逍遥。此外,
随着智慧不断提高, 幸福感不仅在来源上体现出
根本差异, 还可能表现为持续时间更长和对身心
健康的促进作用更大, 进而对寿命产生更积极的
影响。
也可从智慧的德才一体理论推导智慧的反
面与幸福感的关系。智慧的反面可分为德才俱低
于正常和德才失调型, 后者可大致分为两种:德
高才少和才高德少型(汪凤炎, 郑红, 2018)。德才
俱低于正常者属于先天智力缺陷者, 他们对幸福
仅有非常浅显的感受, 可能仅限于生理的快感。
他们对幸福可能也无清晰地意识, 也就无所谓幸
福不幸福。对于德高才少者来说, 尽管存有善心,
但由于没有发展较高的才能作为保障来解决复杂
问题, 可能会好心办坏事或无法成功解决问题(
凤炎, 郑红, 2014, p.201), 最终不能有助于自己和
他人甚至损害自己和他人的福祉, 导致不幸的后
果。由于德高才少者多能解决日常生活中的常规
问题, 如果他们一生中没有遇到棘手的复杂问题
或重大人生决策, 也能过上安稳而平淡的生活。
才高德少者可能得不到幸福或长久的幸福。尽管
才高德少者才能出众, 能较好的解决复杂问题,
但由于道德修养不够, 过于关注自我福祉, 不能
正确的平衡自我和他人或社会的长期福祉, 也不
能发现人生的真正价值追求, 最终可能有损自
我、他人或社会的长期福祉。因此, 即使这些人
能得到一时的属于自己的幸福, 但由于损害到他
人或集体的利益, 最终可能使自己遭受长期的痛
苦。现有研究也表明只有聪明才智, 而没有亲社
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 553
会动机, 很难获得幸福(Grossmann et al., 2013)
中国文化里有吃亏是福的说法。如郑板桥
说:吃亏是福——满者损之机, 亏者盈之渐。损
于己则益于彼, 外得人情之平, 内得我心之安,
即平且安, 福即在是矣”, 此说法在部分中国人群
里颇有影响。可惜的是, 少有人真正去分析吃亏
是福在何种语境中才能成立。从智慧的德才一体
理论看, 只有决策和问题解决的结果有益于自
我、他人和社会的长期福祉, “吃亏是福的说法也
许才能成立(唐辉, 周坤, 赵翠霞, 李纾, 2014;
Zhao et al., 2018)
4.2 研究展望
未来探讨智慧与幸福感的关系, 宜着眼于两
方面。第一, 选择和编制合适的测量工具。从发
展水平观看, 要探讨二者的关系, 需编制测量智
慧发展水平和区分幸福感层次的测量工具。目前
智慧测量主要采用表现法和自我报告法, 二者测
到的实际上都不是智慧的发展水平(陈浩彬, 汪凤
, 2013; Glück, 2017; 王予灵, 汪凤炎, 2018)。编
制智慧发展水平测量工具, 关键是解决三个问
题:(1)衡量个体智慧发展水平的关键指标是什
么?(2)人类的智慧发展具体有几个阶段?每个阶
段的具体表现是什么?(3)建立智慧常模, 用以确
定个体的智慧发展水平在某群体中所处的位置。
其次, 编制测量幸福感来源的层次, 且适应中国
文化的幸福感问卷。简单的将享乐主义幸福感与
自我实现幸福感放在同一框架中, 也许不能有效
地解决幸福感的整合问题。如对如何整合不同类
型的幸福感一直存在争论(Waterman, 1993; Ryan
& Martela, 2016)。整合不理想可能是由于现有测
量工具混淆了幸福感的来源、功能和体验的差异
(Huta & Waterman, 2014)国内的幸福感测量工具
多修订于国外的成熟问卷。它们有的包含西方的
文化价值观, 在中国适应不良”, Ryff 的心理
幸福感问卷(邢占军, 黄立清, 2004)。有的测量工
具忽视文化价值观(Diener 5题生活满意度问
), 这虽然让测量工具更具有文化普适性, 却无
法体现幸福观对幸福感的影响(陆洛, 2007)。精神
幸福感并未进入幸福感测量的主流领域, 这体现
在现有测量幸福感的主流工具几乎不包括精神幸
福感的内容(Proctor & Tweed, 2016)。因此, 探讨
智慧与幸福感之关系, 宜借鉴国外最新研究成果,
编制更适应中国文化的幸福感测量工具。如根据
幸福感的来源, 整合三种幸福感视角, 同时注重
测量幸福体验的强度和持续时间。
第二, 确定智慧与幸福感的因果关系。一种
观点认为幸福感是影响智慧发展的重要心理资源
(Mickler & Staudinger, 2008), 另一种观点认为幸
福感是智慧发展的结果(Grossmann et al., 2013;
Ardelt, 2016)。虽然两种观点都有追踪数据支持
(Ardelt, 2016; Ardelt et al., 2018; Wink & Helson,
1997), 但对智慧的测量多依赖自我报告法, 无法
避免较大的测量误差(Brienza et al., in press)。未
来宜注意三个方面。(1) 开展严谨的实验研究。
实验法是确定因果关系的最可靠方法。如可设计
干预方案提升个体的智慧, 比较幸福感的前后测
分数之差异。(2) 开展长期追踪研究。除生理基
础外, 智慧发展需长期坚持不懈的实践与练习(
予灵, 汪凤炎, 2018)短期追踪研究不是探讨智慧
和幸福感之关系的最佳方式。(3) 如果条件有限,
开展短期追踪研究时, 需谨慎地取样。智慧在青
少年期和成年早期发展较快 (Pasupathi,
Staudinger, & Baltes, 2001), 45 岁前有所下降,
45 岁后缓慢上升(Brienza et al., in press)。也有研
究发现智慧在成年期后缓慢上升, 55 岁左右达到
顶峰, 然后缓慢下降(Thomas et al., 2017; Webster
et al., 2012)。短期追踪选择处于青少年期到成年
早期和中年期的被试也许更适合。
参考文献
班杜拉
. (2001).
思想和行动的社会基础
——
社会认知论
(
上下
)
(
林颖
等译
).
上海
:
华东师大出版社
.
陈浩彬
,
汪凤炎
. (2013).
智慧
:
结构、类型、测量及与相
关变量的关系
.
心理科学进展
, 21
(1), 108–117.
陈浩彬
,
汪凤炎
. (2014).
大学生智慧内隐认知的实验研究
.
心理发展与教育
, 30
(4), 363–370.
陆洛
. (2007).
华人的幸福观与幸福感
.
心理学应用探索
,
9
(1), 19–30.
马斯洛
. (1987).
人的潜能与价值
(
林方
).
北京
:
华夏出
版社
.
唐辉
,
周坤
,
赵翠霞
,
李纾
. (2014).
吃亏是福
:
选项
而获真利
.
心理学报
, 46
(10), 1549–1563.
汪凤炎
,
郑红
. (2014).
智慧心理学的理论探索与应用研究
.
上海
:
上海教育出版社
.
汪凤炎
,
郑红
. (2015).
品德与才智一体
:
智慧的本质与范
.
南京社会科学
,
(3), 127–133.
汪凤炎
,
郑红
. (2018).
论愚蠢的德才欠缺理论
.
心理学探
, 38
(5), 387–392.
汪凤炎
,
傅绪荣
. (2017). “
智慧
”:
德才一体的综合心理素
554 27
.
中国社会科学报
, (6).
王予灵
,
汪凤炎
. (2018).
老者智否
?
成人智慧与年龄的关
.
心理科学进展
, 26
(1), 107–117.
徐晓波
,
孙超
,
汪凤炎
. (2017).
精神幸福感
:
概念、测量、
相关变量及干预
.
心理科学进展
, 25
(2), 275–289.
邢占军
,
黄立清
. (2004). Ryff
心理幸福感量表在我国城市
居民中的试用研究
.
中国健康心理学杂志
, 12
(3),
231–233.
杨慊
,
程巍
,
贺文洁
,
韩布新
,
杨昭宁
. (2016).
追求意义
能带来幸福吗
?
心理科学进展
, 24
(9), 1496–1503.
杨中芳
. (2009).
如何理解中国人
:
文化与个人论文集
.
:
重庆大学出版社
.
曾红
,
郭斯萍
. (2012). “
”——
中国人的主观幸福感与传
统文化中的幸福观
.
心理学报
, 44
(7), 986–994.
Ardelt, M. (1997). Wisdom and life satisfaction in old age.
The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological
Sciences and Social Sciences
,
52
(1), 15–27.
Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional
wisdom scale.
Research on Aging
,
25
(3), 275–324.
Ardelt, M. (2004). Wisdom as expert knowledge system: A
critical review of a contemporary operationalization of an
ancient concept.
Human Development, 47
(5), 257–285.
Ardelt, M. (2005). How wise people cope with crises and
obstacles in life.
Revision: A Journal of Consciousness &
Transformation, 28
(1), 7–19.
Ardelt, M. (2011). The measurement of wisdom: A
commentary on Taylor, Bates, and Webster’s comparison
of the SAWS and 3D-WS.
Experimental Aging Research,
37
(2), 241–255.
Ardelt, M. (2016). Disentangling the relations between
wisdom and different types of well-being in old age:
Findings from a short-term longitudinal study.
Journal of
Happiness Studies, 17
(5), 1963–1984.
Ardelt, M. (2018). Can wisdom and psychosocial growth be
learned in university courses?
Journal of Moral Education
,
(9), 1–16.
Ardelt, M., & Edwards, C. A. (2016). Wisdom at the end of
life: An analysis of mediating and moderating relations
between wisdom and subjective well-being.
Journals of
Gerontology, 71
(3), 502–513.
Ardelt, M. & Jeste, D. V. (2016). Wisdom and hard times:
The ameliorating effect of wisdom on the negative
association between adverse life events and well-being.
Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 73
(8),
1374–1383.
Ardelt, M., Gerlach, K. R., & Vaillant, G. E. (2018). Early
and midlife predictors of wisdom and subjective well-
being in old age.
Journals of Gerontology, 73
(8), 1514–
1525.
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A
metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue
toward excellence.
American psychologist, 55
(1), 122–
136.
Beaumont, S. L. (2009). Identity processing and personal
wisdom: An information-oriented identity style predicts
self-actualization and self-transcendence.
Identity: An
International Journal of Theory and Research, 9
(2), 95–
115.
Bergsma, A., & Ardelt, M. (2012). Self-reported wisdom and
happiness: An empirical investigation.
Journal of Happiness
Studies
,
13
(3), 481–499.
Brienza, J. P., Kung, F. Y. H., Santos, H. C., Bobocel, D. R.,
& Grossmann, I. (in press). Wisdom, bias, and balance:
Toward a process-sensitive measurement of wisdom-
related cognition.
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology
.
Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). The
evolving concept of subjective well-being: The multifaceted
nature of happiness.
Advances in Cell Aging and Gerontology,
15
(4), 187–219.
Etezadi, S., & Pushkar, D. (2013). Why are wise people
happier? An explanatory model of wisdom and emotional
well-being in older adults.
Journal of Happiness Studies,
14
(3), 929–950.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotion in
positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of
positive emotion.
American Psychologist, 56
(3), 218–226.
Glück, J. (2017). Measuring wisdom: Existing approaches,
continuing challenges, and new developments.
Journals of
Gerontology: Psychological Sciences
,
73
(8), 1393–1403.
Glück, J., & Bluck, S. (2013). The MORE life experience
model: A theory of the development of personal wisdom.
In M. Ferrari & N. Weststrate (Eds.)
The scientific study
of personal wisdom
(pp.75–97). New York: Springer.
Grossmann, I., Na, J., Varnum, M. E. W., Kitayama, S., &
Nisbett, R. E. (2013). A route to well-being: Intelligence
vs. versus wise reasoning.
Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 142
(3), 944–953.
Grossmann, I. (2017). Wisdom in context.
Perspective
Psychological Science, 12
(2), 233–257.
Hirata, J. (2016). Ethics and eudaimonic well-being. In J.
Vittersø (ed.),
Handbook of Eudaimonic Well-Bei
ng (pp.
55–65), International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life.
Hu, C. S., Huang, J., Ferrari, M., Wang, Q., Xie, D., &
Zhang, H. (2018). Sadder but wiser: Emotional reactions
and wisdom in a simulated suicide intervention.
International
Journal of Psychology
.
Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its
distinction from Hedonia: Developing a classification and
terminology for understanding conceptual and operational
definitions.
Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6),
1425–
1456.
Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., Levenson, M. R., III Spiro,
A., & Mroczek, D. K. (2006). Combat exposure, perceived
3 傅绪荣等: 智慧与幸福感的关系:基于多元幸福取向的视角 555
benefits of military service, and wisdom in later life:
Findings from the normative aging study.
Research on Aging:
An International Bimonthly Journal, 28
(1), 115–134.
Kekes, J. (1995).
Moral wisdom and good lives
. Ithaca, New
York: Cornell University Press.
Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being.
Social Psychology
Quarterly, 61
(2), 121–140.
Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). Wisdom-related
knowledge: Affective, motivational, and interpersonal
correlates.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
29
(9), 1104–1119.
Law, A., & Staudinger, U. M. (2016). Eudaimonia and
Wisdom. In J. Vittersø (ed.),
Handbook of Eudaimonic
Well-Bei
ng (pp.135–146), International Handbooks of
Quality-of-Life.
Le, T. N. (2011). Life satisfaction, openness value,
self-transcendence, and wisdom.
Journal of Happiness
Studies
,
12
(2), 171–182.
Levenson, M. R., Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., & Shiraishi,
R. W. (2005). Self-transcendence: Conceptualization and
measurement.
International Journal of Aging and Human
Development, 60
(2), 127–143.
Li, H., & Wang, F. (2017). Real-time measurement of wise
personality cognition: Evidence from mouse tracking.
Current Psychology
(3), 1–15.
Mckee, P., & Barber, C. (1999). On defining wisdom.
International Journal of Aging & Human Development,
49
(2), 149–164.
Mickler, C., & Staudinger, U. M. (2008). Personal wisdom:
Validation and age-related differences of a performance
measure.
Psychology and Aging, 23
(4), 787–799.
Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., & Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2007). An
examination of self-compassion in relation to positive
psychological functioning and personality traits.
Journal
of Research in Personality, 41
(4), 908–916.
Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001).
Seeds of wisdom: Adolescents’ knowledge and judgment
about difficult life problems.
Developmental Psychology,
37
(3), 351–361.
Proctor, C., & Tweed, R. (2016). Measuring Eudaimonic
Well-Being. In J. Vittersø (ed.)
, Handbook of Eudaimonic
Well-Being
(pp. 277–294)
.
Springer International Publishing.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human
potentials: A review of research on hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being.
Annual Review of Psychology,
52
(1), 141–166.
Ryan, R. M., & Martela, F. (2016). Eudaimonia as a way of
living: Connecting aristotle with self-determination theory.
In J. Vittersø (ed.),
Handbook of Eudaimonic Well-Being
(pp. 109–121). Springer International Publishing.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it?
Exporations on the meaning of psychological well-being.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57
(6),
1069–1081.
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and
become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to
psychological well-being.
Journal of
Happiness Studies,
9
(1)
,
13–39.
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Wisdom-related knowledge:
Age/cohort differences in response to life-planning problems.
Developmental Psychology, 26
(3), 494–505.
Staudinger, U. M., Lopez, D. F., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). The
psychometric location of wisdom-related performance:
Intelligence, personality, and more?
Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 23
(11), 1200–1214.
Staudinger, U. M. (2001). Life reflection: A social-cognitive
analysis of life review.
Review of General Psychology,
5
(2), 148–160.
Staudinger, U. M., & Kunzmann, U. (2005). Positive adult
personality development: Adjustment and/or growth?
European Psychologist, 10
(4), 320–329.
Staudinger, U. M., & Glück, J. (2011). Psychological wisdom
research: Commonalities and differences in a growing
field.
Annual Review of Psychology, 62
(1), 215– 241.
Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., & Oishi, S. (2008). Being
good by doing good: Daily eudaimonic activity and well-
being.
Journal of Research in Personality, 42
(1), 22–42.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom.
Review
of General Psychology, 2
(4), 347–365.
Sternberg, R. J. (2006). Why smart people can be so foolish.
European Psychologist, 9
(3), 145–150.
Sternberg, R. J. (2013). Personal wisdom in the balance. In
M. Ferrari & N. Weststrate (Eds.),
The scientific study of
personal wisdom
(pp. 53–74). New York: Springer.
Taylor, M., Bates, G., & Webster, J. D. (2011). Comparing
the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom:
Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with
the self-assessed wisdom scale (SAWS) and the three-
dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS).
Experimental Aging
Research, 37
(2), 129–141.
Thomas, M. L., Bangen, K. J., Ardelt, M., & Jeste, D. V.
(2017). Development of a 12-item abbreviated three-
dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS-12): Item selection
and psychometric properties.
Assessment, 24
(1), 71–82.
Ward, S. J., & King, L. A. (2016). Socrates’ dissatisfaction,
a happiness arms race, and the trouble with eudaimonic
well-being. In J. Vittersø (ed.),
Handbook of Eudaimonic
Well-Being
(pp. 523–529). International Handbooks of
Quality-of-Life.
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness:
Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and
hedonic enjoyment.
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 64
(4), 678–691.
Webster, J. D. (2003). An exploratory analysis of a
556 27
self-assessed wisdom scale.
Journal of Adult Development,
10
(1), 13–22.
Webster, J. D. (2007). Measuring the character strength of
wisdom.
The International Journal of Aging & Human
Development, 65
(2), 163–183.
Webster, J. D. (2010). Wisdom and positive psychosocial
values in young adulthood.
Journal of Adult Development,
17
(2), 70–80.
Webster, J. D., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012).
Wisdom and mental health across the lifespan.
Journals of
Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social
Sciences, 69
(2), 209–218.
Webster, J. D., Deng, X. C. (2015). Paths from trauma to
intrapersonal strength: Worldview, posttraumatic growth,
and wisdom.
Journal of Loss and Trauma, 20
, 253–266.
Webster, J. D., Weststrate, N. M., Ferrari, M., Munroe, M., &
Pierce, T. W. (2017). Wisdom and meaning in emerging
adulthood.
Emerging Adulthood, 6
(2), 1–19.
Weststrate, N. M., & Glück, J. (2017a). Wiser but not sadder,
blissful but not ignorant: exploring the co-development of
wisdom and well-being over time. In M. Robinson, Eid
(eds.),
The Happy Mind: Cognitive Contributions to Well-
Being
(pp. 459–480). Springer International Publishing.
Weststrate, N. M. & Glück, J. (2017b). Hard-earned wisdom:
Exploratory processing of difficult life experience is
positively associated with wisdom.
Developmental Psychology,
53
(4), 800–814.
Weststrate, N. M., Ferrari, M., Fournier, M. A., & McLean,
K. C. (2018).It was the best worst day of my life:
Narrative content, structure, and process in wisdom-
fostering life event memories.
The Journals of Gerontology.
Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,
12
(11), 1–15.
Wink, P., & Helson, R. (1997). Practical and transcendent
wisdom: Their nature and some longitudinal findings.
Journal
of Adult
Development, 4
, 1–15.
Wink, P., & Staudinger, U. M. (2015). Wisdom and
psychosocial functioning in later life.
Journal of
Personality, 84
(3), 306–308.
Zacher, H., McKenna, B., & Rooney, D. (2013). Effects of
self-reported wisdom on happiness: Not much more than
emotional intelligence?
Journal of Happiness Studies
,
14
(6),
1697–1716.
Zacher, H., & Staudinger, U. M. (2018). Wisdom and well-
being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.),
Handbook
of Well-Being
. Noba Scholar Handbook series: Subjective
well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF publishers.
Zhao, C-X., Shen, S-C., Rao, L-L., Zheng, R., Liu, H., & Li,
S. (2018). Suffering a loss is good fortune: Myth or reality?
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 31
(3), 324–340.
The relationship between wisdom and well-being: A perspective based on
multiple orientations to well-being
FU Xurong; WEI Xindong; WANG Yuling; WANG Fengyan
(
Institute of Moral Education Research, Nanjing Normal University; School of Psychology,
Nanjing Normal University; Nanjing
210097,
China
)
Abstract:
Wisdom and well-being are universal human pursuits. The positive correlation between wisdom
and eudaimonic well-being is generally recognized by researchers. However, the relationship between
wisdom and hedonic well-being is still debated. Researchers have proposed the model of positive
personality development and the developmental process model from the perspective of wisdom development
to further explore the relationship between wisdom and well-being. Based on Chinese culture and research
on wisdom and well-being, the present article proposes the developmental level model: With the growth of
wisdom, the well-being of individuals varies in terms of sources, durations, and influences on physical and
mental health. In the future, we should focus on solving two problems: 1) choosing and developing an
appropriate tool for measuring wisdom and well-being, and 2) clarifying the causal relationship between
wisdom and well-being.
Key words: wisdom; well-being; positive personality development; developmental process model; developmental
level model
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to design a model to explain wisdom-based psychological well-being and the mediating role of loneliness in women. The method of this research is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-correlational in nature. The statistical population of this study was all women in Tehran in 1400. A total of 409 samples were selected by the available sampling method. The Riff 1995 Psychological Well-Being Questionnaire, the social and emotional loneliness scale and the 12-item wisdom scale were used for data collection. After data collection, data analysis was performed using spss24 and Amos24 software. Findings showed that the model has a good fit. Accordingly, psychological well-being has a direct and significant relationship with the variable of wisdom, and a significant inverse relationship with the feeling of loneliness (emotional and social). Based on these findings, it can be concluded that high feelings of loneliness (emotional and social) can have detrimental effects on psychological well-being and should be reduced by increasing wisdom to reduce the effects of loneliness to lead to increase psychological well-being. ‌‌ Women's Psychological Well-Being, Wisdom, Loneliness, Emotional Loneliness, Social loneliness. ‌ ‌Introduction The outbreak of Covid 19 can be considered an uncontrollable stressful event. Quarantine measures have disrupted daily life, which has a great impact on psychological well-being (López et al., 2020). Researchers have shown that psychological well-being decreases during the coronary crisis compared to pre-coronary psychological well-being and that symptoms such as anxiety, depression, nervousness, and frustration increase during the day (Tuason, Güss, 2021). Social distance is now necessary to reduce the prevalence of the disease. However, this social distance leads to more loneliness and social isolation, which increases the risk of suicide, substance abuse and obesity, and so on. We are in a coronary condition between two epidemics, one coronary and the other solitary (Jeste, 2021); Research findings confirm that loneliness is a causal factor in the health and psychological well-being of various populations and has serious immediate and long-term consequences in mental health (Hooman, Ahadi, Sepah Mansour, Sheikhi, 2010). Research results indicate an inverse relationship between wisdom and loneliness and show the potential role of wisdom-enhancing interventions in reducing and preventing loneliness (Morlett Paredes et al., 2019). Wisdom consists of several specific components: social behaviour, emotional regulation, acceptance of different values, and assertiveness (Nguyen, 2021). Reinforcement of wisdom may lead to improved mental health and psychological well-being (Vásquez et al., 2020). The results showed that higher levels of lonliness were correlated with lower levels of wisdom and vice versa. Loneliness was associated with poor health, sleep quality, and happiness, and such results can be interpreted in two ways(Jeste, Di Somma, 2020). Given the negative effects of the corona pandemic and the feeling of loneliness of women in situations where their responsibilities have multiplied, and based on a review of the research background, it is expected that reducing loneliness will lead to increasing wisdom and psychological well-being. In this regard, these questions arise as to whether wisdom contributes to the psychological well-being of women. Can the feeling of loneliness play a meditating role in this regard or not?. Methodology This study aimed to study the relationship between wisdom and the psychological well-being of women with moderating role of the feelings of loneliness. The method of this research is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive. 409 women were selected by convenience sampling method. The 18-item Reef Psychological Well-Being Questionnaire, the Adult Social-Emotional Loneliness Questionnaire, and a 12-item 3D short-term wisdom questionnaire were used online. Data were analyzed using SPSS 24 and AMOS software. Findings The results revealed a significant direct effect of wisdom, and feelings of loneliness on Psychological Well-Being. , and also, a moderating role of the feeling of loneliness (emotional and social) in the path of wisdom and Psychological Well-Being was significant. Generally, the fit indices of the whole model were appropriate. Result The first hypothesis of the study based on the effect of wisdom on women's psychological well-being was confirmed. As a theoretical basis, we can combine the cognitive, reflective and emotional characteristics of wisdom, a cognitive dimension that refers to a person's capacity and desire to understand life and face ambiguity and uncertainty and gain the meaning of life that leads to increased psychological well-being in the individual. The reflective dimension refers to a person's metacognition and reflective thinking skills and examining an event from multiple perspectives, The emotional dimension, includes a person's positive feelings and behaviours toward the world through empathy and compassion, and self-compassionate people deal with problems more kindly and without judgment. And the higher the wisdom, the higher the psychological well-being. Accordingly, wise women usually have high psychological well-being. Based on the second hypothesis, it is concluded that the feeling of loneliness (emotional and social) has a significant and inverse relationship with psychological well-being and wisdom. To explain this result, it can be said that when women feel that they are alone in society and do not feel any support in terms of the social environment around them, This feeling, in turn, harms self-acceptance, environmental dominance, a positive relationship with others, having a purpose in life, their personal growth and independence, and in general, their psychological well-being. The results also showed that there is an inverse relationship between wisdom and loneliness. To explain this result it can be said that the loneliness reaction increases activity in a part of the brain that is effective on attention and reduces attention and slows cognitive function, in contrast, the reaction of wisdom and happiness increases activity in the left insular that manages social characteristics like empathy (Grenan et al., 2021), so increasing wisdom can counteract negative cognitive factors of loneliness and minimize their effects. Another result was that wisdom has a significant effect on women's psychological well-being by mediating the role of loneliness (emotional, and social). Accordingly, people with positive efforts to develop empathy, humour, cognitive cohesion, visualization of wisdom in actions and positive influence on themselves and others will gain positive emotions and therefore will feel less lonely as a result, people will have high psychological well-being. those who have higher psychological well-being are happy, optimistic and have high emotional stability, try to solve their problems directly and are satisfied with their lives and feel happy (Afshari, Hashemi, 1398). Also, the wise response to coping with loneliness can reduce the negative effects of loneliness on life (Grenan et al., 2020), and thus help to increase women's psychological well-being by reducing loneliness.
Article
Full-text available
Wisdom has remained an elusive topic of perennial interest to philosophers and theologians and more recently to psychologists and ethnographers. In constructing scientific theories of wisdom, we owe a great intellectual debt to received and long-debated philosophical and theological texts. As the psychology of wisdom becomes increasingly interested in the capacity of wise individuals for prognostication, we explore the importance of one such classical wisdom text in China, 易經, or the Classic of Changes. The Changes has historically been used for divination, philosophical reflection, and the personal development of wisdom. We argue that the historical engagement of the Changes exemplifies the emphasis on timely, optimal action in classical Chinese understandings of wisdom, since divination aims to help ascertain a course of action that will bring about an optimal outcome. Reflection on important texts is also integral to modern efforts to teach for wise problem solving. We discuss applications of both divination and reflection to developing wisdom as understood in modern psychology and their implications for research on wisdom.
Article
Full-text available
Scholars within the Berlin paradigm have analysed participants' responses to a hypothetical vignette about a friend's suicide ideation. However, no study has yet focused on participants' emotional reactions to this scenario, an important aspect of wisdom performance. We conducted a Thin‐Slice Wisdom study where participants were asked to give advice to a hypothetical friend contemplating suicide. We analysed their emotional profiles using facial expression analysis software (FACET2.1 and FACEREADER7.1). Participants' verbal responses were also transcribed and then scored by 10 raters using the Berlin criteria. Results revealed that the sadder the participants felt, the wiser their performance. Wiser participants may have been better at exploring this sad, but true, existential human dilemma.
Article
Full-text available
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine laypeople's subjective understanding of their own wisdom development. To do this, autobiographical memories of wisdom-fostering life events were examined for (a) life-event characteristics, and (b) self-reflective processes believed to support growth in wisdom through life experience. Methods: Midlife adults (N = 482) provided a written autobiographical memory of a wisdom-fostering life event. Memories were content analyzed by expert coders for life-event characteristics (i.e., fundamentality, emotional valence, cultural normativity, and specific event types) and self-reflective processes (i.e., narrative coherence, meaning-making, and personal growth). Participants also completed self-report and performance measures of wisdom. Results: Wisdom-fostering life events tended to be fundamental to life, culturally non-normative, and emotionally negative. Participants frequently reported developing wisdom from relationship events (e.g., interpersonal conflict, divorce) and life-threatening/mortality events (e.g., death, serious illness). Wisdom was positively associated with reconstructive (i.e., narrative coherence) and analytical (i.e., meaning-making, personal growth) components of self-reflection. Self-reflective processes varied as a function of life-event characteristics. Discussion: This study emphasizes the role of both persons and environments in the development of wisdom, and highlights the importance of self-reflection as a mechanism through which wisdom is constructed from life experience.
Chapter
Full-text available
The literature that has investigated the association between wisdom and well-being has yielded conflicting results ranging from positive associations through zero to even negative associations. After defining and explaining the central constructs, the chapter will provide a review of this literature. While it seems intuitively right that wisdom should be positively associated with well-being, researchers have argued that the association depends on the type of definition and measurement of wisdom and well-being. The chapter will review and discuss the association between wisdom and well-being as a function of the notion and assessment of these constructs and will interpret the seemingly contradictory findings accordingly. Furthermore, the distinction between two types of positive personality development, that is, adjustment and growth, is used to help clarify the relationship between wisdom and subjective and psychological well-being. We conclude with a discussion of directions for future research on wisdom and well-being.
Article
Full-text available
Open-access article, please read the full text at https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/advance-article/doi/10.1093/geronb/gbx140/4769351?guestAccessKey=39429f3b-bcc8-4644-984a-b3400eda6112. The question how wisdom can best be measured is still open to debate. Currently, there are two groups of wisdom measures: open-ended performance measures and self-report measures. This overview article describes the most popular current measures of wisdom: the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm, the Bremen Wisdom Paradigm, Grossmann’s wise-reasoning approach, the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale, the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale, and the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory. It discusses the specific challenges of both open-ended and self-report approaches with respect to content validity, convergent and divergent validity, concurrent and discriminant validity, and ecological validity. Finally, promising new developments are outlined that may bridge the gap between wisdom as a competence and wisdom as an attitude and increase ecological validity by being more similar to real-life manifestations of wisdom. These new developments include autobiographical approaches and advice-giving paradigms
Article
Full-text available
We sometimes decide to take an offered option that results in apparent loss (e.g., unpaid overtime). Mainstream decision theory does not predict or explain this as a choice we want to make, whereas such a choice has long been described and highly regarded by the traditional Chinese dogma “吃亏是福” (suffering a loss is good fortune). To explore what makes the dogma work, we developed a celebrity anecdote-based scale to measure “Chikui” (suffering a loss) likelihood and found that:(i) people with higher scores on the Chikui Likelihood Scale (CLS) were more likely to report higher scores on subjective well-being and the Socioeconomic Index for the present and (ii) the current Socioeconomic Index could be positively predicted not only by current CLS scores but also by retrospective CLS scores recalled for the past, and the predictive effect was enhanced with increasing time intervals. Our findings suggest that “suffering a loss is good fortune” is not a myth but a certain reality. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Full-text available
There is no uniform definition of wisdom. In a psychological context, wisdom can be described as a comprehensive psychological trait integrating virtue and intelligence. Although the outcomes of wise personality characteristics have been studied, the temporal dynamics of real-time processing of wise personality remain elusive. In the current study, mouse tracking techniques were used to explore the cognitive dynamics of real-time processing of wise personality in two experiments. Study 1 showed that when participants were required to categorize wise and unwise characteristics in compatible and incompatible trials, the mouse trajectories showed a continuous spatial attraction toward the compatibility between wisdom and the wise characteristics. Further, in two dimensions of the wise personality, wisdom and the competence dimension were more closely linked. In Study 2, the mouse trajectories revealed that the connections among the different types of wisdom and between the two dimensions of wise personality were distinguished through the priming social categories. Natural wisdom showed a stronger connection with the competence dimension, whereas human wisdom showed a stronger tendency to be associated with the virtue dimension. The current study demonstrated that wisdom is the integration of virtue and competence and that competence can be regarded as the primary feature of wise individuals.
Article
Full-text available
Philosophers and behavioral scientists refer to wisdom as unbiased reasoning that guides one toward balance of interests and promotes a good life. However, major instruments developed to test wisdom appear biased, and it is unclear whether they capture balance-related tendencies. We examined whether shifting from global, de-contextualized reports to state-level reports about concrete situations provides a less biased method to assess wise reasoning (e.g., intellectual humility, recognition of uncertainty and change, consideration of the broader context at hand and perspectives of others, integration of these perspectives/compromise), which may be aligned with the notion of balancing interests. Results of a large-scale psychometric investigation (N = 4,463) revealed that the novel situated wise reasoning scale (SWIS) is reliable and appears independent of psychological biases (attribution bias, bias blind spot, self-deception, impression management), whereas global wisdom reports are subject to such biases. Moreover, SWIS scores were positively related to indices of living well (e.g., adaptive emotion regulation, mindfulness), and balancing of cooperative and self-protective interests, goals (influence-vs.-adjustment) and causal inferences about conflict (attribution to the self-vs.-other party). In contrast, global wisdom reports were unrelated or negatively related to balance-related measures. Notably, people showed modest within-person consistency in wise reasoning across situations/over time, suggesting that a single-shot measurement may be insufficient for whole understanding of trait-level wisdom. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for research on wisdom, judgment and decision making, well-being, and prosociality.
Article
Full-text available
Wisdom and meaning are important developments in emerging adulthood. In two studies, we investigated the relationship between wisdom and meaning using self-report measures (Study 1; N = 298) and narrative coding (Study 2; N = 271). Study 1 supported the hypothesis that the search for and presence of meaning in life were both positively correlated with wisdom. The presence of meaning partially mediated the relationship between wisdom and positive self-characteristics (i.e., optimism and self-esteem). Study 2 extended these results by coding two styles of narrative meaning-making in autobiographical memories of stressful life events. As predicted, wisdom was positively associated with exploratory processing (i.e., deriving lessons and insights) in stressful memories but uncorrelated with redemptive processing (i.e., aimed at positive emotional transformation). Results suggest a possible pathway through which wisdom and meaning influence positive self-development and the importance of styles of narrative meaning-making that differentially predict wisdom.
Article
This study explored whether three-dimensional wisdom and psychosocial growth, defined as increases in psychological well-being (PWB), spirituality, and death acceptance, can be learned in university courses. Specifically, the study examined whether courses that tried to engage the whole person rather than only the intellect and/or courses that included a service learning component (growth classes) fostered greater wisdom and psychosocial growth than regular sociology or religion courses (control classes). Results of repeated measure MANOVAs showed that, on average, the 165 students who were enrolled in 12 growth classes significantly increased in wisdom, PWB, spirituality, and death acceptance between the beginning and the end of the semester, whereas the 153 students who attended eight control classes significantly decreased in wisdom and did not change significantly in PWB, spirituality, and death acceptance. It appears that it is indeed possible to learn wisdom and psychosocial growth in university courses.
Article
According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and Elder’s life course paradigm, human development takes place throughout life and is shaped by linked lives and human agency. We explored whether the “seeds” of wisdom and well-being in old age might differ, although wisdom and well-being tend to be positively correlated. Using 60-year longitudinal data of 98 white male Harvard graduates born between 1915 and 1924, the study found that wisdom and subjective well-being at age 80 were indeed positively correlated. Yet, early life predictors differed. Extraversion and neuroticism in early adulthood predicted subjective well-being 60 years later. Two distinct pathways predicted old age wisdom: (1) Psychosocial growth facilitated by supportive social environments in childhood and adolescence, positive early personality traits, and midlife generativity and subjective health; (2) The motivation to grow through openness to experiences. Both social support during the formative years and personality appear to promote growth in wisdom.