No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Testing the Validity of Contingent Behavior Trip Response
Abstract
While a number of validity tests exist for contingent valuation data, to date there are very few literature examples for contingent behavior (CB) data. The objective of this study is to test the validity of CB trip data for different levels of rock climbing access using data from surveys implemented before and after a policy restricting recreational access was imposed. Results from generalized Negative Binomial and seemingly unrelated Poisson regression models show significant sensitivity to scope, and suggest that CB data may be a valuable supplement to revealed preference data when policy proposals are outside the range of historical conditions.
... The use of Revealed Preference (RP) and Stated Preference (SP) methods have been generally employed in recreation and park-related research. The RP approach based on travel cost model (TCM) has been used to quantify demand, however, its use relies on actual visitor behavior following implementation of specific improvements (e.g., park infrastructure) (Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Shaw, 2002;Shrestha, Stein, & Clark, 2007). For SP, the contingent valuation method (CVM) and contingent behavior method (CBM) have been utilized to assess intended behavior prior to implementation (Betz, Bergstrom, & Bowker, 2003;Grossman, 2011;Lee, Graefe, & Hwang, 2013;Loomis & McTernan, 2014). ...
... In short, intended trips are used as a proxy for actual trips. Several recreation-related studies have used CBM based on intended trips as the dependent variable (Betz et al., 2003;Grijalva et al., 2002;Grossman, 2011;Loomis & McTernan, 2014). ...
... The goal is to elicit a value statement, while to analyze demand alterations it is necessary to examine a change in behavior or use of a good. CBM is a hybrid between TCM and CVM as empirical studies have also combined RP and SP trip data (Grijalva et al., 2002). In this study, the changes in allocation of visitor days to KNP in response to hypothetical improvements described in the three scenarios are assessed. ...
Kafue National Park (KNP) in Zambia has the capacity to substantially increase the volume of visitors. To realize its potential, improvements in infrastructure, availability of information, visitor facilities, and wildlife are direly needed. In this context, this study conducted a visitor demand assessment for KNP to examine the viability of growth based on potential improvements: road networks, visitor facilities and services , and the natural resources and amenities. Data (N=2,395) were collected via visitor intercepts at designated sites within the country. The changes in allocation of visitor days to KNP in response to hypothetical improvements described in three scenarios were assessed. Findings illustrate the greatest demand would occur with increase in the improvement to natural resources and amenities, followed by visitor facilities and services, and roads. Hence, it is imperative to invest resources to protect and enhance its greatest asset-wildlife. Overall, this study provides baseline information to assist management and stakeholders, as well as position KNP in southern Africa.
... For instance, Jeon and Herriges (2010) concluded that combining TC and CB generated significant bias because contingent visits were inflated in comparison with real post-change trips under the same conditions. In contrast, Grijalva et al. (2002) found that contingent visits were a significant predictor of real post-change trips. Alberini et al. (2007) could not find evidence of a bias that was sufficiently important to invalidate the visiting rates estimated from CB data. ...
... To achieve the objective, we implemented a TC + CB model using a real scenario, which is one of the most notable contributions of our study because most previous research is based on hypothetical scenarios, which may lead to biases in visitors' answers (Grijalva et al., 2002;Jeon and Herriges, 2010). Furthermore, this study employed a cluster analysis to explore the relationships between visitor profiles and the changes in recreational demand of the wetland caused by the ER. ...
... where v is the number of visits to Pletera last year, c is the round-trip cost, Q is a vector representing visitors' behavior and preferences regarding Pletera, X is a vector of the sociodemographic profile of individuals, Z is a vector representing perceptions of the ER, and d is the dummy variable that indicates whether the number of visits is real or contingent (following Grijalva et al. (2002)). The pooled TC + CB models are exposed to comparable biases as TC models, which are only based on RP. ...
The ecological restoration of coastal wetlands is vital to preserving the integrity of these valuable ecosystems. However, the implementation of ecological restoration should also consider its potential negative effects. This study aimed to evaluate the socioeconomic value of the ecological restoration of a coastal wetland at a mass tourism destination on Costa Brava (Spain). To achieve this objective, 1) we developed a pooled model that combined travel costs and contingent behavior (TC+CB) to assess the influence of ecological restoration on the destination's recreational value, and 2) we performed a cluster analysis and post hoc comparisons after obtaining visitor profiles to understand how restoration influences tourists' contingent behavior. The results of the TC+CB model indicated that wetland recreational value is not significantly affected by restoration. The cluster analysis identified three visitor profiles (Indifference, Recreation and Preservation) with unique attitudes toward the wetland and its ecological restoration. These visitor profiles exhibit differences between actual and contingent visiting rates. Notably, the wetland's recreational value will be altered in opposite directions by ecological restoration. Visitors attracted by the natural setting will visit more often, whereas visitors who use the wetland for recreational purposes will tend to visit less often
... While rock climbing has existed on public lands for the past century, recreational demand for rock climbing in the U.S. and elsewhere is perceived to have grown significantly over the last several decades (Grijalva et al. 2002a). Mountain and rock climbing drew an estimated 4.2 million participants in the U.S. in 1991, and 17 percent of the 1992 subscribers of the popular magazine Backpacker said they rock climbed (Lewis 1993). ...
... In recent years there have been several analyses of the economics of rock climbing, usually applying the random utility or count data versions of the TCM of recreation demand. All of the available rock climbing economics studies that we know of assume certainty on the part of the climber, and do not involve aspects of risk except in a very minor way (Ekstrand, 1994;Shaw and Jakus 1996;Jakus and Shaw 1997;Grijalva 2000;Grijalva et al. 2002a;Grijalva et al. 2002b;Hanley et al. 2001;and Hanley, Alverez-Farizo, and Shaw 2002). ...
... We therefore don't think any general inferences should be made based on this number. Grijalva (then Cavlovic -2000), and Grijalva et al. (2002a and2002b) examine the losses to climbers that visit Hueco Tanks near El Paso Texas, and more broadly, the losses to climbers for access restrictions in wilderness area climbing around the United States. In a nice joint effort that began in about 1998, Paul Jakus (then at the University of Tennessee), Therese Grijalva (then Cavlovic), her colleagues Bob Berrens and Alok Bohara (from the University of New Mexico), and Douglass Shaw (University of Nevada Reno) collaborated on a study. ...
... These methods include CV and CB. In CV, respondents are asked to make statements about their willingness-to-pay (WTP), or to accept compensation for declines in environmental quality (Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Shaw, 2002). According to Zuo, Ann Wheeler, Adamowicz, Boxall, and Hatton-Macdonald (2016) CVM generally aims to find values related to marginal change in terms of an environmental good. ...
... While potentially avoiding some of shortcomings (e.g., lack of familiarity with the good) concerning the application of CV methods and the measurement of non-use values, criticism of the CB method remains due to its inherent hypothetical nature. Nonetheless, given the restricted focus on use values, patterns of evidence concerning the validity of CV may not hold for CB data (Grijalva et al., 2002). Given the objectives of this study, the CB approach is the most appropriate method, due to its ability to vary charges, as well as accounting for substitution effects when generating the experimental data necessary for estimating plastic bag demand functions. ...
Policymakers have little experience regarding designing the right levels of pricing for plastic bags. The ineffectiveness of charging for bags, in countries such as South Africa, makes it imperative that we map the demand curve. Getting the charge “right” depends on the size of the externality. Charging for bags is therefore an effective intervention to encourage consumers to carry their own bags to the stores. We employ a contingent behaviour (CB) dataset necessary to estimate the charge level that is likely to lead to a reduction in bag use over time. The results of the random effects Tobit model suggest that the current charge of US$0.03 was found to be too low, and highly inelastic. A charge of US$0.50 has potential to reduce unnecessary plastic use and is still lower than the price of alternatives; therefore, there is no danger of consumers shifting to alternatives that may cause more harm.
... One way to overcome this is to ask individuals about the change they expect to have in the number of trips they would take to a site under hypothetical change in an attribute. This contingent behaviour, CB) may later be lumped with observations on actual trips to the site under the current conditions of the attribute (Grijalva et al. 2002). These changes in the attributes of a site are measured through a change in behavior, that is, visit frequency (Wang et al. 2017;Ready et al. 2018). ...
... where v is the visitation rate to the site, c is the roundtrip cost, Z is a vector of the sociodemographic characteristics of the individual, and D is the dummy variable that indicates whether the observation is under the current level of the attribute or the hypothetical change in its level (Grijalva et al. 2002). ...
In the last few winters, shark communities have been aggregating near the Israeli Mediterranean coast, at a specific point, near the Hadera power station. This unusual phenomenon has fascinated residents, visitors, kayakers, divers, and swimmers. We analyze the effects of this intense human interest on the sharks, using contingent behavior, in Hadera and in Ashkelon, where sharks are present and there is available infrastructure for their observation. We also report on changes in shark behaviour due to changes in tourism intensity. We find a change of about ILS 4.1 million annually for both sites but a larger individual consumer surplus in Hadera, where sharks are currently observable. Touristic intensity crosses the threshold level by about 12% and making the socio-equilibrium sustainable for both humans and sharks would have a social cost of ILS 0.157 million. This paper, which is based on the assessment of conservation values to marine and coastal tourists, raises a need for spatial planning in order to protect this endangered species.
... CBM has been used in valuing environmental resources for recreational purposes (Chase et al., 1998;Eiswerth et al., 2000;Richardson and Loomis, 2004;Richardson et al., 2006;Scott et al., 2007). Still, there is a growing demand for estimation of changes in consumer welfare from recreation due to changing environmental quality or management of natural resources (Grijalva et al., 2002). The seminal paper of Loomis (1993) verified the reliability of CBM by implementing a test-retest procedure. ...
... The seminal paper of Loomis (1993) verified the reliability of CBM by implementing a test-retest procedure. Grijalva et al. (2002) also tested the validity of CBM for outdoor rock-climbing demand and suggested that when a future project has implications beyond current and historical range, CBM data may be a useful supplement to revealed preferences data. ...
This study investigates intended visitation behavior of tourists toward Rekawa wetland under anticipated climate change (CC) scenarios. An interview-based contingent visitation survey was conducted with 365 foreign and domestic tourists to estimate the effects of CC on future visitation. Based on two IPCC scenarios using two direct and three indirect climatic factors, we composed a CC environmental index. The results show a decline in number of trips equal to 43 per cent and 53 per cent under scenarios 1 and 2 respectively, but the difference is not significant. Foreign and domestic tourists differ significantly with regard to socio-demographic characteristics and beliefs about CC effects at Rekawa. Controlling for such differences, we demonstrate that foreign tourists are less likely than domestic tourists to reduce future visitation to Rekawa due to CC impacts. Still, the future of ecotourism at Rekawa wetland is at risk if adaptation measures are not taken to meet CC impacts.
... One way to overcome this is to ask individuals about the change they expect to have in the number of trips they would take to a site under hypothetical change in an attribute. This contingent behaviour, CB) may later be lumped with observations on actual trips to the site under the current conditions of the attribute (Grijalva et al. 2002). These changes in the attributes of a site are measured through a change in behavior, that is, visit frequency (Wang et al. 2017;Ready et al. 2018). ...
... where v is the visitation rate to the site, c is the roundtrip cost, Z is a vector of the sociodemographic characteristics of the individual, and D is the dummy variable that indicates whether the observation is under the current level of the attribute or the hypothetical change in its level (Grijalva et al. 2002). ...
In the last few winters, shark communities have been aggregating near the Israeli Mediterranean coast, at a specific point, near Hadera power station. This unusual phenomenon has fascinated residents, visitors, kayakers, divers, and swimmers. We analyse the effects of this intense human interest on the sharks, using contingent behaviour, in Hadera and in Ashkelon, where sharks are present and there is available infrastructure for their observation. We also report on changes in shark behaviour due to change in tourism intensity. We find a change of about ILS 4.1 million annually for both sites but a larger individual consumer surplus in Hadera, where sharks are currently observable. Touristic intensity crosses the threshold level by about 12% and making the socio-equilibrium sustainable for both humans and sharks would have a social cost of ILS 0.157 million. This paper, which is based on the assessment of conservation values to marine and coastal tourists, raises a need for spatial planning in order to protect this endangered species.
... However, the underlying choice for travel cost models is the same as the choice in this situationwhat determines whether someone takes an additional trip or not? Additionally, some travel cost models have used contingent behavior analysis, a stated preference technique in which they ask respondents how the number of trips they would take would change in a hypothetical situation (Alberini & Longo, 2006;Englin & Cameron, 1996;Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Shaw, 2002;Loomis, 2002;Richardson & Loomis, 2004;Rosenberger & Loomis, 1999;Starbuck et al., 2006). (Alberini & Longo, 2006;Grijalva et al., 2002;Richardson & Loomis, 2004;Rosenberger & Loomis, 1999). ...
... Additionally, some travel cost models have used contingent behavior analysis, a stated preference technique in which they ask respondents how the number of trips they would take would change in a hypothetical situation (Alberini & Longo, 2006;Englin & Cameron, 1996;Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Shaw, 2002;Loomis, 2002;Richardson & Loomis, 2004;Rosenberger & Loomis, 1999;Starbuck et al., 2006). (Alberini & Longo, 2006;Grijalva et al., 2002;Richardson & Loomis, 2004;Rosenberger & Loomis, 1999). Additionally, studies frequently include membership in an environmental organization as a covariate; while I do not have data on this, I guess that 'nights spent away from roads/in the backcountry' may be a proxy for this type of person, so I include that indicator as well. ...
In this thesis I explore recreator characteristics associated with attitudes toward logging evidence in recreational settings, potential effects of logging on North Maine Woods visitor spending, and the effects of an educational intervention on attitudes. In Chapter 1, I use data from a random sample of Maine households to examine the associations between demographic characteristics/recreational activities and attitudes towards evidence of forest management in recreational settings. I use three separate ordered logistic regressions to model the associations between respondent characteristics and three types of forest management settings: old growth forest, a managed forest with selective harvest, and seeing/hearing evidence of logging. I find that older, more socially conservative Mainers, those with larger households, and those without P.O. boxes are significantly more likely to give higher desirability scores to seeing/hearing evidence of logging. Those who participate in wildlife watching are more likely to give higher scores to managed forests and undisturbed old growth. Finally those with a P.O box are also more likely to give higher desirability scores to managed forests. In the second and third chapters, I use data from an intercept survey at the entrance gates to the North Maine Woods (NMW), a 3.5 million acre forest area primarily managed for timber harvest but open to recreation. Data for these analyses also comes from an email follow-up survey. In Chapter 2, I estimate the potential differences in visitor numbers, and therefore spending, if recreators encounter logging evidence. I use a multivariate regression to estimate respondents' expected spending, and a separate regression to estimate the probability that respondents will return to a recreational setting with logging evidence. I combine the probability of returning and expected spending to find expected average per-potential-visitor spending with and without logging evidence. I find that the difference in average per-potential-visitor spending is $194, which would lead to a total difference in spending of about $32 million for the 162,808 recorded visitors to the NMW in 2016. In Chapter 3, I assess whether education has an impact on NMW recreators' attitudes toward logging evidence, and whether that impact is different based on survey setting and recreator characteristics. I use six different measures of logging evidence attitudes, and run a separate multivariate regression for each. I find no evidence of education affecting NMW recreator attitudes toward logging evidence, and no evidence of differential effects by survey setting or recreator characteristics. These results are important for traditionally timber-dependent communities as they try to diversify their economies to include both forest products industries and outdoor-recreation-based tourism. Here I quantify the effect that forestry could have on outdoor recreator spending in these communities, describe how attitudes toward logging in recreational settings vary among Maine residents, and show that education may not reduce negative attitudes toward logging.
... TC and CB methods have been combined by a number of studies (e.g. Englin and Cameron, 1996;Grijalva et al., 2002), an approach that was suitable for our study because the conditions for which tourists might change their behaviour were hypothetical or could not be controlled (Grijalva et al., 2002). ...
... TC and CB methods have been combined by a number of studies (e.g. Englin and Cameron, 1996;Grijalva et al., 2002), an approach that was suitable for our study because the conditions for which tourists might change their behaviour were hypothetical or could not be controlled (Grijalva et al., 2002). ...
... TC and CB methods have been successfully combined by a number of studies (e.g. Englin & Cameron, 1996;Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Douglass Shaw, 2002) and the combined approach is suitable for our study because the conditions upon which tourists might change their behaviour are not currently observed (i.e. are hypothetical) or at least cannot be controlled (Grijalva et al., 2002). ...
... TC and CB methods have been successfully combined by a number of studies (e.g. Englin & Cameron, 1996;Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Douglass Shaw, 2002) and the combined approach is suitable for our study because the conditions upon which tourists might change their behaviour are not currently observed (i.e. are hypothetical) or at least cannot be controlled (Grijalva et al., 2002). ...
Shark-diving tourism provides important economic benefits to the Maldives. We examine the link between shark conservation actions and economic returns from diving tourism. A combined travel cost and contingent behaviour approach is used to estimate the dive trip demand under different management scenarios. Our results show that increasing shark populations could increase dive-trip demand by 15%, raising dive tourists’ welfare by US$58 million annually. This could result in annual economic benefits for the dive-tourism industry of >US$6 million. Conversely, in scenarios where shark populations decline, where dive tourists observe illegal fishing, or if dive operators lack engagement in shark conservation, dive trip demand could decrease by up to 56%. This decline causes economic losses of more than US$24 million annually to the dive tourism industry. These results highlight the dependence of the shark-diving industry on the creation and enforcement of appropriate management regimes for shark conservation.
... The flexibility added by the CBM to the TCM explains the application of the HTCM to issues as diverse as reduction of beach pollution (Hanley et al. 2003;Awondo et al. 2011); restrictions in access to climbing destinations (e.g. Grijalva et al. 2002); forest fire conditions (Loomis et al. 2001;Simões et al. 2013); development of coastal trails (e.g. Hynes and Greene 2013); regulation of agricultural and commercial fishing practices (e.g. ...
... Loomis (1993) carries out a test-retest analysis on data referring to the Mono Lake-a hypersaline lake in California-and reports results supporting the reliability of intended visitation responses. Grijalva et al. (2002) compares intended trips and observed post-policy trips to the Hueco Tanks State Park, concluding that (i) intended trips statistically correspond to observed post-policy trips; and (ii) intended behavior reacts in a consistent manner to different degrees of intervention. Jeon and Herriges (2010) jointly analyze observed and intended trips collected from the 2004 Iowa Lake Survey. ...
A longstanding interest from environmental economists on winter outdoor recreation has overlooked activities practiced outside the boundaries of winter resorts—e.g. ski mountaineering. This paper implements the Travel Cost Method to estimate consumer surplus per season derived from ski mountaineering and snowshoeing in Val Bedretto—a valley located in the Swiss Alps. In addition, the Contingent Behavior Method is used to estimate the changes in welfare associated with the construction of an alpine center that would provide services aiming to reduce the risk of injury and death associated with winter outdoor recreation. The data is analyzed by means of latent class panel on-site count models. The latent class approach allows us to identify subpopulations that benefit from the alpine center. The results show that 33% of visitors would experience an increase in their consumer surplus per season equivalent to €31 per visitor.
... Schlacter (1999) mechanism may be particularly susceptible to "fair-share" type responses, and thus themselves be conservative estimators of value (see Bishop et al. 1995;Bohara et al. 1998 (Grijalva et al. 2002b). However, the estimates here are much lower, by an order of magnitude, than the range of seasonal compensating surplus estimates from the single-site travel cost models for Hueco Tanks of Grijalva et al. (2002a), where traditional travel cost trip data is combined with contingent behavior responses to various policy changes. ...
... For complete details of the sampling design, and a copy of all introductory letters, the full survey instrument, etc., seeCavlovic (2000). Data collected from parts of this survey sample have been combined elsewhere with: (1) similarly structured surveys conducted in Tennessee and Nevada to estimate a national RUM on US rock climbing and the loss of federal wilderness access(Grijalva et al. 2002b); and (2) a set of follow-up surveys at Hueco Tanks to test the validity of contingent behavior responses(Grijalva et al. 2002a). The CV data used here has never been previously analyzed. ...
... Third, it has been noted that careful validity tests for CB remain rare (Eiswerth et al. 2000;Loomis 1993). Grijalva et al. (2002) explains that unlike the contingent valuation model, there are few validity constructs on the CB model as the latter is restricted to the construction of use levels only. Nevertheless, a general concern about CB models is whether intended trips are a robust indicator of actual trips (Hanley, Bell, and Alvarez-Farizo 2003). ...
... Thus, it is not possible to do a survey to check on the validity of intended visits collected in the survey used in the study. There however exist some supporting evidence from Loomis (1993), Grijalva et al. (2002), and Haener, Boxall, and Adamowicz (2001) that CB is an appropriate indicator of actual choices. ...
This aticle is the first application of the contingency behavior model to understand the behavior of grey nomads to changes in the availability of accommodation facilities when visiting regional Queensland of Australia. Using a pilot survey of 90 respondents, it was found that grey nomad future visit trip would be adversely affected by a decrease in accommodation facilities and an increase in travel costs. However, for an increase in accommodation facilities, repeat visitation takes place but with a smaller impact (than the decrease) and, interestingly, travel costs become insignificant. In addition, income levels proxied by education, and social events are significant determinants of future visits. These findings provide important policy considerations for effective management and understanding of the self-drive silver market for tourism.
... The type of climbing is also dictated by climbing site features (Graydon & Hanson, 1997). Traditional climbing involves a rock climber placing removable protection (e.g., cams and nuts) into natural features (e.g., a crack in the rock) in the rock cliff (Grijalva, Berrens, Bohara, & Shaw, 2002;Steele, 2006). Sport climbing "relies on gear that is fixed to the rock" (Schuster, Thompson, & Hammit, 2001, p. 405) which protects the climbers when they fall (Steele, 2006). ...
... Sport climbing "relies on gear that is fixed to the rock" (Schuster, Thompson, & Hammit, 2001, p. 405) which protects the climbers when they fall (Steele, 2006). Bouldering is an activity consisting of short problems/routes on large boulders (Burg, 2005;Grijalva et al., 2002;Steele, 2006). Finally, top-roping requires the climbing rope to be anchored at the top of the cliff with the climber and belayer connected at opposite ends (Graydon & Hanson, 1997). ...
This article presents the place meanings that 21 rock climbers from Western Canada ascribe to outdoor climbing sites. It takes the form of an interpretive inquiry based on semi-structured interviews through which interviewees provided narratives about their climbing experiences. An analysis of these narratives identified eight place meanings (accessibility, site attributes, variety, social interactions, mecca, learning, exploration, and escape) which were grouped into three dimensions (physical site, social, and experiential). As these themes suggest, the place meanings of climbing sites are complex and multidimensional as articulated by the climbers. Specifically, climbing places were physical places associated with the act of climbing, exploring the site and social interactions that included group inclusion and avoidance.
... Floriculture hc3 Nursery logit model used in this study would have been to use the random forest method, but a binary logit model was preferred here, because it provides a measure of how relevant an explanatory variable is and gives the direction of association, i.e., positive or negative. The binary logit model has the general form (Greene 2003): ...
To cope with the impacts of shifts in food consumption patterns required to reduce environmental problems, farmers will have to adapt at farm level. We explore farmers’ intentions and preferred options to adapt in the metropolitan region of Vienna, Austria, in response to changed food demand among the Viennese population. In doing so, we consider changed food consumption patterns for (1) regional food, (2) organic food, and (3) meat in several scenarios. By applying the contingent behavior method to farmers in a survey, we assess farm adaptations with respect to production orientation (crop and livestock production patterns) and production mode (conventional or organic). The results show that, depending on the farm type, farmers tend to make specific contextual adaptations in production orientation. Accordingly, less specialized farmers are more likely to employ transformative adaptations. Most farmers who adapt production orientation, however, tend to employ incremental adaptations, i.e., extensions of what is already done. A logit model indicates that, among changed food consumption patterns, increasing regional food consumption is the most influential factor in farmers’ decision to adapt production orientation. Different adaptation paths were generated demonstrating the need for coordinated policy measures that consider the diversity of the different farm types to further encourage farm adaptations and reduce environmental risks associated with modern farming.
... In its application, TCM consists of Zonal Travel Cost Model (ZTCM) and Individual Travel Cost Model (ITCM). ITCM is more appropriate if there is variation in the number of visits in a short period, usually one year; and the individuals visit the same recreation site several times (Eiswerth et al, 2000, Grijalva et al, 2002, Ward and Beal, 2000. When there is a low variation of visits, then ZTCM is more appropriate than ITCM. ...
Daerah Istimewa (the special province of) Yogyakarta or usually abbreviated as DIY is the second biggest tourism destination in Indonesia, after Bali. DIY has more than 100 recreation sites. One of the famous recreation sites in DIY is Vulcanotour (VT) located in the area of Merapi Vulcano. This paper employed the individual travel cost method ITCM) to estimate the economic value of VT. We used OLS, Non-linear Normal/NLS, Poisson, and Negative Binomial methods to estimate the regression. This study used primary data from the management of VT and 60 visitors in the period of April to May 2013. The study found that the number of visits to VT was significantly affected by the number of trips to Yogyakarta City (the capital city of DIY). The economic value per visit of VT were ranged from USD 33.1 to USD 153.4. The study also concluded that the number of trips to VT is significantly influenced by the Yogyakarta city as a destination. In other words, the VT cannot be separated from other recreation destinations in DIY.Keywords: Natural recreation area; Individual Travel Cost Method (ITCM); Merapi Vulcano; Vulcanotour; Yogyakarta
... Comparison of Recreation Use to Total Value for Water Quality Improvements due to Reductions in Nutrient Based Pollution Some studies have argued people have difficulty reporting anticipated uses under new condtions and these may be inaccurate measures of their likely actual behavior.Grijalva et. al. [2002] also find actual and stated trip behavior are consistent. We use that stated trips along with averages from the National Survey.The second example involving water quality also considers nutrient pollution. It illustrates what could be labeled as the sample basis for measuring use values. In this example, ...
This paper calls for re-focusing the analysis of existing results to evaluate whether there are stable ratios of use value to total willingness to pay for improvements in different types of environmental resources. The objective is to develop a screening tool to determine if decisions about the assumed number of users versus nonusers of a resource is likely to be important to aggregate benefit measures for changes in the amount or quality of different environmental resources.. Four sets of applications involving different aspects of water resources are considered: nutrients in the Neuse River affecting the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuary; nutrients in the Chesapeake Bay; whitewater rafting on the Colorado River; and the Deepwater Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico. The findings suggest a need to add the evaluation of these ratios to the research agenda in benefits transfer.
... Martinez-Espineira and Amoako-Tuffour, 2008;Navrud and Mungatana, 1994), or related activities such as rock climbing (e.g. Hanley et al., 2001;Grijalva et al., 2002). However, there have also been a number of studies focusing on blue spaces including beaches and coastlines (Czajkowski et al., 2015;Pascoe, 2019), lakes (Egan and Herriges, 2006), reservoirs (Lienhoop andAnsmann, 2011), coral reefs (Ahmed et al., 2007) marine parks (Mwebaze and MacLeod, 2013), and associated activities such as sport fishing (Alberini et al., 2007;Hwang et al., 2021). ...
This study estimates the value of recreational visits to blue-space sites across 14 EU Member States, representing 78% of the Union's population. Across all countries surveyed, respondents made an average of 47 blue-space visits per person per year. Employing travel cost and contingent behaviour methods, the value of a visit is estimated at €41.32 which adds up to a recreational value of €631bn per year for the total adult population surveyed. Using the Bathing Water Directive's water quality designation, the analysis shows that a one-level improvement in water quality leads to 3.13 more visits (+6.67%), whereas a one-level deterioration leads to 9.77 fewer annual visits (-20.83%). This study provides valuations of benefits of recreation and changes of recreational values due to changes in surface water quality, which can be compared to the implementation and monitoring costs of efforts under the EU's Bathing Water, Water Framework and Marine Strategy Framework Directives.
... Because the assumptions necessary to employ revealed preference methods do not apply to many non-market environmental goods [11], and actual (behavioral) data can be costly to obtain, especially for goods that are purchased infrequently [12], stated preference methods such as the contingent valuation method (CVM) and choice experiments (CE) are often employed in WTP investigations. Stated preference methods provide the advantage of allowing for the examination of scenarios involving hypothetical changes that are outside the range of historical conditions [13] and can be used to estimate non-use values. ...
Seawater quality is critical for island and coastal communities dependent on coastal tourism. Improper management of coastal development and inland watersheds can decrease seawater quality and adversely impact marine life, human health, and economic growth. Agricultural runoff and improper sewage management compromise nearshore water quality in many coastal regions and can impact visitation decisions of tourists who are drawn to these destinations. The purpose of this paper is to understand how tourists’ decisions to revisit Barbados might be affected by changes in coastal and marine quality. We use data collected from tourists to examine how tourists’ stated willingness to return is affected by scenarios involving changes in seawater quality, beach width and coral reef health. Results reveal that return decisions are sensitive to changes in all aspects of coastal and marine quality. A reduction in seawater quality discourages tourists’ intention to return more than other environmental factors. These results are of paramount interest to destination managers, marketers and policymakers who rely on repeat visitation data to develop marketing strategies and infer future direction. This research highlights the importance of prioritizing seawater quality management to protect the coastal tourism product, especially in small island developing states (SIDS) with a high reliance on tourism income.
... As such, CB is closely related to the openended format of the contingent valuation method (CVM) that asks respondents how much they would be willing to pay for a specific hypothetical context. Hence, CB focuses on non-monetary behavioral responses while CVM considers respondents' willingness to pay (Englin and Cameron, 1996;Grijalva et al., 2002). Both techniques seek to establish the trade-offs that respondents are willing to make and as such allow for an estimate of respondents' preferences (Adamowicz et al., 1994;Englin and Cameron, 1996). ...
Overgrazing is widely accepted to be the main driver of grassland degradation. However, policies designed to reduce overgrazing are poorly understood in terms of their political acceptability and their effectiveness in improving the sustainability of grassland management. This study was conducted to explore herders' preferences across a range of policies aimed at reducing stocking rates and how those policies impact on their stocking rate decisions. Choice Modelling and Contingent Behavior methods were used in a survey distributed to a sample of Inner Mongolian herders. It was found that while increasing the extent of loan payments and subsidies were popular amongst the herder respondents; these policy options are predicted to have no significant effect on stocking rates. In contrast, less preferred policies such as increasing the probability of being caught exceeding stocking rate limits and increasing the financial penalties associated with such breaches would be effective in reducing grazing pressure. Only the policy of increasing pension payments was shown to be both popular amongst respondents and effective in reducing stocking rates. The results from this research provide useful information to policy makers in their consideration of new policy initiatives.
... Lastly, a potential weakness of the ex-ante nature of our analysis is that preferences and behavior may change over time as citizens adapt to changing conditions, including the placement of wind turbines near local recreation areas. While the comparison study of Grijalva et al. (2002) supports the validity of the TCM-CB framework, more validation research is needed. A fruitful direction for future research is therefore to pursue similar ex-ante versus ex-post comparison studies, specifically of the behavior and welfare impacts of wind energy projects. ...
This paper analyzes recreation demand on the fringe of an urban center in Norway. Specifically, it investigates the potential impact of wind energy projects on local recreation values. Recreation areas near cities are often scarce and under increasing pressures from growing populations with associated real-estate development and expanding or emerging industries. Hence, public planners and policy makers who seek to make optimal resource management decisions need information on all opportunity costs, including those associated with diminished recreational access or quality. Two separate case studies utilize the travel cost method (TCM) to derive baseline recreation demands. Supplementary information from contingent behavior (CB) scenarios provides identification of the impact of wind turbines on recreation benefits. For a unique comparison, one case examines a possible inland wind farm near a popular local mountain area, whereas the other case examines an offshore wind farm near local beaches. Econometric estimations are performed in a joint revealed preference (RP) – stated preference (SP) pseudo-panel count-data framework. The analysis generates baseline consumer surplus estimates in the range of NOK 70–155 per trip and indicates that the wind turbines would have negative impacts that are both statistically and economically significant.
... We have not done a complete survey of the literature, but within a sample of articles in the peer reviewed literature since 2000, most studies did not include income as a possible explanatory variable (Boxall and Adamowicz 2002;Haener et al. 2004;Hynes et al. 2007;Kinnel et al. 2006;Landry and Hindsley 2011;Lupi et al. 2003;Moeltner and Englin 2004;Scarpa et al. 2008;Timmins and Murdock 2007). Of the exceptions, some found positive, significant income sensitivity (Boxall et al. 2003;Landry and Liu 2009); others found no significant effect of income (Massey et al. 2006); and some had more than one model with mixed results (Grijalva et al. 2002;Murdock 2006). While it would be surprising if a thorough investigation failed to demonstrate widespread positive income sensitivity, for now, construct validity has not been confirmed in this dimension. ...
We propose a framework for assessing the accuracy of nonmarket values. This involves adapting two widely-used concepts. Reliability addresses variance and validity addresses potential biases. These concepts are formally defined and adapted to assess the accuracy of individual nonmarket valuation studies and the potential accuracy of valuation methods. We illustrate the framework by considering, in a preliminary way, the reliability and validity of the contingent-valuation and travel-cost methods.
... Refs. [26,50,51]), with varying results. Our dataset did not include data on future trips under current conditions, but as we had actual data on trips to swimming sites with varying quality and CB data on improved and decreased water quality levels, we were able to include a CB dummy in the model to shed some light on the consistency. ...
Finland is a highly coastal country with a large archipelago area and numerous lakes. Consequently, these provide an essential environment for water-based outdoor recreation activities. To improve the information base for evaluating the welfare effects of policy instruments addressing water quality, such as the EU Water Framework Directive, this study examined the effects of changes in water quality on the recreation benefits, focusing on swimming trips in Finland. National recreation inventory data were used to provide information on welfare changes at the national level. The combined travel cost and contingent behavior approach revealed that the recreation value of a swimming trip in the current state was approximately 16 euros. The approach allowed assessment of the welfare effects of water quality changes beyond the observed levels, showing that a hypothetical decrease in water quality to a level at which the water visibility would be less than 1 m and abundant slime would exist decreased the value to 9 euros. Water quality improvement to a level at which the perceived water visibility would be over 2 m and no slime would exist increased the value per trip to 22 euros. In total, the overall annual value of all visits made for swimming in the case of water quality improvement increased the recreation benefits by 53–80%, while a deterioration in quality decreased the benefits by approximately 80%.
... A growing number of studies in recreational demand models use the contingent behaviour method (CBM) in order to predict quantities under hypothetical scenarios (Grijalva et al., 2002). The CBM asks those who come to the park what they would do under hypothetical circumstances (with varying prices). ...
This article estimates the visitation demand function for Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) in order to determine the scope for raising fees charged to international tourists in order to fund revenue-sharing schemes for local communities. International and Southern African Development Community tourists account for approximately 25% and 2% of the total number of visitors to South African national parks, with domestic visitors making up the remaining portion. Although small, the South African international tourism market is mature and accounts for a disproportionately large share (around 42%) of net revenue. To estimate visitation demand at the KTP and three other national parks, random effects Tobit Model was used. Using the estimated elasticities, the revenue-maximizing daily conservation fee was computed to be R1 131.94 (US$144.20) for KTP, which can be compared with the R180 (US$22.93) currently charged. Furthermore, the study also demonstrated that there is a possibility of raising fees at the other three parks. Sharing conservation revenue with communities surrounding parks could demonstrate the link between ecotourism and local communities’ economic development and promote a positive view of land restitution involving national parks.
... Although there is an extensive literature on park use payment that includes issues such as optimal pricing using various methods including contingent valuation, travel cost and other techniques that go back at least a decade or two (see Athanas et al., 2001;Buckley, 2003;Eagles, 2002;Hughes and Carlsen, 2011;Laarman and Gregersen, 1996), there have not been many studies attempting to estimate optimal conservation fees using experimental data (see Alpizar, 2006;Chase et al., 1998;Naidoo and Adamowicz, 2005). Grijalva et al. (2002) state that there is a growing number of studies in recreational demand models that use the CB trip data for predicting quantity under hypothetical scenarios. ...
Sharing conservation revenue with communities surrounding parks could demonstrate the link between ecotourism and local communities’ economic development, promote a positive view of land restitution involving parks, help address skewed distribution of income in the vicinity of parks and act as an incentive for local communities to participate in conservation even more. This article estimates the visitation demand function for Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) in order to determine the appropriate conservation fee to charge visitors to maximize park revenue. The data were generated from contingent behaviour experiments on South African residents at KTP and three other parks deemed as either substitutes or complements for visitors to KTP. Our results suggest that there is sheer underselling of the recreational opportunity at KTP, which implies that there is room for generating extra revenue to support benefit sharing arrangements with the local communities. The conservation fees at KTP can increase by as much as 115%, thereby almost doubling current revenue after accounting for the drop in visitation which will be triggered by the increase.
... The combination of revealed and stated preference data has been widely discussed in the literature (e.g. Englin and Cameron [8]; Grijalva et al. [9]; Whitehead et al.[10]. This study has to get information about international tourist preference of Bromo. ...
Indonesia has target to increased 10 million international tourist on 2015. Bromo as one of main destination in Indonesia, has role to reached the target. The aim of this study was to get information about international tourist preference of Bromo. The method that used was survey to 85 respondents from 35 countries. The data analyzed by descriptive statistic. To know the good view based on tourist preference, the data analyzed by scenic beauty estimation (SBE). Then, to know the tourist passion to visit Bromo, analyzed by McNemar Test. The results showed only 2% respondents that know Bromo. Good view of landscape was from Penanjakan 1. There were enhancement passion to visited Bromo after respondents looked the pictures of Bromo than after read the information about Bromo. Respondents needs toilet, safety, and local culture if they visited Bromo.
... price). CV elicits a value statement, while CB specifically refers to the estimation of changes in behavior of the respondent (Grijalva et al, 2002). ...
Paracas National Reserve (PNR) is one of the fifty-seven protected areas that belong to the National System of Protected Areas (SINANPE) of Peru. Located in Ica Department, on the Pacific coast of Peru, it is the only coastal-marine ecosystem currently protected by the Peruvian government. PNR has been internationally recognized, principally as a wintering area for bird migrations. It has been designated as a Regional Shorebird Reserve by the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network (1991), a Ramsar site by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1992), and a Particular Sensitive Sea Area by the International Marine Organization (2003). In addition, its scenic beauty and the ninety-five archaeological sites attributed to the Nazca culture located inside its boundaries are main attractions of the protected area (GTZ, 1999, and INRENA, 2003a). Currently, PNR is the third most visited protected area of Peru and receives around one hundred thousand national and foreign tourists per year (INRENA, 2002). The agency in charge of the management of SINANPE (INRENA) charges a flat fee to enter the protected areas that have local administration and defined tourism zones. This flat fee has been established without economic evaluations and does not take into consideration the specific protected areas visitors' willingness and ability to pay. Some exceptions to the flat fee have been implemented in selected protected areas, but not in PNR. The revenues collected are directed to a central fund, which distributes the money back to the protected area local administration. The goal interest of this research is to provide an evaluation of possible fee policies for PNR by addressing a series of questions namely: does the current fee correspond to the tourists' willingness to pay (WTP) at PNR's present conditions? If INRENA decides to improve the infrastructure and services inside PNR through changes in the fee, what are the protected area's attributes that enhance the tourists' recreation experience, or the attributes that the users appreciate the most?, and what would be the visitors' marginal WTP for each of them? In addition, what would be the potential impact of changing the fee in the different income groups? Finally, what would be the fair fees for PNR, considering the potential revenues and the effects of the fees in the different types of tourists who visit the protected area (national local tourists, national non local tourists, foreign tourists, wildlife recreation and beach recreation tourists)? In this thesis, contingent behavior (CB) and conjoint analysis (CA) models were used to answer the policy-related questions indicated above. The data for the models were collected from a survey conducted on site and off site PNR in August 2003. The results indicate that the mean WTP were S1.10.8 (wildlife recreation), 9.5 (national local), 8.6 (national non local), 7.9 (beach recreation), and 23.9 (foreign tourists). The mean marginal willingness to pay for potential infrastructure and service improvements in PNR are between Sl.6.2 and 10.0 for availability of interpretative signs at landscape and wildlife point of interests, Sf. 5.6 and 17.5 for implementation of monitoring activities of endangered endemic species, and S1.5.1 and 13.6 for availability of operative and well-maintained rustic toilets (the former amounts correspond to national tourists and the latter to foreign tourists). The analysis of the impact of fees on different income groups for national tourists, divided according to Peruvian socio-economic classes, suggests that PNR is an inferior good for lower income non local tourists. Local tourists do not present different preferences in WTP according to socio-economic classes. Thus, in the case of an increase in the fee, there is not statistical evidence that lower income national tourists would be affected by a larger proportion than higher income national tourists. The hypothetical demand curves constructed from the probability of rejection curves for national tourists are highly elastic; therefore, increases in fee could cause elevated drops in the number of national tourists who visit the protected area. This is not the case for foreign tourists. Fee option evaluations that included profit maximization with and without price differentiation suggest that fair fee policies need to consider the implementation of differential fees for national and foreign tourists and the establishment of fees that would not significantly reduce the number of future tourists to the protected area.
... The literature includes two applications of predictive validity tests. Grijalva et al. (2002) conduct a predictive validity test for rock climbing trip behavior. They compare survey respondents' ex ante, hypothetical SP trip behavior with their RP trip behavior after some rock climbing areas actually closed. ...
Despite a robust literature on nonmarket valuation of cultural assets, serious validity concerns remain. We address this by estimating a demand model for a regional concert series. We survey concertgoers during and then again after the concert season to gather ex ante and ex post stated and revealed preference data. Comparing ex ante stated preference data to ex post revealed preference data we find respondents overstate their concert attendance behavior. An ex ante revealed-stated preference demand model with a stated preference adjustment helps calibrate the results and avoid bias from using solely hypothetical, stated preference data. The results demonstrate how to improve predictive accuracy in contingent behavior models and improve our understanding of demand for live music performances.
... Overall, the strengths of both approaches can be exploited through joint estimation of RP/SP data. Essentially, joint estimation has the advantage of allowing the measurement of preferences outside of an individual's historical experience while anchoring the stated preference responses to actual behavior (Rosenberg and Loomis 1999;Grijalva et al. 2002;Whitehead 2005;Egan and Herriges 2006). Our RP/SP approach enables us to not only measure the effect of a future deployment of a large ship artificial reef on diving behavior, but also to consider the deployment effect under two different sinking depth scenarios to investigate whether, from a policy perspective, deployment depth is an influential component of diving demand. ...
Natural or coral reefs represent extremely valuable ecosystems supporting an estimated 25 percent of all marine life, yet recent reports suggest that 75 percent of the world’s natural reefs are under threat from both natural and human stressors. In areas such as the Florida Keys that boasts an expansive mix of natural and artificial reefs, recreational diving on the system provides an important economic contribution to the local community but also potentially contributes to the stress of the existing natural reef system. We develop a revealed and stated preference modeling framework of diver behavior and find that deployment of an additional large ship reef increases overall diving activity but does not impact diving behavior on the natural reef system.
... This means that stated preference methods (Champ et al., 2012) can provide important information about household WTP for consumption of public services in contexts where they are not currently provided. In this paper, we take advantage of a unique data set in which rural Rwandan households were asked both a payment card contingent valuation (CVM) question (Mitchell and Carson, 2013) to elicit household WTP for a fixed quantity of electricity, and a contingent quantity behavior (CB) question (Grijalva et al., 2002) that asked for a quantity of electricity they would choose to consume at alternative fixed prices. The two types of stated preference questions allow for a valuation of electricity consumption provided as a public good where all households consume the same quantity at the same time, as well as a private good where households can choose quantities and when to consume, but must pay a fixed marginal price. ...
Hundreds of millions of people in Sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to electricity and will not receive it from national grids in the next few decades. Electricity makes up an important component of rural development and so increasing access can have positive socioeconomic benefits. In this study, we use contingent behavior analysis to quantify the potential benefits of electricity in rural Rwandan villages which currently do not have electricity. The proposed method allows for calculation of net benefits as well as electricity bills. We find that even relatively poor, isolated households would pay for electricity, though amounts vary across households and this affects the financial viability of electrification. Common uses for electricity include lighting, battery charging, and agricultural processing. Despite heterogeneity, opportunities exist to improve rural economic welfare through increased electricity access.
... The combination of revealed and stated preference data has been widely discussed in the literature (e.g. Englin and Cameron, 1996;Grijalva et al., 2002;Whitehead et al., 2000). More recently, Whitehead et al. (2008) presented an overview of the methodological issues dealing with the estimation of models of this kind, and the benefits and problems involved in combining data. ...
... The CBM has been used mainly in the evaluation of resources used for recreational purposes. Respondents have been asked about their intended visitation behaviour given a proposed change in price, quality or access conditions (Grijalva et al., 2002;Cameron, 1992;Lienhoop and Ansmann, 2011).Two main formats have been used: the reassessed contingent behaviour (RCB) and the intended contingent behaviour (ICB). These two formats differ in the relation to the reference period for the contingent behaviour question (Simões et al., 2013a). ...
Natural resources offer a wide range of benefits to society. But many of these resources can
be irrevocably lost if active measures are
not adopted. Considering that environmental protection endeavours involve opportunity costs, economic valuation is essential to inform policymakers about the full net benefits of alternative measures, mainly if they are not properly reflected in market prices.
The literature on environmental valuation has been proliferating and significant developments have been achieved. Focusing on the methods used to evaluate the benefits related to the recreational use of natural areas, this paper explores the potential complementarity of approaches based on combined revealed and stated preferences techniques. We conclude that putting together the best of these both worlds imposes additional efforts that are worthwhile.
... The CBM has been used mainly in the evaluation of resources used for recreational purposes. Respondents have been asked about their intended visitation behaviour given a proposed change in price, quality or access conditions (Grijalva et al., 2002;Cameron, 1992;Lienhoop and Ansmann, 2011).Two main formats have been used: the reassessed contingent behaviour (RCB) and the intended contingent behaviour (ICB). These two formats differ in the relation to the reference period for the contingent behaviour question (Simões et al., 2013a). ...
Natural resources offer a wide range of benefits to society. But many of these resources can
be irrevocably lost if active measures are
not adopted. Considering that environmental protection endeavours involve opportunity costs, economic valuation is essential to inform policymakers about the full net benefits of alternative measures, mainly if they are not properly reflected in market prices.
The literature on environmental valuation has been proliferating and significant developments have been achieved. Focusing on the methods used to evaluate the benefits related to the recreational use of natural areas, this paper explores the potential complementarity of approaches based on combined revealed and stated preferences techniques. We conclude that putting together the best of these both worlds imposes additional efforts that are worthwhile.
... This study stands out in that it is one of the few studies that attempt to integral value of the ecosystem. Due to some limiting assumptions on services and goods assessment (Grijalva et al., 2002;MacMillan et al., 2006), vulnerability model integrates tangible assets, environmental services and landscape goods at a macroeconomist scale that is useful for managers in a decision making (FAO, 1997). Therefore, once all resources and their relationship are known, for any budget manager can determine the corresponding socioeconomic benefits (Johst et al., 2002). ...
Fire is the primary natural disturbance mechanism of Mediterranean landscapes. In the last part of the XX century, the modification of the frequency and severity of fire has brought about important socio-economic impacts of forest fires. The traditional economic valuation of the forest tends to underestimate the true value of forest. This value not only includes tangibles assets, as well as values associated with environmental services and landscape goods. All of the goods and natural services must be considered to indicate the total socioeconomic vulnerability of the ecosystem. Socioeconomic vulnerability has been determined through the development of a set of algorithms. The above make possible the evaluation of consequences of a potential forest fires (on tangible and intangible natural resources). The validation of the methodology was integrated into the framework of a research project (Spain's Ministry of Education and Science). It has been focused on making easier the adaptation and application of the procedure in other areas. The real applications were shown by socio-economical damage technical reports. The interactions between fire behavior and natural resources assessment are fundamental in forest management. We studied multivariable fire disturbances in order to supply a framework for understanding the wildfire effects providing a baseline for their socioeconomic assessment. The ecosystem resilience depends on the type of vegetation and the fire severity. The resilience on an ecosystem prior to a fire can be predicted by the simulation of landscape structure and management restoration experiences. The fire severity is calculated by fire behavior through historical weather, fuel model and topographical influences. Fire Intensity Level (FIL) is determined by the integration of the above factors. The results of the standardized indices for vegetation composition and fire severity produce percent depreciation rates. Economic depreciation in natural resources due to the direct impact of forest fires can be assessed by rate of deterioration. The determination of an algorithm integrating socio-economic assessment, resilience and fire severity constitutes the central axis for this research. The operational capacities imply an increase in the development of tools based on Geographic Information System (GIS). The demand from agencies and institutions is based on the fundamental premise of providing a versatile tool to be used during operational management by the manager or officials responsible for forest fire suppression.
Contingent behavior (CB), a stated preference (SP) method, elicits individuals’ intentions about behavior in quantities or frequencies under hypothetical scenarios. CB has primarily been used to elicit preferences in recreation demand models or to assess market demand. Although CB shares the hypothetical nature of other SP methods, there has been limited assessment of CB validity and incentive compatibility. Focusing on hypothetical bias and framing effects, we design an incentive-compatible decision mechanism that examines the validity of CB in economic experiments. We find hypothetical bias associated with an overstatement of quantities in CB responses, but the overstatement does not appear to arise from strategic behavior. We also find that overstating quantities is not significantly affected by framing, but framing does affect the convergence of CB and revealed preference responses. These findings raise questions about the validity CB research and its demand revealing properties but provide some avenues to address these concerns.
This paper undertakes a data-driven segmentation analysis on tourists’ choice of island destinations in the context of a changing climate. To this end, 2528 tourists visiting ten European islands in the Mediterranean, Baltic, and Atlantic regions were posed hypothetical situations in which diverse impacts caused by CC (i.e., beach loss, heatwaves, storm intensification, etc.) were affecting the islands being visited. In each scenario, tourists’ responses ranged from stay on the island to change to an alternative destination. Cluster analysis allowed the identification of four segments: (1) LO-loyal oriented—tourists willing to stay on the island despite any climatic event (in this group, tourists would often change the travel date); (2) RA-risk-averse—tourists who would always avoid islands affected by CC; (3) WIL-risk-specific—a segment of tourists with a special aversion to the risks associated with wildlife disappearance and damage to infrastructure, and (4) 3S-sun, sea and sand seekers—tourists who would always avoid visiting islands where CC induced effects are related to beach loss or extreme events. Further analysis is dedicated to comparing segments in regard to their sociodemographic characteristics, the image of the island, and the importance given to the protection of environmental attributes when choosing an island destination. The results alert us about the climate-specific risks and tourist profiles that are relevant to explaining changes in the tourism geography and seasonality of islands. The findings are useful for providing operational marketing recommendations for destination managers, especially for taking competitive advantage of climate services, and for prevention and responsiveness management strategies.
Since the end of the 20th century, glaciers are shrinking at an accelerated pace worldwide. This fuels the concern that increased glacier recession will lead to changes in the accessibility, safety, and amenity of many popular glacier tourist destinations—which may, in turn, affect the number of tourists visiting these areas. However, tourist responses to climate-induced environmental changes are still not well understood. Therefore, this study assesses the effects of the implications of glacier recession for glacier site visitation demand and examines the heterogeneity of tourists’ responses to these implications for visitation, combining a contingent behavior approach with multivariate cluster analysis. Data were generated from a quantitative survey of 565 visitors to Vatnajökull National Park in southeast Iceland. The results show that climate change induced environmental changes greatly affect nature-based tourism demand, and that the responses of glacier visitors to those changes vary considerably across visitation implications and visitor segments. In order to facilitate future glacier site visitation demand in a sustainable manner, decision-makers and practitioners need to act more proactively and incorporate visitor segment differences into their planning, education, communication efforts and product development.
The use of contingent behaviour style questions enables the presentation of scenarios that extended beyond previous experience, making it a valuable tool for the examination of a change in policy or management practices. This study uses anglers’ responses to contingent behaviour survey questions, in combination with actual trip frequencies, to examine the effects of a change in fish quality on users and non-users of Garadice, an Irish coarse fishing site. Respondents, from an onsite and online survey, were asked how many more days they would spend fishing at Garadice if the number of specimen fish increased by 25% or 50%, or if the quantity of fish increased by 25% or 50%. Estimates indicate that the average consumer surplus for a day spent fishing is €93 per day. The marginal benefits from the contingent behaviour changes range from €50.86 for a 25% increase in the quantity of fish to €89.01 for a 50% increase in the quantity of fish.
Los paisajes naturales de México son un gran atractivo para el turismo. Particularmente el turismo de sol y playa es uno de los ingresos más importantes del país. Sin embargo, otros tipos de paisajes están desarrollándose para ofrecer otros tipos de turismo y transformándose en lugares deportivos-recreativos con benéficos para las comunidades locales y usuarios. Paisajes geológicos tienen múltiples usos para el ser humano y están cambiando su función a través del tiempo y las circunstancias socio-culturales. Deportes de aire libre han aumentado su popularidad en México y actividades en la naturaleza como el senderismo, montañismo, la escalada, el rappel, bicicleta de montaña, etc. conquistan los paisajes montañosos de México. Nuestra pregunta de investigación es, ¿cómo han transformado actividades deportivas de aire libre de montaña el espacio, el territorio y el paisaje en México en el siglo XXI? La transformación del espacio ha creado un nuevo significado del lugar; el territorio como construcción social ha obtenido una nueva ordenación del territorio por necesidades e intereses de los nuevos actores; y el paisaje hizo posible un intercambio de visiones diferentes del medio natural. Un turismo responsable en paisajes naturales puede ser un camino alternativo para fortalecer la economía local sin perjudicar la ecología y cultura.
Research question: Monetary valuation of non-market goods has become increasingly important to inform sport managers and policy makers. This article set out to conduct a literature review, describe empirical applications within sports, and present a typology and conceptual discussion of valuation approaches.
Research methods: A literature review, synthesis, and critical assessment of existing monetary valuation research in sports were performed.
Results and findings: The review identified 113 articles which employed eight different valuation approaches. The contingent valuation method (CVM), hedonic pricing (HP), and the travel cost method (TCM) were the most frequently applied approaches. The most popular research contexts were professional team sports, sport tourism, and sport events. Valuation research was mainly conducted in the United States, Germany, and the UK. Altogether, 179 different scholars have contributed to this body of research, with 15 scholars having published at least three papers on this topic. The valuation approaches were assigned to three main categories: revealed preference approaches, including HP, opportunity cost approach (OCA), replacement cost approach (RCA), compensating variation approach (CVA), and TCM; stated preference approaches, including CVM, contingent behavior method (CBM), and choice modeling (CM); and hybrid approaches combining revealed and stated preference approaches.
Implications: Future valuation research should exploit the advantages of hybrid approaches and provide comparisons of monetary values obtained by different valuation approaches.
This study proposes an estimation approach to panel count data, truncated at zero, in order to apply a contingent behavior travel cost method to revealed and stated preference data collected via a web-based survey. We develop zero-truncated panel Poisson mixture models by focusing on respondents who visited a site. In addition, we introduce an inverse Gaussian distribution to unobserved individual heterogeneity as an alternative to a popular gamma distribution, making it possible to capture effectively the long tail typically observed in trip data. We apply the proposed method to estimate the impact on tourism benefits in Fukushima Prefecture as a result of the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant No. 1 accident.
Rock climbing is an increasingly popular recreation activity worldwide, nevertheless there are only few studies that estimate the demand for it. In this article the Kuhn-Tucker approach is used to estimate the demand for rock climbing in Sicily, the recreation value of different climbing sites, and the welfare impact of reducing injury risk. In modeling the demand for climbing we account for the heterogeneity of preferences. We find that decreasing the level of injury risk generates remarkable welfare gains to climbers. This is the first study we know of that provides a welfare measure of risk reduction in rock climbing and one of a very few studies in environmental economics that uses a revealed preference approach to estimate a welfare measure associated with a reduction in risk.
Revitalizing migratory fish stocks in constructed and regulated waterways is associated with a definition of an environmental flow and flow regulation according to it. The environmental flow refers to sufficient flow of water during the important stages of migratory fish life cycle, where the spatiotemporal flow requirements vary in terms of site and affected species. Ensuring natural reproduction of endangered migratory fish populations requires also other measures. It is important that in the choice of the
measures different objectives of stakeholders are reconciled. This report presents measures toward comprehensive restoration of migratory fish stocks. Matching the
annual operation schedule of hydropower and the natural migration cycles call for developing water flow regulation to better take into account the requirements of fish at sites with high conservation importance. Other new ways to improve the vitality of migratory fish species are, for example, to widen the use of compensation mechanisms and provide more flexibility to restoration measures. Restoration order of sites requiring actions should be prioritized using cost-benefit analysis that incorporates ecological
and societal benefits. The report also presents changes required in Finnish water laws to allow the implementation of the proposed measures.
Appendix 1 Methods to determine environmental flow – Finnish case studies (in Finnish)
Appendix 2 A literature review on the monetary values of recreational fishing (in Finnish)
Appendix 3 The cost efficiency and societal benefits of restoring the natural life cycle of salmon: Case
study on the River Kymijoki model (in Finnish)
Appendix 4 The agenda and memorandum of the stakeholder workshop (in Finnish)
The structure of stated preference questions to value consumption from public infrastructure can vary depending on the conditions of consumption facing the household. Specifically, a good could be offered as a quasi-public or quasi-private good. This paper demonstrates how consumption from two alternative electricity allocation options can be valued using two types of stated preference questions. Since surveyed households were asked two types of questions, the authors develop a joint model of a contingent valuation question and a contingent quantity behavior response that allows for correlation in error terms across models. In their application to two villages in Rwanda, the authors find higher WTP for electricity consumed as a quasi-private good rather than a quasi-public good, with four hours of electricity per day, only in the evening. They also find correlation in the error terms across the two models, suggesting that their joint estimator is more efficient than estimating each model individually.
We exploit the timing of the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill to develop a unique dataset of oyster consumer actual and anticipated behavior immediately prior to and following the event. A revealed and stated preference model allows both short- and longer-term responses to the spill to be investigated. Findings indicate that the BP spill had a negative impact on oyster demand in terms of short-run actual behavior, although spill effects show signs of dissipating several months following the spill. By accounting for unobserved heterogeneity in the sample, findings further indicate that short- and longer-term spill responses differ across consumer groups.
Study results contribute to the recreation benefits literature for the sport of rock climbing. Also, reported is an application of a hybrid or trip response modeling approach. Respondent reactions (intended behavior) to regulatory changes in management plans at Crowder's Mountain State Park, North Carolina, are assessed. The proposed regulations address (a) the quality of rock climbing conditions, (b) variations in climbing areas to accommodate the different skill levels, (c) limiting the number and size of groups, (d) rationing of rock climbing at certain areas, involving either area modifications, restrictions or closures, and (e) requiring users to attend education programs and perform park service projects. Intended changes in annual climbing participation, attributable to the proposed regulations, are displayed along with losses in recreation benefits. Our point estimate of consumer surplus is $125 per trip, which compares favorably with other reported estimates. Finally, an on-site climbing choice model is estimated and the resulting distributions of demanded state park trips among the seven climbing areas resulting from four regulatory change are evaluated.
In this paper, we examine heterogeneity in the trip preferences of recreationists. We apply a random parameters negative binomial model and a latent class negative binomial model to a panel dataset of beach users at a site on the west coast of Ireland, where access across farmland has been restricted. This approach allows us to account for heterogeneity with respect to the impact of the chosen explanatory variables in a contingent behaviour travel cost model of demand where the researcher must also account for the fact that the sample data has been collected on-site. The analysis also develops individual consumer surplus estimates and finds that estimates are systematically affected by both the random parameter and latent class specifications. There is also evidence that accounting for individual heterogeneity improves the statistical fit of the models and provides a more informative description of the drivers of recreationalist trip behaviour.
One of the major criticisms of stated preference data is hypothetical bias. Using a unique dataset of both stated and actual behavior, we test for hypothetical bias of stated preference survey responses. We consider whether respondents tend to overstate their participatory sporting event behavior ex ante when compared to their actual behavior at different registration fees. We find that stated behavior accurately predicts actual behavior at a middle level of respondent certainty, overpredicts actual behavior at a lower level of certainty, and underpredicts behavior at a higher level of certainty. This result suggests that respondent uncertainty corrections can be used to mitigate hypothetical bias and stated preference data can be used to better understand actual behavior in situations where no data exist. (JEL L83, Q51, Z2)
In this paper we present estimated recreation values for preventing a
decline in water levels at, and even the total loss of, a large western
lake that is drying up. We use a Poisson version of the count data
travel cost model; however, in addition to and in combination with
revealed preference (RP) data, we employ contingent behavior (CB)
responses to hypothetical questions on alternative water levels and
number of trips. The pooled model used allows for tests of differences
between results using RP and CB data. This particular pooled RP/CB
approach has not to our knowledge previously been applied to examine the
values of alternative water quantities in water-based recreation.
The term "embedding" is ill-defined and has been applied to distinct phenomena, some predicted by economic theory and others not. This paper lays out a theoretical framework for looking at these phenomena and provides a set of well-defined terms. Included is a discussion of survey design problems which may induce spurious evidence in favor of the hypothesis that respondents are insensitive to the scope of the good being valued. An empirical example of the component sensitivity is provided. This test rejects the hypothesis that respondents are insensitive to the scope of the good being valued.
In this paper we estimate the demand for rock climbing and calculate welfare measures for changing access to a number of climbs at a climbing area. In addition to the novel recreation application, we extend the travel cost methodology by combining the double hurdle count data model (DH) with a multinomial logit model of site-choice. The combined model allows us simultaneously to explain the decision to participate and to allocate trips among sites. The application is to climbers who visit one of the premiere rock-climbing areas in the northeastern United States and its important substitute sites. We also estimate a conventional welfare measure, which is the maximum WTP to avoid loss of access to the climbing site.
Several empirical studies have estimated the value of agricultural land as open space to local residents. An important group of individuals that may be affected by the loss of agricultural land are visitors to a region. The value of ranchland to tourists visiting a resort town in the Rocky Mountains is estimated through a travel cost model that combines information on observed behavior data from actual trips with contingent behavior data on intended current visitation if the resource were converted to urban and resort uses. The value of ranch open space to tourists is the gain or loss in consumer surplus derived from a visit to the study area attributable to the resource. A random effects Poisson regression model is estimated because of the panel nature of the data, accounting for the correlation of the multiple responses from heterogeneous individuals. Twenty-five percent of the sample would reduce visitation and 23 percent of the sample would increase visitation if ranch open space were converted to urban and resort uses. The overall effect of converting ranch open space to resort and urban uses is no net change in average consumer surplus per trip for summer tourists in general.
This paper proposes contingent behavior survey questions as a valuable supplement to observed data in travel cost models of non-market demand for recreational resources. A set of observed and contingent behavior results for each survey respondent allows the researcher to control for individual heterogeneity by taking advantage of panel data methods when exploring the nature of respondent demands. The contingent scenarios also provide opportunities to (a) test for differences between observed and contingent preferences and/or (b) assess likely demands under conditions beyond the domain of observed variation in costs or resource attributes. Most importantly, contingent scenarios allow the researcher to impose exogenously varying travel costs. Exogenous imposition of travel costs together with panel methods reduces the omitted variables bias that plagues observed-data travel cost models of recreational demand. Using a convenience sample of data for illustrative purposes, we show how to estimate the demand for recreational angling by combining observed and contingent behavior data. We begin with simple naive pooled Poisson models and progress to more theoretically appropriate fixed effects panel Poisson specifications.
Foreword Preface 1. Valuing Public Goods Using the Contingent Valuation Method 2. Theoretical Basis of the Contingent Valuation Method 3. Benefits and Their Measurement 4. Variations in Contingent Valuation Scenario Designs 5. The Methodological Challenge 6. Will Respondents Answer Honestly? 7. Strategic Behavior and Contingent Valuation Studies 8. Can Respondents Answer Meaningfully? 9. Hypothetical Values and Contingent Valuation Studies 10. Enhancing Reliability 11. Measurement Bias
The feasibility of user fees to support a public stocking program for pheasant hunting at the E. E. Wilson Wildlife Area in Western Oregon was initially evaluated by Adams et al. (1989) using the survey‐based contingent valuation (CV) method. Subsequent to the CV survey, an experimental “put and take”; stocking program was conducted at the site. Several fee levels were charged for hunting pheasants, and visitation records kept. Application of the CV method to investigate potential fee hunting at the E. E. Wilson is used as an illustrative case study. A unique opportunity exists to evaluate the performance of the original study and ask how CV may be used in designing and evaluating pricing policies for revenue capture in fee hunting programs.
The City of Marietta, Georgia, experimentally switched from flat fee financing to volume-based pricing for its trash services in January 1994. Both before and during the experiment, detailed data on individuals' observed responses to the actual introduction and contingent behavioral responses to a hypothetical introduction of volume-based pricing were collected. This study applies these data, and investigates the methodology of collecting contingent behavior data and their use in policy analysis. In particular, this study empirically evaluates the effect of experience with the policy on responses to contingent behavior questions, and tests for potential bias in the contingent behavior data. Copyright 1998, Oxford University Press.
This study pursues external validation of contingent valuation by comparing survey results with the voting outcome of a Corvallis, Oregon, referendum to fund a riverfront improvement project through increased property taxes. Survey respondents hypothetically make a voting decision—with no financial consequences—on the upcoming referendum. The survey sample consists of respondents verified to have voted in the election. We use available precinct-level election data to compare the proportion of “yes” survey and referendum votes as well as estimate voting models and mean willingness to pay (WTP) based on the two sets of data. We find that survey responses match the actual voting outcome and WTP estimates based on the two are not statistically different. Contrary to similar studies, our statistical results do not depend on re-coding the majority of “undecided” survey responses to “no.” Furthermore, such a re-coding of responses may be inappropriate for our data set.
Government This article introduces a new estimator for the analysis of two contemporaneously correlated endogenous event count variables. This seemingly unrelated Poisson regression model (SUPREME) estimator combines the efficiencies created by single equation Poisson regression model estimators and insights from "seemingly unrelated" linear regression models.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of New Mexico, 2000. Includes bibliographical references. Photocopy.
This paper proposes contingent behavior survey questions as a valuable supplement to observed data in travel cost models of non-market demand for recreational resources. A set of observed and contingent behavior results for each survey respondent allows the researcher to control for individual heterogeneity by taking advantage of panel data methods when exploring the nature of respondent demands. The contingent scenarios also provide opportunities to (a) test for differences between observed and contingent preferences and/or (b) assess likely demands under conditionsbeyond the domain of observed variation in costs or resource attributes. Most importantly, contingent scenarios allow the researcher to imposeexogenously varying travel costs. Exogenous imposition of travel costs together with panel methods reduces the omitted variables bias that plagues observed-data travel cost models of recreational demand. Using a convenience sample of data for illustrative purposes, we show how to estimate the demand for recreational angling by combining observed and contingent behavior data. We begin with simple naive pooled Poisson models and progress to more theoretically appropriate fixed effects panel Poisson specifications. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 1996
A test-retest analysis indicates reliability of responses regarding intention to visit, annual number of trips, and length of stay for three different lake levels. Comparison of actual length of stay and intended length of stay at the same lake level indicates validity of this type of intended visitation behavior. In addition, all three types of intended visitation behavior was statistically different across the three lake levels. Thus intended visitation behavior appears to be a viable approach to estimate changes in recreation use in response to changes in environmental quality for both economic efficiency and regional economic impact analysis. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 1993
Pseudo maximum likelihood techniques are applied to basic Poisson models and to Poisson models with specification errors. In the latter case it is shown that consistent and asymptotically normal estimators can be obtained without specifying the p.d.f. of the disturbances. These estimators are compared both from the finite sample and the asymptotic point of view. Quasi generalized PML estimators, which asymptotically dominate all PML estimators, are also proposed. Finally, bivariate and panel data Poisson models are discussed.
Recreation and Passive Use Values From Removing the Dams On the Lower Snake River to Increase Salmon
- J Loomis
Loomis, J. 1999. "Recreation and Passive Use Values From Removing the Dams On the Lower
Snake River to Increase Salmon. Report from Agricultural Enterprises, Inc. to U.S.
Army Corp of Engineers. Walla Walla, WA.
Choices Without Prices Without Apologies64) 43.690* (1.90) BOULD -0.023 (-0.11) 0.056 (0.29) -0.004 (-0.02) -0.047 (-0.17) TC -5.091*** (-11.60) -6.100*** (-11.62) -5.045*** (-11.90) -7
- A Vatn
- D Bromley
Vatn, A. and D. Bromley. "Choices Without Prices Without Apologies." Handbook of
Environmental Economics, D. Bromley, ed. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.,
1995.
1.385***
(3.30)
1.090***
(2.71)
1.261**
(2.55)
YRCLIMB
-13.016***
(-2.94)
-1.226***
(-2.81)
-13.633***
(-3.42)
-15.700***
(-2.82)
YRCLIMB 2
31.790*
(1.75)
0.295
(1.57)
37.231**
(2.64)
43.690*
(1.90)
BOULD
-0.023
(-0.11)
0.056
(0.29)
-0.004
(-0.02)
-0.047
(-0.17)
TC
-5.091***
(-11.60)
-6.100***
(-11.62)
-5.045***
(-11.90)
-7.783***
(-12.05)
BPROBLEM
1.951***
(5.67)
1.920***
(4.86)
1.749***
(5.03)
3.009***
(3.88)
NORTH
0.443***
(2.93)
0.315*
(1.87)
0.418***
(2.70)
0.429**
(2.12)
KNOW
0.473***
(2.74)
0.326*
(1.93)
0.455***
(2.78)
0.193
(1.00)
TCP
0.698***
(5.00)
0.712***
(4.88)
0.725***
(5.50)
0.905***
(5.01)
UNEARNY
0.072
(0.94)
0.021
(0.19)
0.073
(1.00)
0.042
(0.35)
MALE
-0.296*
(-1.91)
-0.165
(-0.87)
-0.177
(-1.00)
0.009
(0.05)
TOTHOURS
1.061
(1.07)
0.514
(0.53)
0.911
(0.97)
0.645
(0.51)
HH
0.038
(1.21)
0.034
(1.00)
0.043
(1.35)
0.035
(0.86)
PEOPLE
0.095
(0.34)
0.003
(0.01)
0.006
(0.22)
0.005
(0.15)
Contingent Valuation Surveys and Tests of Scope Insensitivity Determining the Value of Non-Marketed Goods: Economic, Psychological, and Policy Relevant Aspects of Contingent Valuation Methods
- R Carson
Carson, R.T. "Contingent Valuation Surveys and Tests of Scope Insensitivity." Determining the
Value of Non-Marketed Goods: Economic, Psychological, and Policy Relevant Aspects of
Contingent Valuation Methods. R.J. Kopp, W. Pommerhene, and N. Schwartz, eds.
Boston, MA: Kluwer, 1997.
Hueco Tanks State Historical Park Public Use Plan
- Texas Parks
- Wildlife Department
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Hueco Tanks State Historical Park Public Use Plan.
Austin, TX, August 1998.
ZIPFIP: A Zip and FIPS Database
- D Hellerstein
- D Woo
- D Mccollum
- D Donnelly
Hellerstein, D., D. Woo, D. McCollum, and D. Donnelly. ZIPFIP: A Zip and FIPS Database.
Washington D.C.:U.S. Department of Agriculture, ERS-RTD, 1993.
Natural Resource Damage Assessments under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990
- Noaa Panel
NOAA Panel. "Natural Resource Damage Assessments under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990."
Federal Register 58(1993):4601-14.
Measuring the Benefits of Water Quality Improvements Using Recreational Demand Models
- N Bockstael
- W M Hanemann
- I E Strand
Bockstael, N., W.M. Hanemann, and I.E. Strand. "Measuring the Benefits of Water Quality
Improvements Using Recreational Demand Models." Benefits Analysis using Indirect or
Imputed Market Methods Vol. 2. Environmental Protection Agency contract number:
CR-811043-01-0, 1984.
National Park Service (NPS)
U.S. National Park Service (NPS). Federal Register 58(1993):32878-80.
Hueco Tanks SHP Resource Management Plan draft 3.2. Hueco Tanks, TX
- Hueco Tanks State Historic
- Park
Hueco Tanks State Historic Park. Hueco Tanks SHP Resource Management Plan draft 3.2.
Hueco Tanks, TX, September 1997.
The Theory and Measurement of Passive-Use Value Valuing Environmental Preferences: Theory and Practice of the Contingent Valuation Method in the US, EU, and Developing Countries. I
- R T Carson
- N E Flores
- R C Mitchell
Carson, R.T., N.E. Flores, and R.C. Mitchell. "The Theory and Measurement of Passive-Use
Value." Valuing Environmental Preferences: Theory and Practice of the Contingent
Valuation Method in the US, EU, and Developing Countries. I.J. Bateman and K.G.
Willis, eds. New York, NY: The Oxford University Press, 1999.
Hueco Tanks State Historical Park Draft Public Use Plan
- Texas Parks
- Wildlife Department
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Hueco Tanks State Historical Park Draft Public Use
Plan. Austin, TX, September 1997.
Determining the Value of Non-Marketed Goods: Economic, Psychological, and Policy Relevant Aspects of Contingent Valuation Methods
- R Carson
Carson, R.T. "Contingent Valuation Surveys and Tests of Scope Insensitivity." Determining the
Value of Non-Marketed Goods: Economic, Psychological, and Policy Relevant Aspects of
Contingent Valuation Methods. R.J. Kopp, W. Pommerhene, and N. Schwartz, eds.
Boston, MA: Kluwer, 1997.
Valuing Environmental Preferences: Theory and Practice of the Contingent Valuation Method in the US, EU, and Developing Countries
- R T Carson
- N E Flores
- R C Mitchell
Carson, R.T., N.E. Flores, and R.C. Mitchell. "The Theory and Measurement of Passive-Use
Value." Valuing Environmental Preferences: Theory and Practice of the Contingent
Valuation Method in the US, EU, and Developing Countries. I.J. Bateman and K.G.
Willis, eds. New York, NY: The Oxford University Press, 1999.
Econometric Analysis
- W Greene
Greene, W. Econometric Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997.