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REVIEW ARTICLE
Effective valorization of food wastes and by-products through
pulsed electric field: A systematic review
Rai Naveed Arshad
1
| Zulkurnain Abdul-Malek
1
| Ume Roobab
2
|
Muhammad Imran Qureshi
3
| Nohman Khan
4
| Mohammad Hafizi Ahmad
1
|
Zhi-Wei Liu
5
| Rana Muhammad Aadil
6
1
Institute of High Voltage & High Current,
School of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai, Malaysia
2
School of Food Science and Engineering,
South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou, China
3
Faculty of Technology Management and
Technopreneurship, Technical University of
Malaysia, Malacca, Malaysia
4
UNIKL Business School, University of Kuala
Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
5
College of Food Science and Technology,
Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha,
China
6
National Institute of Food Science and
Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Correspondence
Zulkurnain Abdul-Malek, Institute of High
Voltage & High Current, School of Electrical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor,
Malaysia.
Email: zulkurnain@utm.my
Rana Muhammad Aadil, National Institute of
Food Science and Technology, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Punjab, 38000,
Pakistan.
Email: dilrana89@gmail.com
Funding information
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Grant/Award
Numbers: 05G88, 02M18, 01M44; Universiti
Malaysia Perlis, Grant/Award Number: 4B482;
Universitas Sriwijaya, Grant/Award Number:
4B379
Abstract
Utilize food waste and by-products generated from food processing is a develop-
ing concern to upgrade economic performance and ensure environmental sustain-
ability. The compounds recovered from the food wastes could have the potential
to be employed in different food and biotechnological applications. As a substi-
tute to the conventional method such as Soxhlet extraction, liquid–liquid extrac-
tion, and mechanical shaking, the development of green extraction techniques
(microwave, ultrasound, and pulsed electric field [PEF]) is seen as a significant step
in recovering by-products from food wastes. Among these, PEF is reported as a
novel technique that can decrease solvent usage, heating steps, and extraction
time to recover by-products. The current review covers recent developments in
PEF-based industrial food waste through a systematic literature review. Recent
literature was critically evaluated to examine the possibility of this emerging
technology in providing sustainable and novel uses of agro-foods waste and
animal-food waste. Limited literature is available on industrial scale studies of PEF
valorization of food waste and food co-products. Generally, PEF-based processing
is consistently reported as a superior technology that provides high efficiency and
better-quality products due to the low temperature of food compounds. This
technique has several spectacular possible applications in food processing
methods that provide the food industry with better efficiency and high-quality
products than existing extraction methods.
Practical Applications: This review suggests that PEF treatment of food wastes
needs urgent models for optimum processing operation at the industrial level, partic-
ularly economic viability under practical working conditions. This innovative
processing is generally accepted for more selective, quicker, and sustainable bio-
active compounds but still not satisfactorily verified for industrial applications. There
are ethical and economic needs for the management of bio-waste, and proper legisla-
tion appears to be an essential requirement to effectively and fruitfully utilize food
waste.
Received: 24 June 2020 Revised: 6 December 2020 Accepted: 7 December 2020
DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13629
J Food Process Eng. 2020;e13629. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpe © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 1of14
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13629
1|INTRODUCTION
Environmental sustainability is an integral part of global policies to
support the next generations' needs (Qureshi et al., 2019). Along the
food supply chain, food loss and wastage are high in plant and animal
foods. Food wastes contain trimmings, peelings, stems, seeds, roots,
bones, shells, and ligneous materials produced from various food
industries such as sugar, oil, starch, and juice (Falcone &
Imbert, 2017). Animal-based food waste comprises the portion of an
animal slaughtered that cannot be traded as meat or utilized in food-
stuffs such as bones, tendons, skin, the substances generated in the
gastrointestinal tract, blood, and inner body parts (Hicks &
Verbeek, 2016). Food waste management includes waste prevention,
reuse, recycling, and, finally, disposal. In agreement with this waste
management scheme, by-product utilization must be stimulated to
avoid food waste. In line with such efforts, several nations enforce
effective reduction measures such as the European Union (EU) by-law
endorses the usage of food by-products. From that perspective,
improvements and development of innovative technologies are essen-
tial to advance the management of biological resources (Priefer,
Jörissen, & Bräutigam, 2016).
Figure 1 demonstrates the causes of food wastage in the whole
food chain, starting from the food production phase to the final
serving stage. During farming, crops are exposed to pest infesta-
tions and extreme weather conditions, damaging the affected
crops, and generating massive food wastage. Due to the modern
lifestyle, current consumers are now more inclined toward
processed food, which eventually leads to large quantities of waste
generated during food processing (Raak, Symmank, Zahn,
Aschemann-Witzel, & Rohm, 2017). It is not possible to reduce the
total waste without disturbing the features of the end product.
Proper food packing must maintain its freshness while being
shipped from farms and factories through the warehouse to the
retail shop. Merchants commonly have strict presentation stan-
dards for products. If fruits, vegetables, or meat are deformed or
superficially damaged, they are usually not put on shelves. Further-
more, customers are directly and indirectly responsible for food
wastage through their standards of food storage, preparation and
handling.
Bio-wastes are often dumped in landfills or incinerated, which
produces significant odor nuisances. They are responsible for the
growth of pathogenic germs as well as greenhouse gas emissions. In
addition to carbon dioxide released during incineration, bio-waste is
also responsible for generating large quantities of methane during the
decomposition phase (Putnik et al., 2017). When methane is released
into the atmosphere, it accelerates global warming due to its green-
house effect that is to be 30 times greater than CO
2
. These
non-ecological methods of treatment also have the consequence of
contaminating soil and underground water, which harm the health of
communities in the long term (Rudra, Nishad, Jakhar, & Kaur, 2015).
This situation can easily be avoided by sorting and recovering
bio-waste, which is a significant energy source that benefits the envi-
ronment and our well-being. Different studies have reported waste
produced in various food industries (Nayak & Bhushan, 2019). Tonini,
Albizzati, and Astrup (2018) presented the percentage ratio between
the quantity of food waste produced at the industrial stages. The bev-
erage industry is the leading producer of food wastes (26%), followed
by the dairy sector (21.3%) (Ahmad et al., 2019), the fruit and vegeta-
ble processing sector (14.8%), the grain processing sector (12.9%), the
meat industry (8%), oil industry (3.9%), seafood industry (0.4%) and
the wastes originating from the production of other foodstuffs is
12.7% (Baiano, 2014).
There has been a developing concern to reprocess food waste
from various processing steps, confirm the sustainable environment,
FIGURE 1 Main reasons for
food wastage at different stages
2of14 ARSHAD ET AL.
and advance the methods' economic performance (Bhatt et al., 2018;
Gutierrez et al., 2016). A significant quantity of problematic wastes
that are produced by the oil and beverage industries. Extraction of
valuable compounds and recycling of these wastes decreases food
wastage, improves the environment, and generates additional income.
For example, extracted bioactive compounds could be utilized as
ingredients in different industries (Puértolas & Barba, 2016), generate
a new economy, including jobs and new opportunities to use the
extracted compounds. Therefore, the recovery of these beneficial
compounds is required for a greater circular economy.
Conventional extraction systems comprise cell damage practices
and involve the use of substantial mechanical force or thermal energy
and the use of hazardous chemicals for a longer processing time
(Chemat et al., 2020). Moreover, these conventional techniques are
not sufficient for a-selective extraction (Barba, Zhu, Koubaa, San-
t'ana, & Orlien, 2016; Poji
c, Mišan, & Tiwari, 2018). Therefore, these
conventional treatments may damage or reduce the quality of
extracted products such as juices, proteins, polysaccharides, and so
forth. Many researchers investigated the use of non-thermal tech-
niques to extract food compounds effectively (Gharib-Bibalan, 2018;
Nayak & Bhushan, 2019; Poji
c et al., 2018; Putnik et al., 2017). These
green extraction methods require the use of a lesser quantity of
organic solvents and the reduction in extraction time and energetic
requirements, leading to greater yields and high-quality final products
(Poji
c et al., 2018).
1.1 |Pulsed electric field technology
Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing requires lower specific energy
per processed product, so it is more acceptable due to its
environment-friendly and cost-effective advantages (Aadil
et al., 2015, 2018; Arshad et al., 2020; Frontuto et al., 2019; Peiró,
Luengo, Segovia, Raso, & Almajano, 2019; Rahaman et al., 2020).
During the last decade, the use of PEF-based extraction has been
verified in several food industries and biomass feedstock
(Baiano, 2014; Baiano & Del Nobile, 2016; Barba et al., 2015;
Koubaa et al., 2016; Roselló-Soto et al., 2015; Teh, Niven, Bekhit,
Carne, & Birch, 2015). PEF-based technologiesaremoreeffective
and sustainable extraction than many of the food industry's current
techniques (Barba, Parniakov, et al., 2015; Golberg et al., 2016;
Ma & Liu, 2019; Zia et al., 2020). For example, PEF-treated juices
are purer relative to the un-treated juices, most likely resulting
from selective extraction of permeated cells (Vorobiev,
Praporscic, & Lebovka, 2007). PEF-based extraction is often more
selective toward certain bio-compounds, quicker, sustainable,
reduced temperature rise, and has low energy requirement (Poji
c
et al., 2018; Puértolas & Barba, 2016; Takaki, Hayashi, Wang, &
Ohshima, 2019). PEF can offer additional profits and, thus, encour-
age growers to decrease waste and associated environmental pollu-
tion (Picart-Palmade, Cunault, Chevalier-Lucia, Belleville, &
Marchesseau, 2019; Puértolas, Koubaa, & Barba, 2016). Therefore,
PEF effectively extracts value-added compounds from food waste
(Cilla, Bosch, Barberá, & Alegría, 2018). Barba, Brianceau, Turk,
Boussetta, and Vorobiev (2015) have measured the potential of
PEFtoextractspolyphenolandcompareditwithtwoothernovel
technologies, that is, ultrasound (US) and high voltage electric dis-
charge (HVED).
Different researchers have found this emerging technology effec-
tive in the extraction process with the combination of other tech-
niques such as osmotic shock and mechanical press. Furthermore, the
combination of PEF and solid/liquid extraction produce a lesser
amount of food wastes compared to existing transformation technolo-
gies (Corrales, Toepfl, Butz, Knorr, & Tauscher, 2008).
1.2 |Electroporator
The electrical system (electroporator) for the extraction process is
similar to any other PEF system used for food application but with dif-
ferent specifications. It is composed of a treatment chamber, a pulsed
power modulator, and a control unit (Arshad et al., 2020). A pulse
modulator is used to provide the high-voltage pulses to the treatment
chamber comprising the sample food (Redondo, 2017). Power
switches are needed to transfer the stored energy in an economically
reasonable way (Kempkes, 2017). Most importantly, it affects the
whole design of the electrical system.
Initially, PEF pre-treatment was used with batch devices (for
solid–liquid extraction) to extract different food sample compounds.
However, Yin et al. (2008) effectively used a continuous-flow treat-
ment chamber for extraction application (Yin et al. 2006). Since then,
a significant development in the technology led to a continuous PEF
extraction system design, which provided easier continuous product
extraction. It has been described that PEF continuous extraction sys-
tem has effectively utilized tomato juice (Angersbach, Heinz, &
Knorr, 2000), eggshell (Lin et al., 2012), fishbone extraction (He, Yin,
Yan, & Yu, 2014), and so on. However, it has not been accepted
extensively in food processing.
PEF-basedextractionisachievedwhentheelectricfield's
applied voltage and associated strength are above the required criti-
cal transmembrane potential. This critical transmembrane potential
is dependent on the food to be treated and the final application
(Barba, Parniakov, et al., 2015; Mahnicˇ-Kalamiza, Vorobiev, &
Miklavcˇicˇ, 2014). After applying the required critical transmembrane
potential, the pore formation occurs in the membrane of the biologi-
cal cells, such as plant, animal, microbial, and algae (Gavahian, Chu, &
Sastry, 2018). Once the pores are formed about a 0.5 nm radius,
they may expand with the applied electric field, and ultimately cell
disrupt named irreversible electroporation (Buchmann, Brändle,
Haberkorn, Hiestand, & Mathys, 2019). In irreversible electropora-
tion, the cell cannot return to the original position after removing
the applied voltage. Figure 2 demonstrates the phenomena of mem-
brane permeabilization with the applied electric field and its applica-
tion in food technology.
ARSHAD ET AL.3of14
1.3 |Influencing parameters of PEF electrical
system
Electric field intensity is the most significant parameters influencing
the electroporation of cell membranes, and the dimension of the tar-
get cell control the required field strength. Generally, a higher electric
field generates more significant levels of electroporation and the
transfer of cell substance. However, some researchers have claimed
that the target compounds' deterioration is higher (Hossain, Aguiló-
Aguayo, Lyng, Brunton, & Rai, 2015).
The pulse width (μs−ms) considerably affects the cell disintegra-
tion's efficiency to expel intracellular substances from cells. In general,
the frequency and pulse width of the applied high voltage pulses deter-
mine the magnitude of the membrane's disturbance (Arshad et al., 2020).
The disruption of plant tissue at an electric field intensity from 0.5 to
5.0 kV/cm, which may be accomplished between 100 μsand10ms
known as the period in which food samples are exposed to electrical field
power. Treatment time is controlled by applied pulse frequency deter-
mines, pulse width, and flow/speed of the sample food (Arshad
et al., 2020). Rectangular and exponential decay (ED) waveforms are
widely used in the electroporation process. In rectangular pulses, pulse
width represents the time when the maximum applied voltage is
achieved. For the ED waveform, the pulse width is measured when the
input voltage decay to 37% of its extreme value. Specific energy is
another parameter that relies on the power of the electrical force, the
treatment time, and the treatment chamber's impedance. Impedance is
controlled through the dimension and configuration of the treatment
zone and conductivity of the sample food.
There are certain limitations to this emerging technology. The
power required for PEF processing is strongly reliant on the treated
food sample's conductivity. Thus when the high conductivity treated
media are produced with this food waste. It is not possible directly to
treat this media. It is required to reduce the conductivity by diluting
the solution. Additionally, PEF technology is not a traditional method,
and so the current cost of equipment development is high. However,
as PEF becomes a more common procedure, these costs are expected
to reduce soon (Arshad et al., 2020).
1.4 |Systematic literature review methodology
In this article, we have reviewed the novel and effective PEF tech-
nology to extract by-products from food waste. We empirically
focused along with the systematic literature review (SLR) method-
ology to enhance methodological consistency and highlight open-
ings for more research (Khan, Qureshi, Mustapha, Irum, &
Arshad, 2020). First of all, we traced related studies based on our
objective of studying the amplification of PEF in the extraction of
bio-compounds from the food wastage. Here, we restricted the
analysis to journal articles in English and excluded intentional
reports or book chapters. Scopus, Web of Science databases were
used to find out the related literature. Initial search keywords used
were ([Pulsed Electric Field] OR [PEF]) AND ([Food Waste] OR
[pulp] OR [peel]) to collect information in Scopus and Web of Sci-
ence (WoS) databases as well as ProQuest and PubMed databases.
Figure 3 shows the SLR's research methodology for the recovery of
value-added compounds through PEF.
Initially, 163, 136, 91 and 57 articles were obtained from Web of
Science, Scopus databases, ProQuest and PubMed, respectively. A
total of 236 articles was obtained from the databases after applying
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Next, duplicated records were
removed, which reduced the total number of studies to 174 articles.
These 174 articles were individually screened through titles and
abstracts, and 90 articles were found to fulfill the scope of the current
study. Afterward, we excluded the studies with different meanings of
PEF such as product environmental footprint (PEF), photo electro-
fenton (PEF), performance efficiency factor (PEF), poly ethylene
furanoate (PEF), and so forth. Subsequently, we excluded the irrele-
vant articles that have not focused on the extraction of compounds
using PEF and provided a total of 48 research articles.
FIGURE 2 Process of cell
membrane permeabilization and
functional application
4of14 ARSHAD ET AL.
Additionally, two relevant studies were discovered from published
review articles and included in the selected list. Thus, the whole search
produced a list of a total of 48 articles (29 research and 19 review arti-
cles) on which the current SLR is based. Finally, we grouped the collected
articles into different categories. We arranged them into tables that asso-
ciate PEF extraction with food waste and investigated the literature gap
that could be recommended for future research.
1.5 |Analysis of bibliographic information
This section offers a brief analysis of the elementary features of the col-
lected articles for the review. Figure 4 displays the total number of
selected published articles on food waste until April 2020, and academic
awareness in PEF extraction from food waste has been growing progres-
sively. Remarkably, the 120 scholars have conducted research on PEF-
based extraction from food waste published in 27 distinct research
journals. Barba is the highest-ranked author with maximum (11) research
Databases search
((Pulsed Electric Field) OR
(PEF)) AND ((Food Waste) OR
(pulp) OR (peel))
Inclusion & exclusion
WOS = 163; Scopus = 136;
ProQuest = 91; PubMed = 57
Total selected articles = 236
Records after duplication
removed = 174
•Restricted to peer-reviewed articles
•Restricted to English language
•All articles available till April-2020
•Exclude reports, book chapters and
conference papers
Records after title & abstract
screened = 90
Final articles for current study
= 48
Records after full text articles
screened = 46
11 articles were removed with
different meanings of PEF and 23
articles were found irrelevant
Research articles = 29
Review articles = 19
by-products
Vegetable oil Fruit
2 articles were included based on
the information derived from
review articles
Beverage
vegetable by-
industry technologies
Non-thermal
Meat, seafood,
dairy, poultry
FIGURE 3 Research
methodology for systematic
literature review (SLR) of the
current topic
FIGURE 4 Academic publications on pulsed electric field (PEF)
based extraction of valuable compounds from food waste
ARSHAD ET AL.5of14
articles. At the same time, Innovative Food Science and Emerging Tech-
nologies is the leading journal with seven publications, afterward, Trends
in Food Science and Technology with five publications. The research arti-
cle titled “Green alternative methods for the extraction of bioactive anti-
oxidant compounds from winery wastes and by-products: A review”by
Barba is the maximum cited article with 193 citations.
2|RESULTS: RECOVERY OF
BIOMOLECULES
In the following sub-sections, empirical studies for PEF extraction in
different food industries will be discussed. Barba, Parniakov,
et al. (2015) reviewed the results of different studies on extracting
bio-compounds from plant by-products (such as beetroot, red beet,
carrot, and grape). After PEF pre-treatment, these products had lower
turbidity and larger particles than those found after grinding, assisting
the purification method and reducing the procedure's total budget.
2.1 |Agro-food wastes
The by-product produced during agro-food processing is enormously
diverse, owning mostly to different fruits and the wide-ranging pro-
cesses engaged in producing the end products. Because of growing
production and processing, by-product has become a serious concern,
as these kinds of stuff are susceptible to microbial spoilage (Katiyo,
Yang, & Zhao, 2018). Normally the flesh or pulp is consumed in the
fruits and vegetables, whereas fruit processing by-products such as
peels, seeds, and unused flesh are frequently used as fertilizers
(Dimou, Karantonis, Skalkos, & Koutelidakis, 2019). The studies have
discovered that substantial quantities of phytochemicals and vital
compounds are found in the seeds, peels, leaves, and stems (Rudra
et al., 2015). The recovered bioactive compounds have tremendous
potential to be used in food processing as food supplements and
nutritional supplements or cosmetics and pharmaceutical applications
owing to their significant biological activities. The transformation of
plant by-products into high-value compounds seems to be an attrac-
tive solution mostly because of problems with waste management
issues and the production of high nutritional value functional food
products.
2.2 |Fruit and vegetable industry wastes
The research revealed that the wastes of fruits/vegetables contain a
higher concentration of bio-compounds, which could be an excellent
reason for the microbial contamination and produce bad smells. Few
studies showed that PEF was crucial to recover compounds from
grape pomace and skin, which were impossible to recover through dif-
ferent techniques (Panja, 2018). Thus, the use of PEF can be a benefi-
cial technique for the recovery of value-added compounds and its
ability to decrease microbial growth. Table 1 shows the results
collected for the recovery of different valuable compounds from fruit
and vegetable residues.
Table 1 shows the PEF conditions reported for the recovery of
compounds from the wastes of fruit and vegetable. PEF (20 kV/cm)
pre-treatment of prickly pear peels and pulps led to the maximum nat-
ural colorant outputs (≈75 mg from 100 g treated sample) with a
reduced extraction time to 20 min. Similarly, PEF (5 kV/cm) enhanced
the extraction of carotenoids (18–39%) from tomato skins obtained
from industrial processing (Luengo et al., 2013; Pataro et al., 2020).
Corrales et al. (2008) have measured the combined effect of thermal
processing (70C) with US (35 kHz), high hydrostatic pressure
(600 MPa) (HHP), and PEF (3 kV/cm) on grape pulp. This study shows
a higher recovery and selectivity for extraction purposes. The
extracted compounds specified that PEF can be used for the effective
valorization of this by-product.
PEF pre-treatment (3 kV/cm, 1.25 ms) was used to recover phe-
nolics from apple pomace, sorghum flour, frozen European blueberries
(1 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg) (Lamanauskas et al., 2015). Red apples, mango,
and papaya peels were examined to extract the polyphenols after PEF
pre-treatment. In orange peel pre-treatment, PEF (7 kV/cm) treatment
had recovered polyphenols increased to 1.59-folds (Luengo
et al., 2013). PEF-based recovery of polyphenols from fresh peels can
be considered a cost-effective and environment-friendly substitute
for conventional extraction techniques. Therefore, PEF-based recov-
ery of bioactive compounds from fruits and vegetables is a substitute
for conventional extraction techniques that need dehydrated prod-
ucts, huge amounts of organic solvents, and extended recovery times.
2.3 |Grape processing industry
Grape processing is among the major food processing activities. It is
accompanied by producing a significant number of wastes (grape
shoots, grape pomace, exhausted yeast, and wastewater) exception-
ally rich in bioactive compounds. Extracting the valuable molecules
establishes a critical point for the valorization of the wastes. These
molecules have health-related positive effects and can be utilized as
an additive for food and cosmetic products (Barba et al., 2016).
Cholet et al. (2014) measured the influence of PEF on the grape
berry pulps and its association with the recovery of the valuable com-
pounds. They noted that the PEF pre-treatment has a vital signifi-
cance to recover polyphenols from the grape. Delsart et al. (2014)
studied that the grape skins are more damaged at the highest PEF
energy, and the recovery of molecules is controlled with the highest
PEF strength. PEF was the best among other methods for extracting
valuable compounds from grape by-products (Corrales et al., 2008).
Table 2 shows the PEF-assisted extraction of compounds in the
grapes beverage industry. Tedjo et al. (2002) examined the PEF
(3 kV/cm, 50 pulses) pre-treated grapes and anthocyanins extraction.
They found that pre-treatment achieved a three-times more anthocy-
anin quantity over untreated grapes. In the same way, Corrales
et al. (2008) also noted a 78% higher extraction of anthocyanin after
pre-treatment with PEF (3 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg). In another study, the
6of14 ARSHAD ET AL.
impact of PEF (1.2 kV/cm, 18 kJ/kg) on the recovery of phenolics
from grape pomace was studied with thermal treatment (50C,
15 min, 125 kJ/kg) (Brianceau et al., 2015). The study indicated that
PEF increased phenolic extraction by 12.9% as compared to thermal
treatment.
Different non-thermal techniques have also been studied for
extraction capabilities from grapes waste. Brianceau et al. (2015) ana-
lyzed PEF treatment's effects on the recovery of valuable products
from fermented grape pomace. They compared PEF pre-treatment
with US, HVED, and conventional grinding to extract bio-compounds.
They noted that PEF (13.3 kV/cm, 0–564 kJ/kg) was appropriate to
improve the extraction of anthocyanins at 22 and 55% compared to
US and HVED assisted techniques. Likewise, Rajha et al. (2014)
examined the selective recovery of polyphenols with PEF
(13.3 kV/cm) pre-treatment noted a twofold increase in quantity as
compared with the US. Boussetta et al. (2012) also examined the
influence of PEF (8–20 kV/cm, 0–20 ms), HVED (10 kA/40 kV, 1 s)
and grinding (180 W, 40 s) on the recovery of polyphenols from the
grape seeds. The authors stated that the PEF pre-treatment was more
suitable to recover with low turbidity. PEF permitted to extract antho-
cyanins selectively by 55% greater than HVED (Puértolas &
Barba, 2016). They derived that PEF pre-treatment can permeabilize
the cell membranes deprived of damaging the tissue compared to
HVED and enhanced the selective diffusion of anthocyanins. There-
fore, PEF was established to be the best among non-thermal practices
to extract some bioactive compounds from the waste of grapes.
TABLE 1 PEF extraction of by-product from fruit-vegetable wastes
Treated product PEF protocol Effects of PEF in extraction References
Prickly pear peels and pulps 20 kV/cm Improve the recovery of red colorants
(75 mg/100 g)
(Barba et al., 2016; Koubaa et al., 2016)
Tomato pulp and skin 5 kV/cm Improve the recovery of carotenoids (39%) (Luengo,
Alvarez, & Raso, 2013)
Tomato peels 5 kV/cm, 5 kJ/kg Improved recovery of lycopene (18%) (Pataro, Carullo, Falcone, & Ferrari, 2020)
Grape pulp 3 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg Improved recovery of anthocyanins (four
times higher)
(Corrales et al., 2008)
Mango peels 13.3 kV/cm, 160 kJ/kg 2.5 times higher polyphenols, and proteins
than aqueous extraction
(Parniakov, Barba, Grimi, Lebovka, &
Vorobiev, 2016)
Apple pomace 3 kV/cm, 10.8 kJ/kg
and 3 μs
Polyphenols increased by 37.4% (Lohani & Muthukumarappan, 2016)
Red apples peels 5 kV/cm, 258 μs Polyphenols increased 13.3% (Katiyo et al., 2018)
Orange peels 7 kV/cm Polyphenols increased 159% (Luengo et al., 2013)
Papaya peels 13.3 kV/cm 20 mg/L proteins (Parniakov, Barba, Grimi, Lebovka, &
Vorobiev, 2014)
Blueberry press cake 3 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg Polyphenols increased 63% (Bobinaitėet al., 2015)
Blueberry processing by-
products
20 kV/cm Anthocyanin (Zhou, Zhao, & Huang, 2015)
Flax seed cake 1.9 kV/cm Polyphenols (Teh et al., 2015)
Tomato peels 5 kV/cm, 5 kJ/kg Increased lycopene 12–18%, antioxidant
18.0–18.2%
(Pataro et al., 2020)
Peels and a fraction of
tomato flesh
0.5–2.5 kV/cm, 15 μs
pulse
Carotenoid extraction increased (56.4%) (Andreou, Dimopoulos, Dermesonlouoglou,
& Taoukis, 2020)
Pomegranate peels 10 kV/cm Helpful in selective extraction as compared
to US and HVED
(Rajha et al., 2019)
Potato peels 3 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg Phenolics yield (10%) and antioxidant
activity (9%)
(Frontuto et al., 2019)
Lemon peel 7 kV/cm Increased the efficiency of polyphenol
extraction by 300%
(Peiró et al., 2019)
Tomato peels 5 kV/cm Total carotenoids content (47.3%) and
antioxidant power (68%)
(Pataro et al., 2020)
Macroalgae 3 kV/cm Proteins (Polikovsky et al., 2016)
Potato peels 0.75 kV/cm 99.9% steroidal alkaloids (Hossain et al., 2015)
Tomato peel and pulp 5 kV/cm 39% carotenoid (Luengo et al., 2013)
Thinned peach - Phenols (Redondo, Venturini, Luengo, Raso, & Arias,
2018)
Abbreviations: HVED, high voltage electric discharge; PEF, pulsed electric field; US, ultrasound.
ARSHAD ET AL.7of14
2.4 |Oil industry
PEF-based recovery of valued bio-active compounds has been used
from wastes produced in the cooking oil industry (Boussetta, Soichi,
Lanoisellé, & Vorobiev, 2014). Multiple researchers have discovered
the impact of PEF on the extraction of valuable compounds in oil
processing. Some examples of the extraction of nutritionally beneficial
compounds from wastes produced during vegetable oil processing
through PEF are summarized and discussed in Table 3.
Table 3 explains the extraction of compounds produced in the
cooking oil industry through PEF. Roselló-Soto et al. (2015) investigated
the influence of PEF (13.3 kV/cm, 0–109 kJ/kg) and HVED (40 kV,
0–109 kJ/kg) to recover the chlorophylls contents and phenolic com-
pounds from olive pomace. They stated a substantial increase (11.5%) in
the recovery of phenolic compounds than the control samples. Addition-
ally, they noticed that the rise in the recovery of phenolic compounds
was related to increased applied power. PEF (20 kV/cm) and HVED
(40 kV) pre-treatments have also been studied to extract the polyphenols
and proteins from sesame press cake (Sarkis et al., 2015). They found a
cell breakdown after PEF and HVED application, which is proportional to
the applied energies. They also noticed a substantial rise in the extraction
of protein and polyphenol compounds after utilizing PEF and HVED rela-
tive to non-treated samples.
Similarly, Boussetta et al. (2014) also observed the impacts of PEF
(20 kV/cm, 300 kJ/kg) to extract 80% more polyphenols from rape-
seed hulls. Additionally, the authors compared the PEF with conven-
tional crushing/grinding at comparable energy (720 kJ/kg) and
provided similar results. The product recovered through PEF has
lesser turbidity, with bigger particles than those found after milling.
Therefore, creating the following purification method simpler and
decreasing the total budget of the extraction.
Guderjan et al. (2007) studied the extreme cell permeabilization of
canola seeds after PEF (3 kV/cm) pre-treatment. They obtained a greater
concentration of phytosterols, polyphenols and tocopherols after apply-
ing PEF (3 kV/cm), in contrast with the non-treated sample. In a similar
study conducted by Puértolas and de Marañón (2015), the effect of PEF
(2 kV/cm; 11.25 kJ/kg) to the olive paste permitted a considerable
increase in the total tocopherol, polyphenols, and phytosterols contents
TABLE 2 PEF-assisted extraction of compounds in the grapes beverage industry
Treated product
Extracted
compound PEF protocol Effects Reference
Grape Anthocyanins 0.1–10 kV/cm 55% higher than HVED (Puértolas & Barba, 2016)
Grape skin 3 kV/cm, 10 kJ/kg 78% increased extraction (Corrales et al., 2008)
3 kV/cm, 50 pulses Threefold extraction Increased (Tedjo, Eshtiaghi, & Knorr, 2002)
Grape pomace Anthocyanins 13.3 kV/cm, 0–564
kJ/kg
22 and 55% more than US and
HVED.
(Brianceau, Turk, Vitrac, &
Vorobiev, 2015)
Polyphenols 1.2 kV/cm, 18 kJ/kg Extraction increased 12.9% (Brianceau et al., 2015)
Grape seeds 20 kV/cm Extraction increased 200% (Boussetta, Vorobiev, Le, Cordin-
Falcimaigne, & Lanoisellé, 2012)
Vine shoots 13.3 kV/cm, 50C Double increase compared to
untreated.
(Rajha, Boussetta, Louka, Maroun, &
Vorobiev, 2014)
Abbreviations: HVED, high voltage electric discharge; PEF, pulsed electric field; US, ultrasound.
TABLE 3 PEF-based recovery of compounds from produced in cooking oil industry
Food sample Applied electric field strength
Recovered
compounds
Extraction
progress Reference
Canola seeds 5–7 kV/cm, 42–84 kJ/kg Oil 39% (Guderjan, Elez-Martínez, & Knorr, 2007)
Sesame seeds 13.3 kV/cm, 40–240 kJ/kg Proteins 4.9% (Sarkis, Boussetta, Tessaro, Marczak, &
Vorobiev, 2015)
Corn germ 0.6 kV/cm, 0.62 kJ/kg Phytosterols 32.4% (Guderjan, Töpfl, Angersbach, & Knorr,
2005)
Rapeseed hulls 20 kV/cm, 300 kJ/kg Polyphenols 80% (Boussetta et al., 2014)
Olive paste 1–2 kV/cm, 1.47–5.22 kJ/kg Oil 14.1–54% (Abenoza et al., 2013)
2 kV/cm, 11.25 kJ/kg Polyphenols,
phytosterols
11.5%
9.9%
(Puértolas & de Marañón, 2015)
Olive pomace 2 kV/cm Polyphenols,
tocopherols
11.5%
15%
(Roselló-Soto et al., 2015)
Abbreviation: PEF, pulsed electric field.
8of14 ARSHAD ET AL.
(15, 11.5, 9.9%, respectively) as compared to non-treated samples. PEF
treatment is not merely useful at improving the extraction of compounds
from the vegetable oil industry (Puértolas & de Marañón, 2015). Thus, it
increases the profitability of all stakeholders in the oil sector.
2.5 |Sugar industry
Sugarcane and sugar-beet are the main crops cultivated worldwide, and
the residual remaining next to harvest, extraction, and purification is a rich
source of numerous high valuable products (Gharib-Bibalan, 2018). Ma,
Yu, Zhang, and Wang (2012) also found the generation of pectin from the
sugar-beet pulp through PEF strength 18 kV/cm. Additionally, the current
production of biofuel almost entirely depends upon sugar crops and their
wastes. Approximately 60% of total bioethanol is generated from the sug-
arcane, and the remaining are obtained from different crops, particularly
sugar-beet, sweet sorghum, and starchy grains (Benazzi et al., 2013).
Sugar-beet tails contain a lesser amount of sucrose and other valuable
compounds such as pectin, protein, and polymer comparatively to sugar-
beet cossette (Almohammed, Mhemdi, & Vorobiev, 2016). PEF treatment
(450 V/cm, pulse width 10 ms and energy 1.91 W h/kg) produced juice
with more sucrose (8.9 vs. 4.5S) than juice produced from non-treated
sugar-beet tails (Almohammed et al., 2016). Similarly, the ethanol found
from PEF treated sample was considerably greater than those achieved
from the untreated sample. The attained outcomes encourage and open
the door for bioethanol generation of sugar-beet tails and sugarcane trash
at industrial scales. However, proper research in this field is further
required to endorse the findings.
2.6 |Agro biomass
Plant waste consists of leaves, branches, roots, or flowers that con-
tribute raw material with high nutritional compounds. The PEF
technology also can increase the extraction practices from these
wastes, thus commercially having a great concern (Baiano, 2014). The
statistics enclosed in this section are explained in Table 4.
In research, the consequence of PEF (0.9 kV/cm) on the improved
(27%) extraction of polyphenols from tea leaves was evaluated (Zderic
et al., 2013). Similarly, alkaloid was extracted from aconitum core
roots after the pre-treatment of PEF (20 kV/cm) (Bai et al., 2013). In
another study, Loginova et al. (2010) discovered the application of
PEF (0.6 kV/cm; 10 kJ/kg) to increase the recovery of compounds
from chicory roots. They also found that PEF pre-treatment speed up
the diffusion rate at lower temperatures (20–40C).
Zderic et al. (2013) reported a 7% additional recovery of polysac-
charides from cornflowers with an optimal PEF (30 kV/cm, 6 μs)
processing. In a different study, Pourzaki et al. (2013) measured the
effect of PEF (5 kV/cm) on the recovery of the compounds responsi-
ble for color, aroma, and flavor of saffron. They have found a substan-
tial rise in the extraction of crocin, safranal, and picrocrocin from the
skin of saffron through PEF processing.
In another study, Yu et al. (2015) studied the impact of PEF
(0.2–10 kV/cm) pre-treatment on the stems and leaves of rapeseed
in the aqueous extraction. The results showed that PEF pre-
treatment increased proteins and polyphenols (Yu et al., 2015). This
point also showed an opportunity to use this technique for the
selective recovery of polyphenols and proteins confined in food
wastage.Yu,Gouyo,Grimi,Bals,and Vorobiev (2016) considered
the combined effects of the use of a PEF (8 kV/cm) pre-treatment
to the rapeseed stems and the subsequent recovery by pressure
(10 bar) to increase the polyphenols yield 34–81%. These results
supported earlier studies such as Gachovska et al. (2009), which
have also used PEF (1–2.5 kV/cm) and pressure (2–4MPa) to
extract bio-compounds from alfalfa leaves. PEF pre-treatment
transforms organic solids into soluble and colloidal forms, growing
bioavailability for anaerobic microorganisms contributing to the
methane production process (Safavi & Unnthorsson, 2017).
TABLE 4 PEF-based recovery of compounds from vegetable biomass
Treated product Extracted compound PEF protocol Reference
Alfalfa leaves - 1.25–2.5 kV/cm (Gachovska, Adedeji, & Ngadi, 2009)
Bertoni leaves Proteins, polyphenols,
chlorophylls, carotenoids
13.3 kV/cm
0–141 kJ/kg
(Barba, Grimi, & Vorobiev, 2015)
Fennel Vitamins C and E 0.6 kV/cm, 5 kJ/kg (El-Belghiti, Moubarik, & Vorobiev, 2008)
Papaya seeds - 13.3 kV/cm (Parniakov et al., 2016)
Aconitum coreanum
roots
Alkaloid 20 kV/cm (Bai et al., 2013)
Rapeseed stems and
leaves
Phenolics 5 kV/cm (Xiaoxi Yu, Bals, Grimi, & Vorobiev, 2015)
Chicory roots Inulin 600 V/cm, 10–50 ms (Ma et al., 2012)
- 0.1–0.6 kV/cm; (10 kJ/kg) (Loginova, Shynkaryk, Lebovka, & Vorobiev, 2010)
Skin of saffron - 5 kV/cm (Pourzaki, Mirzaee, & Kakhki, 2013)
Tea leaves Phenolics 0.4–1 kV/cm, (Zderic, Zondervan, & Meuldijk, 2013)
Abbreviation: PEF, pulsed electric field.
ARSHAD ET AL.9of14
2.7 |Animal-based food wastes
Animal waste has substantial financial and environmental effects on
the food supply chain. Wastes from animal-derived food processing
are composed of bred animals, seafood, and dairy processing origin
that are not intended for human consumption. Bred animal's waste
consists of hides, fat viscera, heads, bones, hoofs, carcasses, feathers,
manure, blood and other fluids, offal, meat trimmings, off-spec animals
meat. Seafood waste comprises off-spec, by-catch, and rubbish from
fishing operations, viscera, oils, cuttings, skins, bones, and blood. Simi-
larly, wastes obtained from dairy processing carry whey, curd, and
milk sludge.
2.8 |Dairy industry
Waste associated with dairy operations includes manure, contami-
nated runoff, milking house waste, bedding, and spilled feed (Ahmad
et al., 2019). The method of PEF turned out to be an excellent way to
treat waste whey from the dairy industry. It also shows an effective
method for obtaining protein fractions with potential use in the food
industry.
2.9 |Eggshells
A considerable volume of eggshell waste is produced universally, and
these are a significant source of different compounds, particularly cal-
cium in an eggshell is composed of 90% calcium carbonate (Waheed
et al., 2019). Waheed et al. (2019) highlighted different methods to
reduce eggshell waste by recovering and using its calcium for produc-
ing calcium-rich food sources. Moreover, they stated that different
techniques could extract calcium from eggshells, such as HVED, PEF,
and high energy milling. In another study, Lin et al. (2012) have used
PEF to extract calcium from eggshells and they found the highest cal-
cium content was 7.075 mg/ml with PEF at 20 kV/cm and 24 μs pulse
duration. This review further focused on using eggshells in food indus-
tries, which eventually would decrease the worldwide load of eggshell
waste to some amount. However, they could not provide sufficient
research on the extraction of calcium from eggshells.
2.10 |Meat industry
Nowadays, there is a growing interest in fish waste, which encourages
improved extraction and using by-products as valuable compounds in
various applications. Fish skin, bones, and fins are great sources of gel-
atin and collagen. Similarly, Yin and He (2008) have used PEF tech-
nique to extract dissoluble calcium from bone. The highest dissoluble
calcium content (4,324.8 mg/l) was achieved after PEF treatment
(70 kV/cm, 12 pulse numbers plus 1.25% citric acid).
Fish oil extract from waste is a significant source of omega-3
essential fatty acids. Golberg et al. (2016) studied the valorization of
fish waste through PEF (20 kV/cm, 600 μs) based extraction to
recover the abalone viscera protein. The authors found that the
suggested recovery method produced a greater quantity of abalone
viscera protein with favorable properties than conventional enzymatic
extraction techniques. These results also highlight the option of merg-
ing different methods with PEF to increase the method's productivity.
Franco et al. (2020) have used PEF (1.40 kV/cm) with water to
extract antioxidants such as DPPH, ABTS, FRAP) from fish residues
such as heads, bones, and gills. They observed a significant increase of
35.8, 68.6, and 33.8% for sea bream and 60.7, 71.8, and 22.1% for sea
bass, respectively, for water extracts. Fishbones are rich in chondroitin
sulfate (CS), and PEF (16.88 kV/cm, pulse number of 9) has yielded of
6.92 g/l CS (He et al., 2014). These results suggest that PEF could be
an economical choice and environmental friendliness for antioxidant-
extract production from these low-valued by-products after fish
processing.
The published literature was reviewed by Arroyo and Lyng (2017).
They presented the effect of PEF on meat qualities and the improve-
ment of mass transport to speed up drying and marinating/curing pro-
cedures and improve the water-binding features through the diffusion
of the water-binding molecule. Ghosh, Gillis, Sheviryov, Levkov, and
Golberg (2019) have studied PEF pre-treatment produced from high
voltage, short pulses (1 kV, 50 μs) followed by low voltage long pulses
(500 V) for extraction of protein from waste chicken breast muscle
which consists, with the total invested energy (38.4 ± 1.2 J/g), of ini-
tial waste meat that enables the extraction of 12% of protein.
2.11 |Applications of recovered biomolecules
Presently, there is considerable attention to natural constituents,
which are accessible from food wastes or by-products. A variety of
nutraceuticals from different natural sources can be incorporated into
extruded compounds. Phenolic compounds recovered from the food
waste deliver resistance to free radical injury, cancer, and circulatory
sicknesses (Kumar, Yadav, Kumar, Vyas, & Dhaliwal, 2017). Pectin is
recovered in the fruit pomaces, and it can be used as thickeners in
multiple food items such as jams, confectionaries, and so forth
(Kumar & Singh, 2018). Furthermore, these pomaces also deliver addi-
tional food additives combined with cellulose, nutritional fibers, edible
dyestuff, and vinegar. Some tropical fruits comprise papain or brome-
lain, which are natural protein-degrading agents and can be used as
meat tenderizers or washing powders. Waste tea fungal biomass was
found to be a complementary diet for broiler chicks (Murugesan,
Sathishkumar, & Swaminathan, 2005). PEF treatment of lysine fer-
mentation waste has been carried out to manufacture demineralized
feed and ammonium sulfate to be used in fertilizers and animal feed
(Lee, Oh, & Moon, 2003).
The fish pepsin is utilized as a rennet substitute in cheese
manufacturing. Cod pepsin can be used for de-skinning of herring.
Still, it is challenging to acquire an effective de-skinning except for dis-
turbing the muscle because of variable skin thickness at the fish's dif-
ferent parts (Ofori & Hsieh, 2014). Cod pepsin can be effectively
10 of 14 ARSHAD ET AL.
utilized for descaling. Animal blood has a high level of protein and can
be measured as a significant edible by-product.
Future use of plant extracts comprising phenols or isolated plant
phenols as antibacterial agents in nutrition. Whereas the specific anti-
microbial functions for the action of phenolic compounds are still not
fully understood. It is commonly recognized that they also have vari-
ous cellular-level action (Bouarab Chibane, Degraeve, Ferhout,
Bouajila, & Oulahal, 2019). Antimicrobial phenols may be directly
applied to the production of perishable food products or inserted into
food-contact products to be issued into the immediate area of canned
products.
3|CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS
For the food industry's sustainability, it is essential to utilize food
wastes that come from the preparation or processing of different
foods such as milk, meat, fruit or vegetable peelings, eggshells, sea-
food shells, used oils, bread, and so forth. So, these co-products could
be used in research, extraction techniques, and new production lines.
Currently, the food industry is concentrating only on reducing energy
and water usage and the generation of energy from waste. Indeed,
organic waste recovery makes it possible to recycle it by transforming
it into fertilizer or consumable energy products (compost or biogas).
The utilization of these co-products can seize larger cooperation
among researchers and industry, use available technologies for the
recovery of compounds from these wastes, and the implementation
of economies of scale required to treat great qualities of biomass,
which is considered by low economic values. There is insufficient
research available to recover by-products from the meat, eggshells,
and dairy industry. Current review guides that PEF pre-treatment of
food wastes still needs some scientific investigation for an improved
and consistent operation at the industrial level. Innovative technology
choices are generally more selective, quicker, sustainable, thermally
sensitive, but still not satisfactorily verified for industrial applications.
Besides, conventional treatments mark them as costly and inefficient
based on the high development cost of industrial PEF system. PEF
processing is at the development stage for each specific application.
Large producers of food waste must sort and recycle their bio-waste,
under penalty of administrative and criminal sanctions. Today, the
recovery obligation for professionals being an obligation of result and
not of means, management of bio-waste is left to the producer's sole
responsibility. Consequently, no provision obliges companies as to the
means standards used for the management of their bio-waste. They
retain full responsibility, whether as regards their recovery or the
health risks associated with storage. Hence, proper legislation is
essentially required to utilize food waste effectively and fruitfully.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the Universitas Sriwijaya (4B379), Uni-
versiti Malaysia Perlis (4B482), and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(01M44, 02M18, 05G88).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Rai Arshad: Conceptualization; data curation; formal analysis; writing-
original draft; writing-review and editing. Zulkurnain Abdul-Malek:
Conceptualization;Supervision, Writing-review and editing. Ume
Roobab: Writing-original draft; writing-review and editing. Muham-
mad Imran Qureshi: Conceptualization; writing-review and editing.
Mohd Ahmad: Conceptualization; writing-review and editing.
Nohman Khan: Software; writing-review and editing. Zhi-Wei Liu:
Writing-review and editing. Rana Muhammad Aadil: Supervision;
writing-review and editing.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data Availability Statement Data will be available on request.
ORCID
Ume Roobab https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6075-6737
Rana Muhammad Aadil https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0185-0096
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How to cite this article: Arshad RN, Abdul-Malek Z,
Roobab U, et al. Effective valorization of food wastes and by-
products through pulsed electric field: A systematic review.
J Food Process Eng. 2020;e13629. https://doi.org/10.1111/
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