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Variation in water quality indices
of sachet water brands consumed
in Kaduna State: consumers’
perceptions
Udeme Udeme Udokpoh1*, Zuwaira Salihu Abubakar2,
Amina Bashir Yakasi3
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the quality of selected sachet water
brands consumed in Kaduna South Local Government Area (LGA). Twenty
sachet water samples were collected from the ten most popular brands consumed
by residents. The American Public Health Organization (APHA) and the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard procedures were
used to analyse 18 water quality indicators. The findings were compared to water
quality criteria established by the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality
(NSDWQ) and World Health Organisation (WHO). The results of the studies
show that, of the eighteen (18) water quality parameters tested, only pH exceeded
the allowable limit in portable water as recommended by NSDQW and WHO.
Since pH has no substantial detrimental influence on human health, the water
brands are safe to drink. However, the recent epidemic of waterborne infections
in area is not linked to the use of sachet water from brands that have NAFDAC,
manufacturing, and expiration dates. It is thus advised that further research be
conducted in the study area to analyse the quality of sachet water brands that are
not NAFDAC-approved, as well as manufacturing and expiration dates.
Keywords: contamination, NSDWQ, sachet water, water quality, waterborne
diseases, WHO
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is life when it is pure and free of toxins. One of the biggest challenges
confronting the global society is the shortage of portable water (Afangideh and
Udokpoh, 2021). In a report by United Nations (UN), there is more contaminated
water than portable water in the world water system (Bahago et al., 2019). Water
contaminated with certain chemicals can have serious impacts on humans,
animals, and even plants (Utsev & Ekwule, 2020; Gandhi & Sirisha, 2021;
Afangideh & Udokpoh, 2022). Risks associated with contaminated water include
a high death rate, a low quality of life, and low productivity, all of which have
raised severe concerns (Orji et al., 2006). These hazards are posed by water-borne
illnesses connected to polluted water (Ikpesu & Ariyo, 2021). Humans can
contract ailments including dysentery, cholera, diarrhoea, polio, typhoid, and
DISCOVERY
58(317), May 2022
To Cite:
Udokpoh UU, Abubakar ZS, Yakasi AB. Variation in water quality
indices of sachet water brands consumed in Kaduna State:
consumers’ perceptions. Discovery, 2022, 58(317), 441-452
Author Affiliation:
1Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot
Akpaden, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
2Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering,
Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Kaduna State, Nigeria
3Department of Civil Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna,
Kaduna State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author:
Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot
Akpaden, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Peer-Review History
Received: 11 March 2022
Reviewed & Revised: 14/March/2022 to 15/April/2022
Accepted: 18 April 2022
Published: May 2022
Peer-Review Model
External peer-review was done through double-blind method.
© 2022 Discovery Scientific Society. This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
DISCOVERY
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
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Page442
others by drinking polluted water (Ifeanyi et al., 2006). In a society where these diseases are prevalent, residents would spend more
on receiving treatment, resulting in a high cost for health care delivery. Waterborne diseases remain one of the world's most serious
public health issues. Unhygienic practises and the usage of unclean water contribute to the high prevalence of diarrhoea in children
and babies (Omalu et al., 2010; Tortora et al., 2002).
Access to potable water in Nigeria is severely hampered by cost, availability, proximity, and other variables, implying that
customers are forced to accept what they can afford or what is available. Water thought to be pure by manufacturers and customers
(often known as sachet water) is the most readily available source of drinkable water for most Nigerians. In different places of the
world, different ways are used to meet the need for freshwater resources (Uduma, 2014). Any commercially processed water that is
produced, packaged, and disseminated for sale that is meant for human consumption is referred to as sachet water (Denloye, 2004).
Water filled in individual units of 50 or 60 centilitre polyethylene sachets of high density is widely used in Nigeria (Omoniyi and
Abu, 2012). Water packaging into polythene bags (as a form of water distribution) has gained a reputation for ingenuity that has
spread beyond Nigeria to other developing countries (Omole et al., 2015). This breakthrough, which was developed in direct
response to Nigerians' unique potable water requirements, is known as 'pure water' in local dialect (Babatunde and Biala, 2010). A
variety of issues, including climatic, economic, and quality concerns, spurred the emergence of sachet water in Nigeria in the early
nineties. (Edoga et al., 2008). Although sachet water started in Nigeria, it has now spread to other West African nations such as
Niger, Benin, Ghana, Cameroon, Togo, Côte d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso (Stoler et al., 2012). Conversely, water in sachets is widely
available and inexpensive, although there are worries about its quality (Omalu et al., 2010; Kumpel et al., 2017). The product has
been considered as a low-cost, widely available option to supplying safe water, eventually permitting contributions from local
organisations in the drive to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) water objective (MacArthur and Darkwa, 2013).
Many years of government negligence and insufficient investment in public infrastructures has rendered Nigeria's public
drinking water supply unreliable (Dada, 2009). The government's unwillingness to guarantee the delivery of drinkable water for its
citizens, a teeming population of more than 140 million people, has contributed to regular Nigerians' widespread reliance on sachet
water (Omole et al., 2015). Because of the substantial price difference comparing sachet water and bottle-filled water (Omoniyi and
Abu 2012), sachet water is considered as clean and inexpensive by a broad range of consumers (Babatunde and Biala, 2010; Stoler et
al., 2012). When sachet water was launched into the Nigerian market, the Federal Government of Nigeria entrusted the sector's
regulation to the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) (Babatunde and Biala, 2010). To
accomplish this, NAFDAC established a number of conditions and quality requirements prior to the establishment of sachet water
factories (Akunyili, 2003). NAFDAC's development of quality criteria improved public trust in the product, as did demand for the
product (Akunyili, 2003: Babatunde and Biala, 2010). Because of the alarming prevalence of dissemination by various sachet water
business operators, NAFDAC seems unable to keep up with regulatory obligations throughout the years (Dada, 2009; Omoniyi and
Abu, 2012). As the public's desire for sachet water continues to rise, so does the revenue stream from sales (Mojekeh and Eze, 2011).
NAFDAC's failure to regulate the sale of sachet water has resulted in the unlawful establishment of factories that produce low-
quality sachet water, which is widely available in Nigerian marketplaces (Longe et al., 2012).
Moreover, sachet water production in Nigeria confronts various issues that tend to compromise "quality," failing to satisfy the
aim of supplying cheaper potable water to the majority of Nigerians (Obiri-Danso et al., 2003; Dodoo et al., 2006; Addo et al., 2009;
Stoler et al., 2012). While affordability and convenience are major considerations, the popularity of sachet water has been mostly
driven by municipal water systems' inability to offer consistent quantities of tap water (Stoler et al., 2013). As a result, sachet water
has proven to be an appropriate solution for tumbling water scarcity, especially among low-income households (Nyarko et al.,
2008).
However, compromises in NAFDAC regulations have caused a decline in the quality of sachet water, which has a detrimental
impact on customers. Furthermore, numerous published studies (Akinyemi et al., 2011; Abua et al., 2012; Ackah et al., 2012;
Manizan et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2015; Addo et al., 2016) on the poor quality of sachet water on the market have caused consumers
to doubt the product. In Kaduna State, Nigeria, a recent outbreak of waterborne infections (cholera, typhoid fever, and diarrhoea)
has been linked to portable water sources, with sachet water being one of the most prevalent source in the area. Therefore, it is
against these worries that the authors seek to assess the quality of sachet water brands consumed in Kaduna South LGA, Kaduna
State, Nigeria. The brands assessed were those that strictly adhered to operating standards and conditions recommended by
regulatory agencies.
The following specific objectives were drawn out in achieving the above aim.
To analyse the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of selected sachet water brands sold in Kaduna South LGA.
To compare these parameters of selected sachet water brands in the study area with NSDWQ and WHO standards.
To compare the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters among the brands sold in the study area.
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2. METHODOLOGY
This study used a qualitative, quantitative, and descriptive research approach to provide extensive information on the quality and
consumers’ perception of sachet water consumed in the research area (Robson, 2002; Jupp, 2006). The descriptive research responds
to the following questions: who, what, where, when, and how (Saunders et al., 2009).
2.1. Description of study area
Kaduna South is situated on latitude 10o27’42” N and longitude 07o25’37” E, at an altitude of 550-700 metres. It shares boundaries
with three local government areas: Kaduna North LGA to the north, Chikun LGA the south and Igabi LGA to the northwest,
respectively. Its headquarters is in the town of Makera. According to the 2006 population census, Kaduna South had 402,731 people
with land area 59km2. Based on the 3% growth rate of the 2006 census, population growth was projected to be about 543,600 by
2016. The Kaduna South water treatment facility, which was built in 1927, is unable to fulfil the rising population's needs. For at
least 5 years, the water taps have remained dry, with wells and boreholes providing alternatives, as well as purchased water from
water vendors for household and commercial usage (Musa et al., 2009). Due to the lack of both quantity and quality of public water
supplies, the town has become increasingly dependant on sachet water for consumption.
2.2. Sample of population
The target demographic was made up of individuals from all of Kaduna South LGA's political wards. Because urban wards are
believed to drink more sachet water than rural wards, the population size was not evenly distributed among the wards. Consumers
of not less than one of the sachet water brands, sachet water as being the most prevalent source of portable water, and
individuals/relatives of those afflicted by the disease epidemic were the criteria used to choose the respondents.
The population of this research consisted of 500 respondents from rural and urban areas, cutting across the 12 political wards.
Using the statistical formula below, a corrected sample of the population was calculated.
Required sample size
(1)
Where: = required sample size
Z, from the gradation curve is the standard normal deviation set with an approximate 90% confidence level = 1.845
P = proportion of the population having a given characteristic. For this case, it is taken to be 45% because most of the respondents
are not doing the same task and as such their responses may not likely conform.
q = proportion of the population not having a given characteristic; q = 1-p =1 -0.45 = 0.55= 55%
d = degree of precision or confidence level = ±5%
Therefore, =
Minimum sample size = 337
Since this proportion is less than 5% of the expected population of 543,600 (Kaduna South LGA), the small population
adjustment factor is discarded.
2.3. Sample collection
There are 26 brands of sachet water available in Kaduna South LGA, all of which have been registered by NAFDAC. Ten (10) of the
most popular brands were identified and selected from among the 26 brands based on consumers and distributors patronage. A
total of 20 samples were gathered directly from manufacturers using random stratified sampling, two from each of the 10 brands of
sachet water. The collecting was done in a way that it was evenly distributed among the Kaduna South LGA's political wards.
Following collection, samples were labelled and transferred to the lab in ice packs for physicochemical and bacteriological
analyses. The sachet water brands' NAFDAC registration number, manufacture and expiry dates were also examined. Before
piercing with a sterile needle and syringe, the water in each sachet was properly mixed and a portion of the sachet wiped with
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cotton wool soaked in ethanol. To comply with some producers' anonymity agreements, brand names are replaced with sample
numbers.
2.3.1. Sample handling and preservations
To ensure data quality, proper sample handling and storage is essential. To avoid contamination from hand contact, the samples
were obtained and stored in a sterile cooler. If accurate and representative results are to be obtained from the sampling procedures,
proper sample preservation is important. To minimise sample degradation, all samples were stored on ice in the dark and analy ses
were started as soon as possible upon collection.
2.4. Laboratory analysis
A total of 18 water quality indicators were examined using standard procedures recommended by the American Public Health
Association (APHA) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity, total
dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), free carbon dioxide (FCD), chloride, nitrate, iron, calcium, carbonate alkalinity, total
alkalinity, and bicarbonate alkalinity are the parameters considered. Other tests include general bacteria count, faecal coliform, and
coliform MPN. The results of all the parameters were compared to the recommendations of the NSDWQ (2007) and the WHO
(2011).
Within six hours of collecting the water samples, the physicochemical analysis was completed. A calibrated Crison pH metre
Basic C20 and thermometer were used to determine the pH and temperature of each water sample as soon as it arrived at the
laboratory. A DR/2000 spectrophotometer was used to determine the turbidity of the samples (Hach Company, Loveland,
Colorado, USA). This is a multifunctional spectrophotometer that has been set up to detect turbidity at a wavelength of 750 nm. The
TDS of the water samples were determined using a calibrated Crison conductivity metre Basic C30. The argentometric method was
used to determine the chloride content. The sample was titrated using a standard solution of silver nitrate and potassium
dichromate as the indicator under neutral circumstances. SPADNS colorimetric approach was used to quantify the level of fluoride
ions in each sample (APHA, 2005). The EDTA titrimetric procedure was used to evaluate magnesium, total hardness, and calcium
(APHA, 2005). A calibrated DR/2000 spectrophotometer (Hach Company, Loveland, Colorado, USA) set to the wavelength of 450
nm was used to determine sulphate ions. Using a DR/2000 spectrophotometer (Hach Company, Loveland, Colorado, USA), the ions
nitrate and phosphate were measured spectrophotometrically.
The Multiple Tube Fermentation /MPN method was utilised for water bacteriological analysis. In this approach, 100 mL of
water was collected from each sachet and sterilised into bottles of double strength MacConkey broth, which included an upturned
Durhams tube for gas collection and monitoring. This was cultured aerobically at 35°C for 18 to 24 hours. This was the preliminary
test for total coliform. After 37°C incubation, the number of bottles in which lactose fermented with acid and gas production
occurred was counted. Lactose ferment and acid development were confirmed by a change in the colour of MacConkey broth from
purple to yellow, while gas production was indicated by the displacement of broth in the durhams tube with a bubble. In the
confirmatory test for faecal coliform, a loopful of broth from the positive tubes in the preliminary test was transferred into elevated
coliform broth and incubated at 44.5°C for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the tube's gas production was positive. There was no gas
production in any of the tubes after incubation at 44.5°C, while streaking a loopful of the broth on Mac Conkey plate and incubating
at 35°C for 18 to 24 hours yielded no growth. Using probability tables, the most likely number of coliforms in the 100 mL water
sample was determined. Positive presumptive test tubes were grown on MacConkey plate and aerobically incubated at 35°C for 18
to 24 hours. The isolates were subsequently identified by colonial morphology, gramme stain, motility, and biochemical tests.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows the demographics of respondents. The high number of female respondents observed (55 percent) is attributed to the
fact that the surveys were distributed in residential areas where women were often present during contact time. The population size
was dominated by respondents aged 31 to 40 years. In terms of marital status, single respondents were far ahead of married
respondents. However, this is because respondents in Nigeria between the ages of 31 and 40 are either married or live
independently in their apartments.
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Figure 1: Respondents Demographics
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Table 1 displays respondents' views on the status of packet water consumption in Kaduna South LGA. The results show that
respondents patronise sachet water, showing the government's inability to provide portable water to its residents, as reported by
Dada (2009). According to the survey, they consume it on a daily basis, with the majority of them consuming between 5 and 8
sachets each day. They go on to say that they use this source as drinking water since it is inexpensive and readily available. This
shows that the vast majority of respondents are sceptical of its quality and are hesitant to consume it. This might be related to some
producers' poor production practises, which may jeopardise the product's quality. (Stoler et al., 2012). In accordance with the recent
outbreak of waterborne diseases in the study area, survey results reveal that typhoid fever, diarrhoea, and cholera are common
types of waterborne diseases that are either directly linked to the respondents or their close relatives.
Table 1: Status of sachet water consumption
Sachet Water Consumption
S/N
ITEMS
RESPONDENTS
1
Yes
500
2
No
0
Frequency of sachet water consumption
3
Daily
500
4
Weekly
0
5
monthly
0
Daily frequency of sachet water consumption
6
1 – 4 sachets
188
7
5 – 8 sachets
209
8
9 – 12 sachets
103
Reasons for sachet water consumption
9
Quality/hygienic
91
10
Affordable
246
12
Availability
163
Skeptical sachet water quality
13
Yes
289
14
No
211
Prevalent waterborne diseases in the area
15
Cholera
112
16
Typhoid fever
202
17
Diarrhea
186
Table 2 shows the results of laboratory analyses (physicochemical and bacteriological) on all the sachet water brands. The pH of
all the samples tested in the study area ranged from 4.1 to 6.78, signifying acidic or neutrality. The findings differ significantly from
those of a similar study done by Joshua et al. (2019) in Kaduna State's Sabon Gari LGA. Their pH levels varied from 7.45 to 8.39,
indicating a neutral pH. The pH of the sachet water measured by Uduma (2014) in Kano city, on the other hand, ranged from 4.2 to
8.5, indicating acidic, neutral, and slightly alkaline conditions. The sachet water samples had ionic conductivity ranging from 73.6 to
94.4s/cm. The sachet water samples' TDS distribution was skewed toward a high frequency of low concentration. The total hardn ess
of the samples ranged from 10 to 122.2mg/l. These findings contradict Uduma's investigation (2014). His samples had greater
conductivity, TDS, and total hardness values and concentrations than the present study. Laboratory studies of all sachet water
samples indicate increased chloride contents (18.99 – 57.98 mg/l), iron (0.01 – 0.18 mg/l), calcium (6 – 40 mg/l), and sulphate (3 – 13
mg/l). Yusuf et al. (2015) reported higher concentrations of chloride and calcium in sachet water samples in Zaria, Kaduna State,
than the levels observed in this research. The bacteriological investigation confirms that there is no sign of Faecal coliform or MPN
coliform in any of the samples. The concentration of General bacteria count, on the other hand, was recorded in all samples and
ranged between 2/ml and 4/ml. Bahago et al. (2019) discovered a significant concentration of Faecal coliform (32-78/100 CFU) in all
of the samples they tested in a similar study conducted in Kaduna metropolis.
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Table 2: Results of physiochemical and bacteriological analysis
S/N
Samples/
Parameters
Units
Sample A
Sample B
Sample C
Sample D
Sample E
Sample F
Sample G
Sample H
Sample I
Sample J
NSDWQ/
WHO limits
1
pH
-
5.5
6.8
6.7
6.7
5.7
5.7
4.1
4.1
6
5.8
6.5-8.5
2
Temperature
oC
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
12-25
3
Turbidity
NTU
3.16
2.8
3.9
3.22
2.18
2.9
3
3.18
2.86
2.72
0-5
4
Conductivity
@ 25 oC
µ/cm
84.9
79.2
85
77.3
73.6
68.1
94.4
88.6
93.1
84.8
1000
5
TDS
mgL-1
44.57
41.68
44.73
40.68
38.73
35.84
49.68
46.43
49
44.66
500
6
TH CaCO3
mgL-1
48
122.22
30
40
20
10
10
12
16
16
150
7
FCD
mgL-1
32
34
28
20
20
30
30
30
20
28
-
8
Chloride
mgL-1
31.99
27.99
34.99
27.99
57.98
28.99
32.99
22.99
27.99
18.99
250
9
Nitrate
mgL-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
10
Iron
mgL-1
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.08
0.05
0.18
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.3
11
Calcium
mgL-1
30
40
28
14
18
6
8
16
14
18
10-200
12
Carbonate
Alkalinity
mgL-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
13
Sulphate
mgL-1
5
5
8
3
13
0
5
7
5
3
-
14
Total
Alkalinity
mgL-1
12
12
26
16
14
10
12
24
16
16
-
15
Bicarbonate
Alkalinity
mgL-1
12
120
26
16
14
10
12
24
16
12
-
16
General
bacteria count
3
2
3
4
3
4
3
4
2
3
500/ml
17
Faecal
coliform
1/100
CFU
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0
18
MPN of
coliform
MPN/
100ml
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0
Table 2 further compares the water quality indicators of sachets marketed in Kauna South LGA to those of national (NSDWQ)
and international (WHO) agencies. The pH range of the sachet samples was greater (4.1 – 6.8). The pH values of 70% of the brands
marketed in the region were not within the WHO and NSDWQ permissible limits for drinking water. The results of the
investigation also reveal that the sulphate levels in all ten sachet water brands tested were within the permissible limits set by both
standards. Interestingly, the concentrations of the remaining 16 water quality indicators in all the brands analysed were in line with
the standard values recommended by WHO and NSDWQ for temperature, turbidity, conductivity, TDS, total hardness, free carbon
dioxide, chloride, nitrate, nitrate, iron, calcium, Carbonate Alkalinity, Total Alkalinity, Bicarbonate Alkalinity, General bacteria
count, Faecal coliform, and MPN of coliform. Microorganisms or pathogens in water are responsible for waterborne disease.
According to laboratory data, the concentrations of microorganisms in all water samples were zero, indicating that there was no
sign of waterborne disease pathogens. The relevance of this conclusion is that the manufacturers of these brands of water acquire
raw water from reliable sources and adhere to government-mandated criteria.
Figures 2A–2M provide a comparison of sachet water quality across different brands. The results show that there is variation
across the brands in all 18 water quality measures. There was no discernible pattern to the variation.
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Figure 2A: comparison of pH Figure 2B: comparison of TDS
Figure 2C: comparison of Iron Figure 2D: comparison of Turbidity
Figure 2E: comparison of conductivity Figure 2F: comparison of calcium
Figure 2G: comparison of Sulphate Figure 2H: comparison of CaCO3
0
5
10
pH
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
100
TDS
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
0.1
0.2
Iron
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
5
Turbidity
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
50
100
Conductivity
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
20
40
60
Calcium
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
5
10
15
Sulphate
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
50
100
150
TH CaCO3
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
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Figure 2I: comparison of FCD Figure 2J: comparison of chloride
Figure 2K: comparison of bicarbonate Alkalinity Figure 2L: comparison of general bacteria count
Figure 2M: comparison of total Alkalinity
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Epidemics of waterborne diseases can emerge as a result of widespread production and use of improperly treated or polluted
packaged water. To protect public health, it is critical that accessible packaged water be properly registered and analysed on a
regular basis. The results of the studies show that, of the eighteen (18) water quality indicators tested, only one (pH) was not within
the permissible level in portable water, as suggested by the NSDQW and WHO. The pH readings of seven different sachet water
brands marketed were not within acceptable limits. In contrast, the presence of pH concentrations beyond the NSDWQ/WHO
allowed limit in certain sachet water may be hazardous to one's health. A pH value lower than the WHO maximum allowed range
(6.5) reduces disinfection efficacy and may have an indirect impact on human health. Low pH concentrations in drinking water, on
the other hand, are unrelated to waterborne ailments such as typhoid fever, cholera, and diarrhoea. As a result, the recent outbreak
of waterborne diseases in Kaduna South LGA is not the result of drinking sachet water from brands with NAFDAC, production,
and expiration dates because these brands adhere to the conditions and quality criteria established by NAFDAC for setting up
0
20
40
FCD
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
50
100
Chloride
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
0
50
100
150
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
2
4
6
General bacteria count
Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D
Sample E Sample F Sample G Sample H
Sample I Sample J
0
10
20
30
Total Alkalinity
Sample A Sample B Sample C
Sample D Sample E Sample F
Sample G Sample H Sample I
DISCOVERY l RESEARCH ARTICLE
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sachet water factories. Finally, with NAFDAC's incapacity to keep up with regulatory demands owing to the increasing rate of
proliferation by various sachet water business operators. Further research to assess the quality of sachet water brands without
NAFDAC registration number, production dates, and expiration dates is therefore recommended.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all of the sachet water companies in Kaduna State who graciously allowed their brands to be
sampled.
Funding
This study has not received any external funding.
Conflicts of interests
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests.
Data and materials availability
All data associated with this study are present in the paper.
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