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Distributions of Testate Amoebae and Ciliates in Different Types of
Peatlands and Their Contributions to the Nutrient Supply
Tomasz Mieczan*
Department of Hydrobiology, Univ. of Life Sciences, Dobrzańskiego 37, Lublin 20-262, Poland
(Accepted August 5, 2011)
Tomasz Mieczan (2012) Distributions of testate amoebae and ciliates in different types of peatlands and their
contributions to the nutrient supply. Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26. The inuence of plant communities on the
structure, abundance, and biomass of testate amoebae and ciliates were investigated in bog and fens in eastern
Poland. Samples were collected in belts of Sphagnum, Phragmites, Carex, Utricularia, and Calliergonella.
Sampling was done on a monthly basis from Apr. to Nov. 2009. Comparisons of species numbers, abundances,
and biomass levels of testate amoebae and ciliates between Sphagnum mosses did not show statistically
significant differences. In carbonate fens, the average species numbers, abundances, and biomass levels
of testate amoebae and ciliates for Sphagnum, Calliergonella, and Utricularia were higher than those for
Phragmites and Carex. Based on differences in plant stem structure, 2 groups of habitats were distinguished.
The 1st group consisted of 2 vegetated zones with a sparse stem structure (Phragmites and Carex), while the
2nd group consisted of plant species with a decidedly more-complicated structure (Sphagnum, Calliergonella,
and Utricularia). The results demonstrated that water table depth, pH, and concentrations of total phosphorus
and total organic carbon strongly regulated the taxonomic composition and abundances of protozoa. Rates
of excretion of ammonia-nitrogen and phosphate-phosphorus proportionally decreased with an increase in
body weight. In experiments dominated by small protozoa, excreted amounts were signicantly higher than in
experiments dominated by higher taxa. Average net excretion rates per protozoon of nitrogen ranged 1.0 × 10-5
- 3.72 × 10-5 µg/h and of phosphorus ranged 6.5 × 10-6 - 1.2 × 10-5 µg/h.
http://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.1/18.pdf
Key words: Wetlands, Protozoa, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Excretion
*To whom correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed. Tel: 48-81-4610061 ext. 306. Fax: 48-81-4610061 ext. 304.
E-mail:tomasz.mieczan@up.lublin.pl
Pea tlands a re general ly character iz ed
by rich biodiversity and also play key roles in
preserving the stability of ecological relationships
in particular regions (Flessa et al. 1998). At the
same time, they belong to the fastest disappearing
and most endangered ecosystems in Europe.
This is especially disquieting in combination with
progressive climate warming (Flessa et al. 1998,
Robson et al. 2005, Watters and Stanley 2006).
Although ecological research on carbon dynamics,
and plant and animal communities (e.g., copepods,
nematodes, and insect larvae) of peatlands is well
known (Walsh 1995, Wardle 2006, Watters and
Stanley 2006), in contrast, in the whole of Europe
and worldwide, very little is known about the
microorganisms and their roles in the functioning of
these ecosystems. Testate amoebae and ciliates
are good indicators of a variety of environmental
variables including the hydrology, pH, and nutrient
status (Mitchell et al. 2000 2004, Gilbert and
Mitchell 2006, Nguyen-Viet et al. 2007, Mieczan
2007 2009a b). Studies by many authors (Mitchell
et al. 2000, Mazei et al. 2007, Mieczan 2009a b)
reported signicant relationships between numbers
of protozoan species and microhabitat types. In
hollows of raised-bogs, it was noted that there is a
decidedly higher species diversity and abundance
of protozoa, compared to hummocks. However,
Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26 (2012)
18
research on the occurrence of protozoa (particularly
ciliates) in carbonate fens is lacking. Until recently,
only a few studies described the ecology of testate
amoebae in fens (Payne and Mitchell 2007, Jassey
et al. 2010, Lamentowicz et al. 2010, Payne
2011). On the other hand, studies concerning
ciliates in raised, ombrotrophic bogs suggest
an obvious qualitative and quantitative diversity
among individual plant species (Mieczan 2009a).
Thus, it seems that a similar differentiation should
be expected in the case of protozoa occurring in
others types of peatland microhabitats connected
with patches of different plant species
Wi lkinson (200 8) suggested th at te state
amoebae, even if only a minor fraction of the total
microbial biomass, could be responsible for a
large proportion of nutrient recycling in peatland
communities. One role of protozoa is utilization of
organic particles and the regeneration of soluble
inorganic matter. A major portion of nutrients is
excreted within short time intervals due to rapid
growth rates of testate amoebae and ciliates
compared to larger zooplankton (Dolon 1997).
The role played by ciliates in removing nutrients is
relatively thoroughly studied in lake ecosystems
(Ejsmont-Karabin et al. 2004). However, research
on excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus by
testate amoebae and ciliates in peatlands is
lacking. Research by many authors showed that
nitrogen is a factor limiting production in peatbog
ecosystems (Watters and Stanley 2006, Kooijman
and Paulissen 2006). The fact that protozoan
distributions in peatland ecosystems seem to be
of an extraordinarily mosaic character, in terms
of both abundances and species structures,
suggests that a similar mosaic may be expected
in the case of nutrient dynamics. Since protozoa
may reach extremely high abundances in
peatbog ecosystems, they may have a signicant
role in nutrient dynamics. Still, the question of
excretion rates by protozoa in peatlands remains
unanswered. Summing up, the current study was
designed to test the hypothesis that protozoan
communities in peatland ecosystems play major
roles in nutrient cycling, deciencies of which can
be clearly observed, particularly in ombrotrophic
peatlands.
The present study had 3 aims: 1) to describe
testate amoeba and ciliate diversity; 2) to examine
relationships between environmental variables and
protozoa; and 3) to experimentally determine rates
of N and P excretion by protozoa in relation to their
body weights, the ambient temperature, and pH.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site
The study area comprised 3 peatlands: a
raised bog at Durne Bagno, a poor fen at Jelino-
Krugłe Bagno, and a rich carbonate fen at Bagno
Bubnów (Polesie National Park, eastern Poland,
51°N, 23°E). The peatlands selected for this
study represent various vegetation types. In
the raised bog and poor fen, the vegetation
is dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum (L.),
Carex acutiformis Ehrhart., Car. gracilis Curt.,
Sphagnum angustifolium (C.C.O. Jensen ex
Russow), S. cuspidatum Ehrh. ex Hoffm., and S.
magellanicum Bird. The carbonate fen is colonized
by Phragmites australis (Car.), Car. acutiformis
Ehrhart, Calliergonella cuspidata (Hedw.), and
Utricularia sp. (Table 1).
Field sampling and chemical analyses
Fieldwork was conducted monthly from Apr.
to Nov. 2009. Sampling sites were chosen to
achieve the highest diversity of microhabitats.
Table 1. Main characteristics of the peatland sites sampled in this study
Peatland Location Area (ha) Type of peatland Dominant plants
Durne Bagno 51°22.344'N, 23°12.303'E 213.2 Raised bog Eriophorum vaginatum, Carex acutiformis,
Sphagnum angustifolium, S. cuspidatum, S.
magellanicum, S. palustre
Krugłe Bagno/Jelino 51°24.099'N, 23°9.116'E 19.7 Poor fen S. magellanicum, S. angustifolium, Car.
acutiformis
Bagno Bubnów 51°22.364'N, 23°15.303'E 2308.6 Rich fen Phragmites australis, Car. acutiformis,
Calliergonella cuspidata, Car. davalliana,
Comarum palustre, Utricularia sp.
Mieczan – Testate Amoebae and Ciliates in Wetlands 19
The total dataset consisted of 168 samples from 6
sites. During each sampling occasion, 3 samples
were collected from each microhabitat. In the
raised bog and poor fen, microbial communities
were examined among different Sphagnum
species (SA, S. angustifolium; SC, S. cuspidatum;
and SM, S. magellanicum Bird) (with 72 total
samples). In the carbonate fen, testate amoebae
and ciliates were collected in belts of P. australis
(PH), Car. acutiformis (CR), Utricularia sp. (UT),
and Cal. cuspidata (CA) (with 96 total samples).
In each type of microhabitat, water was sampled
using a Plexiglas corer (1.0 m long, with an inside
diameter of 50 mm). Four subsamples, of about
0.5 L each, were pooled into a calibrated vessel
to form a composite sample (2 L), which was
concentrated using a 10-µm plankton net. The
1st sample was analyzed live. One liter of water
was immediately preserved with Lugols solution
(at a nal concentration of 0.2%), allowed to settle
in a glass column for over 24 h in the laboratory,
and then concentrated to 30 ml. Finally, 0.1 ml
of the concentrated sample was counted using a
microscope at 400-1000x magnification. Abun-
dances of testate amoebae and ciliates were
determined using the Utermöhl method (Utermöhl
1958). Morphological identification of testate
amoebae and ciliates was mainly based on works
by Foissner and Berger (1996), Charman et al.
(2000), and Clarke (2003). Biovolumes of testate
amoebae and ciliates were estimated by assuming
geometric shapes and converting to carbon using
the following conversion factor: 1 µm3 = 1.1 ×
10-7 µg C (Gilbert et al. 1998).
In each plot, temperature, conductivity, pH,
dissolved oxygen (DO), total phosphorus (Ptot),
total nitrogen (Ntot), and total organic carbon
(TOC) were measured. Physical and chemical
analyses were performed according to standard
methods for hydrochemical analyses (Golterman
1969). Temperature, conductivity, pH, and DO
were assessed at the sites with a multiparametric
probe (Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, USA);
TOC was analyzed by a multiparametric UV
analyzer (Secomam, Ales Cedex, France); Ptot
by a colorimetric method; and Ntot by the Kjeldahl
method.
Laboratory experiments
As a result of preliminary research carried
out in 2008, very high numbers of microorganisms
were found in peatbogs and fens, which made it
possible to immediately use them for laboratory
experiments, without needing to cultivate them
in order to acquire sufficient numbers. Surface
water samples were taken from individual
microenvironments in spring and summer 2009.
In an effort to dene the rate of nutrient excretion
by protozoa, in the laboratory, microorganisms
were washed with deionized water and condensed
by filtration (through a 4-µm mesh size). Next,
protozoan (~6000) individuals were transferred to
a watch glass containing 100 ml of deionized water
(experiment no. 1), and then the watch glass was
lled with peatbog water previously ltered through
a 0.2-µm lter (experiment no. 2). Concentrations
of NH4+ and PO43- were analyzed using a
spectrophotometric method (APHA 1985) before
removing the microorganisms and again 5 h after
their removal. After 5 h, to determine the excretion
rate by protozoa, the water was ltered through a
4-µm-mesh lter, and the number of protozoa was
again counted with an inverted microscope. The
experiment was carried out at 3 pH values (of 4,
5, and 7) which had been observed in peatbog
ecosystems, and at a medium temperature of 14-
18°C noted during sample collection. Biovolumes
of microorganisms were estimated by multiplying
the numerical abundances by mean cell volume
measurements using appropriate geometric
formulae (Sherr et al. 1983). The experiment was
repeated twice during the vegetative season: in
spring when groups of protozoa were dominated
by small forms (< 60 µm), and in late summer
when larger species dominated (> 100 µm). Three
replicates were used for each pH level. Rates of
excretion were calculated as differences in P and
N concentrations between the samples containing
protozoa and the control. Protozoa were not fed
during these experiments, and nutrient excretion
rates of starved protozoa are ~30% lower than
those for fed ones (Taylor 1986, Dolon 1997).
Data analyses
The signicance of differences between mean
density and biomass values of testate amoebae
and ciliates was veried by an analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Ordination methods were used to
examine the general structure of the protozoan
data and test links between the protozoa and
environmental data. A detrended correspondence
analysis (DCA), an unconstrained indirect method,
was used to measure and illustrate gradients
indicated by the protozoa. Because the length of
the gradient was > 2 standard deviations (SDs),
a canonica l correspo ndence ana lysis (CCA ),
20 Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26 (2012)
a method which assumes unimodal species-
environmental relationships (Ter Braak 1988-
1992), was used. A diversity analysis (i.e., the
Shannon-Wiener diversity index) was performed
using the Multivariate Statistical Package (MVSP
2002). Similarities of protozoa communities
among the peatlands were compared using the
Euclidean distance measure.
RESULTS
Environmental variables
The water table depth (DWT) was highly
variable among sites and samples, ranging 20-
55 cm (ANOVA, F = 26.5, p = 0.001). Statistically
significant differences among the studied
peatlands were found in pH, conductivity, Ptot,
Ntot, and TOC (ANOVA, F = 30.21-31.22, p = 0.001).
Among the studied peatlands, the highest average
pH value (pH 7.6) was noted in the rich fen with
the lowest in the bog and poor fen (pH 3.2-4.5).
TOC concentrations were highest in the bog and
poor fen; however the remaining parameters
(conductivity, Ptot and Ntot) were highest in the
carbonate rich fen. In the bog and poor fen,
chemical properties of the water were similar
between micro-sites (p > 0.05). In the rich fen,
chemical properties of the water significantly
differed between micro-habitats (ANOVA, F = 29.4,
p = 0.0012). The highest conductivity and
concentrations of Ptot, Ntot, and TOC were noted in
belts of Utricularia and Calliergonella (Table 2).
Protozoan diversity and density: general results
In total, 29 testate amoeba and 19 ciliate taxa
were identified. The highest numbers of testate
amoeba and ciliate taxa occurred in the bog and
poor fen (with respective totals of 23 and 15 taxa).
A lower number of taxa (16) was observed in
the rich fen. A comparison of species numbers,
abundances and biomass levels of testate
amoebae and ciliates among Sphagnum mosses
did not show significant differences (p = 0.560).
These differences were significant for micro-
habitats in the carbonate fen (ANOVA, F = 31.4,
p = 0.001). The highest species numbers (11-16)
were found in belts of Utricularia and Calliergonella,
and the lowest richness levels (6-9) were observed
in micro-habitats dominated by Typha, Phragmites,
and Carex. Samples were moderately diverse
with Shannon diversity ‘H’ values ranging from
3.2 in Sphagnum to 2.1 in Typha stands. In
the studied peatlands, numbers and biomass
levels of protozoa significantly differed among
the studied stands, with the lowest numbers in
Phragmites and Carex micro-habitats and the
highest numbers in Utricularia and Calliergonella.
In general, compositions of ciliates were similar
among Sphagnum mosses, Calliergonella, and
Utricularia. However testate amoeba communities
from the rich fen differed from the others (Figs. 1,
2). The most abundant testate amoeba taxa in the
mosses were Assulina muscorum and Euglypha
tuberculata type, and the most abundant ciliate
taxon was Chilodonella uncitata. In the carbonate,
rich fen, 2 groups of habitat were generally favored
by testate amoebae and ciliates. Plant beds
Table 2. Physical and chemical characteristics of water in the investigated peatlands (average values for
the period Apr.-Nov. 2009 ± standard deviation). SA, Sphagnum angustifolium; SC, S. cuspidatum; SM,
S. magellanicum; PH, Phragmites australis; CR, Carex acutiformis; UT, Utricularia sp.; CA, Calliergonella
cuspidata; DWT, depth to water table; TN, total nitrogen; TP, total phosphorus; TOC, total organic carbon
Microhabitat DWT (cm) pH Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) Conductivity (µS/cm) TN (mg/L) TP (mg/L) TOC (mg/L)
Raised bog SA 17 ± 5 3.3 ± 1 8.3 ± 3.3 29 ± 6.4 1.121 ± 0.02 0.222 ± 0.11 54 ± 11
SC 15 ± 7 3.2 ± 1 10.1 ± 3.1 27 ± 8.2 1.13 ± 0.23 0.239 ± 0.11 56 ± 8
SM 19 ± 6 3.6 ± 1.5 9.2 ± 3.1 32 ± 8.7 1.332 ± 0.25 0.251 ± 0.03 59 ± 7
Poor fen SA 9 ± 4 4.5 ± 1 7.9 ± 3.3 48 ± 5.3 1.263 ± 0.06 0.241 ± 0.111 53 ± 13
SC 11 ± 6 5.2 ± 2 8.9 ± 2.1 45 ± 4.5 1.53 ± 0.23 0.269 ± 0.06 49 ± 11
SM 5 ± 2 4.6 ± 2 9.2 ± 2.1 48 ± 6.9 1.531 ± 0.28 0.275 ± 0.06 46 ± 15
Rich fen PH 49 ± 3 7.9 ± 1 8.3 ± 2.1 321 ± 17 2.111 ± 0.78 0.311 ± 0.12 15 ± 2
CR 41 ± 3 8.2 ± 1 8.5 ± 2.3 311 ± 23 2.112 ± 0.98 0.290 ± 0.16 14 ± 4
UT 20 ± 5 7.2 ± 1 6.9 ± 1.8 421 ± 25 1.563 ± 0.96 0.368 ± 0.18 23 ± 4
CA 22 ± 6 7.1 ± 1.5 6.7 ± 1.8 399 ± 31 1.468 ± 0.48 0.378 ± 0.13 21 ± 6
Mieczan – Testate Amoebae and Ciliates in Wetlands 21
with a “simple” structure (Phragmites and Carex)
were distinctly predominated by testate amoebae
(Hyalosphenia elegans) and ciliates (Strombidium
viride). Testate amoebae (Arcella discoides, Arc.
vulgaris, Centropyxis aculeata, and Cen. aerophila)
and small ciliates (of the Scuticociliatida) showed
significant connections with beds possessing
a decidedly complex structure (Utricularia and
Calliergonella).
Correlations among testate amoebae, ciliates,
and environmental variables
The DCA showed that the species compo-
sition of protozoa clearly differed between the bog
and fen (Fig. 3). The 1st 2 DCA axes explained
20% of the total protozoan variability. Results
for all sites showed that axis 1 was significantly
correlated with DWT, Ptot, and TOC, whereas axis
2 was correlated with pH (p < 0.05). Sites were
separated into 2 main types of habitats: mosses-
Sphagnum and vascular plants. In the canonical
correspondence analysis, all variables (DWT,
pH, and Ptot and TOC concentrations) together
explained 40% of the variance (p < 0.001). The
CCA revealed that the proportion of testate
Fig. 2. (A, B) Average (Apr.-Nov. 2009) density and biomass
of testate amoebae and ciliates within plant patches in the
investigated peatlands. SA, Sphagnum angustifolium; SC, S.
cuspidatum; SM, S. magellanicum; PH, Phragmites australis;
CR, Carex acutiformis; UT, Utricularia sp.; CA, Calliergonella
cuspidata.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
SA SC SM SA SC SM PH CR UT CA
Raised bog Poor fen Rich fen
µgC/ml
(A) Testate amoebae density biomass
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SA SC SM SA SC SM PH CR UT CA
Raised bog Poor fen Rich fen
µgC/ml
ind./ml
(B) Ciliates
ind × 102 ml
Fig. 1. (A, B) Similarity between testate amoeba and ciliate
communities in the investigated peatlands. RB, raised bog;
PF, poor fen; RF, rich fen; SA, Sphagnum angustifolium; SC, S.
cuspidatum; SM, S. magellanicum; PH, Phragmites australis;
CR, Carex acutiformis; UT, Utricularia sp.; CA, Calliergonella
cuspidata.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
RF-CA
RF-UT
RF-CR
RF-PH
PF-SM
PF-SA
PF-SC
RB-SM
RB-SC
RB-SA
0 10 20 30 40 50
RF-CR
RF-PH
PF-SC
RB-SC
PF-SM
RB-SM
PF-SA
RF-CA
RF-UT
RB-SA
(A) Testate amoebae
(B) Ciliates
-0.9
3.0
-1.0 4.0
Raised bog
Poor fen
Rich fen
Testate Amoebae Ciliates
Fig. 3. Detrended correspondence analyses (DCAs) of
protozoan samples (log-transformed data).
22 Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26 (2012)
amoeba and ciliate data explained by each
explanatory variable and its significance strongly
varied among variables and between the bog
and fen. Microsites without Sphagnum were
usually characterized by a low water level, a low
pH, and a higher concentration of TOC. More-
abundant taxa in these habitats included Ass.
muscorum, Eug. tuberculata type, Nebela tincta,
Corythion-Trinema type, Chi. uncinata, Colpidium
colpoda, and Paramecium bursaria. The 2nd
group included species that were associated
with a higher water level and high pH (Archerella
flavum, Arc. wrightianum, Hyalosphenia elegans,
Neb. carinata, Cinetochilum margaritaceum,
and Codonella cratera). The 3rd group included
species associated with a high water level and
pH conditions and a higher concentration of Ptot
(Arc. vulgaris, Arc. discoides, Cen. aculeata,
Cen. aerophila, Colpoda steinii, Disematostoma
tetraedricum, Holosticha pullaster, Strombidium
viride, and the Stylonychia mytilus-complex) (Fig.
4).
Fig. 4. Biplots of the canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) of testate amoeba and ciliate data from investigated peatlands
with representation of environmental variables. Species data were log-transformed, and rare species were down-weighted. DWT,
depth of water table; Ptot, total phosphorus; pH, water reaction; TOC, total organic carbon. Testate amoebae: Amph wr., Amphitrema
wrightianum; Arc cat., Arcella catinus type; Arc dis., Arcella disoides type; Arc vul., Arcella vulgaris; Arc sp., Arcella sp.; Arch fl.,
Archerella flavum; Ass musc., Assulina muscorum; Ass sem., Assulina seminulum; Cen ac., Centropyxis aculeata type; Cen pl.,
Centropyxis platystoma type; Cor dub., Corythion dubium; Cor-typ, Corythion-Trinema type; Cry ov., Cryptodifugia oviformis; Dif el.,
Difugia elegans; Dif gl., Difugia globulosa; Dif le., Difugia leidyi; Dif sp., Difugia sp.; Eug cil., Euglypha ciliata; Eug com., Euglypha
compressa; Eug rot., Euglypha rotunda type; Eug st., Euglypha strigosa; Eug tub., Euglypha tuberculata type; Eug sp., Euglypha sp.;
Hel sph., Heleoptera sphagnii; Hel pet., Heleoptera petricola; Hya ele., Hyalosphenia elegans; Hya ov., Hyalosphenia ovalis; Hya pap.,
Hyalosphenia papilio; Hya sub., Hyalosphenia subflava; Neb boh., Nebela bohemica; Neb car., Nebela carinata; Neb col., Nebela
collaris; Neb gris., Nebela griseola type; Neb mil., Nebela militaris; Neb tin., Nebela tincta; Neb sp., Nebela sp.; Plac spin., Placocista
spinosa type; Trig arc., Trigonopyxis arcula. Ciliates: Aspid., Aspidisca sp.; Chilod., Chilodonella uncinata, Cinet., Cinetochilum
margaritaceum, Cod., Codonella cratera; Col. hirt., Coleps hirtus; Col. spet., Coleps spetai; C. cuc., Colpoda cucullus; C. stein.,
Colpoda steinii; Disemat., Disematostoma tetraedricum; Eupl., Euplotes sp.; Halt., Halteria grandinella; Holosticha, Holosticha pullaster;
Kahl., Kahlilembus attenuotus; Leptoph., Leptopharynx costatus; Loxodes, Loxodes sp.; Oxytr., Oxytricha sp.; Paradil., Paradileptus
elephantinus; P. burs., Paramecium bursaria; P. putr., Paramecium putrinum; Stromb., Strombidium viride; Styl., Stylonychia mytilus-
complex; Uronema, Uronema sp.; Vortic., Vorticella companula.
Axis 1
-1.0
-1.5 1.5
Eug rot.
Ass musc.
Eug tub.
Neb tin.
Cor-typ
Eug sp.
Cry ov.
Eug com.
Hel sph.
Hel pet
Neb car.
Arch fl.
Hya ele.
Neb gris.
Cen pl.
Cen ac.
Neb boh.
Arc vul.
Arc cat.
Neb sp.
Hya pap.
Arc sp.
Dif le.
Amph wr
Arc sp.
Ass sem.
Cor dub.
Dif el.
Dif gl. Dif le.
Dif sp.
Eug cil.
Eug st.
Hya sub. Neb col. Neb mil.
Neb par.
Plac spin.
DWT
Axis 2
(A) Testate amoebae
pH
Ptot
Ptot
Axis 1
-1.0
1.0
-1.5
Eupl.
Stromb.
Cod. P burs.
Chilod.
C Cuc.
Disemat.
Holosticha.
Kahl.
Aspid.
Cinet. Styl.
Halt.
Col spet.
Uronema.
Loxodes
Paradil.
Leptoph. TOC
1.5
Axis 2
(B) Ciliates
pH
DWT
Hya ov.
Arc dis.
1.0
Trig arc.
Vortic.
C stein.
P putr.
Col hirt.
Mieczan – Testate Amoebae and Ciliates in Wetlands 23
Phosphorus and nitrogen excretion by
protozoa
The protozoa excreted measurable amounts
of ammonia-nitrogen (N-NH4), and phosphate-
phosphorus (P-PO4), and there were no effects of
pH on excretion rates of ammonia or phosphate.
Concentrations of N-NH4 and P-PO4 were
signicantly higher after a 5-h exposure, the same
as the control (ANOVA, F = 21.2, p = 0.0011).
Some significant additional data proving the
existence of dependence between individual size
classes of protozoa and the amount of excretion
were also ascertained. In experiments in which
small protozoa were dominant, amounts excreted
were significantly higher (ANOVA, F = 22.0,
p = 0.0012). Rates of excretion decreased propor-
tionally to an increase in body weight. It was
also noted that in deionized water and preltered
peatbog water, amounts excreted were similar and
showed no statistically signicant difference (Tables
3, 4).
DISCUSSION
Community structure in relation to environ-
mental parameters
Num b ers of id e ntif i ed tax a o f t esta t e
amoebae and ciliates were comparable to
other studies examining peatlands (Payne and
Mitchell 2007, Mieczan 2009a b, Jassey et al.
2010). In the present study, water levels, pH,
and TOC, were deciding factors constraining
communities of protozoa in peatlands. This
compares well to other studies (Tolonen et al.
1994, Velho et al. 2003, Payne and Mitchell 2007,
Mieczan 2009a b). There was also a significant
influence of total phosphorus on the occurrence
of protozoa. In previous research on testate
amoebae in relation to the chemical environment,
many of the significant explanatory variables
were nutrients (Mitchell 2004). Moreover, it was
demonstrated that the occurrence of testate
amoebae in minerotrophic fens in Greece was
significantly influenced by hydrological factors
(Payne and Mitchell 2007). The autecology of
Table 3. Excretion rates (µg protozoa × h) of ammonia and phosphate in laboratory experiments (average
value ± S.D.)
Protozoa/ size Dry weight × cell
(µg)
Control Protozoa (after 5 h) Excretion rate
(µg N-NH4 × cell × h)
Excretion rates
(µg P-PO4 × cell × h)
N-NH4 (mg/L) P-PO4 (mg/L) N-NH4 (mg/L) P-PO4 (mg/L)
Filtered peatbog water
< 60 µm 15,221 1.211 ± 0.211 0.265 ± 0.026 2.061 ± 0.238 0.455 ± 0.112 2.8 × 10-5 6.5 × 10-6
> 100 µm 40,150 1.200 ± 0.217 0.260 ± 0.056 1.600 ± 0.212 0.650 ± 0.026 1.3 × 10-5 1.3 × 10-5
Deionized water
< 60 µm 16,221 0 0 0.720 ± 0.243 0.111 ± 0.043 3.72 × 10-5 2.4 × 10-6
> 100 µm 43,200 0 0 0.300 ± 0.111 0.360 ± 0.111 1.0 × 10-5 1.2 × 10-5
Table 4. Relationships (Pearson’s correlations coefficients) of the rate of excretion with individual body
weights of protozoa, pH, and temperature
Experiments rprp
Filtered peatbog water
Body weight -0.58 0.01 -0.62 0.01
pH ns ns ns ns
Temperature 0.43 0.05 0.41 0.05
Deionized water
Body weight -0.63 0.01 -0.64 0.01
pH ns ns ns ns
Temperature 0.41 0.05 0.38 0.05
ns, not signicant.
24 Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26 (2012)
many species living in investigated peatlands
corresponds well to published data (Mitchell et
al. 2000, Opravilová and Hájek 2006, Jassey et
al. 2010). In the wettest microhabitats with low-
pH species such as Arcella vulgaris, Archerella
avum, Arch. wrightianum, Hyalosphenia elegans,
Neb. carinata, Cinetochilum margaritaceum, and
Codonella cratera were present, and in the driest
ones are species such as Assulina muscorum, the
Corythion-Trinema type, the Euglypha tuberculata
type, Neb. tincta, Chilodonella uncinata, Colpidium
colpoda, and Paramecium sp. The genus
Centropyxis is often reported as characteristic
of high-pH habitats, i.e., calcium-rich fens. The
results are in keeping with the recognized moisture
preferences of these species. Opravilová and
Hájek (2006) reported that species compositions
of both the vegetation, involving vascular plants
and bryophytes, and moss samples characterize
testacean assemblages better than even long-term
measured water-chemistry data. In the present
study, species richness levels and abundances
of protozoa were similar between different
species of mosses. The lack of any statistically
significant difference in protozoan abundances
may be related to the fact that all moss species
were situated in sphagnum hollows with waters of
similar physical and chemical properties. On the
other hand, in a rich fen, both the abundance and
species diversity among the protozoa clearly varied
among individual plant species. It was observed
in the present study that species diversity and
abundance, and the biomass of protozoa increased
in the most architecturally complex habitats of
Utricularia and Calliergonella beds. According
to Mieczan (2008), more-structurally complex
plants provide a more-attractive environmental for
protozoa by better providing food and refuge.
Nutrient excretion
Significant differences between protozoan
size and excretion intensity suggest their
particularly vital role in bogs. For an average
population of 1000 protozoa in 1 ml of water
in peatbogs, the average net excretion rate
of nitrogen was 0.58 µg (as N-NH4)/d and of
phosphorus was 0.22 µg (as P-PO4)/d (data
presented in Table 3). The obvious prevalence of
small forms in such peatbogs means that during
the vegetative period (from Apr. to Nov.), these
microorganisms can supply ca. 139 µg N-NH4
and 53 µg P-PO4.μg/d Obviously, these are
minimum excretion volumes compared to those
that may be noted in field conditions where the
abundance of food is relatively high. A signicant
effect of a cell’s size on the rate of nitrogen and
phosphorus excretion was also observed by
other authors. However, their works examined
lake and sea ecosystems (Taylor 1986, Dolan
1997). No significant relationship between the
excretion volume and pH was detected. Similar
observations were noted by Dolon (1997). On the
other hand, studies carried out by Liu et al. (2007)
revealed an increase in phosphate excretion at pH
6.8-8. Ciliates are considered major consumers
of bacterial production in aquatic ecosystems.
Ho wever, re cent studi es showe d t hat test ate
amoebae are also able to consume a large fraction
of bacterial populations in peatbogs (Mieczan
2007). The consumption of bacteria constitutes a
major portion of nutrient regeneration in peatbogs.
Due to their abundance and relatively high weight-
specic excretion rates, protists probably account
for a large portion of nutrient regeneration in a
variety of peatbog ecosystems (hypothesis 2).
These results show that vascular plant, moss,
testate amoeba, and ciliate communities respond
differently to ecological gradients. Factors which
most highly affect their occurrences are probably
water depth, pH, Ptot, and TOC. In accordance with
the 1st hypothesis, factors limiting the occurrence
of these microorganisms are the complexity of
the plant cover, groundwater level, and trophic
parameters. Statistically significant differences
between the size of the protozoa and the intensity
of excretion suggest that they have a key role in
nutrient cycling in bogs, which confirms the 2nd
hypothesis.
Acknowledgments: This work was partially
financed by project N N304 209837 from the
Ministry of Science and Higher Education,
Warsaw, Poland. I would like to thank L. Błędzki
for methodical comments on the laboratory
experiments. I am also grateful to M. Marzec
and M. Niedźwiecki for conducting the chemical
analyses.
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26 Zoological Studies 51(1): 18-26 (2012)
