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Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research
ISSN: 1094-1665 (Print) 1741-6507 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rapt20
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and
Festival Tourism
Tien-Ming Cheng & Mei-Tsun Chen
To cite this article: Tien-Ming Cheng & Mei-Tsun Chen (2014) Image Transformation for Mazu
Pilgrimage and Festival Tourism, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19:5, 538-557, DOI:
10.1080/10941665.2013.764911
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2013.764911
Published online: 29 Jan 2013.
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Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and
Festival Tourism
Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen∗
Graduate Institute of Recreation, Tourism, and Hospitality Management,
National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan, Republic of China
The aim of this article is to examine image transformation among tourists in regard to
Mazu pilgrimage tourism in Taiwan. The focus is on examining the transformation in
organic, induced and complex image dimensions targeting tourists; this study adopts
one factor within-subjects ANOVA and systematic sampling as the methodology. A
total of 297 samples studied shows that tourists exhibit significant differences in relation
to the formation of 33 organic, induced and complex image items of Mazu pilgrimage. A
summary of differential trends shows that tourists’ perception of unique images (such as
the 10 major ceremonies) is enhanced with information stimulation and tourists’ actual
visitation. Furthermore, tourism information stimulation has a significant effect on
“psychological–common–individual attribute” images.
Key words: pilgrimage and festival tourism, image transformation, organic image,
induced image, complex image
Introduction
Pilgrimage is a type of religion-based travel,
from the manifest behaviour of visiting a
sacred land to experiencing the internal spirit
(Barber, 1993, p. 1). Vukoni’c (1996)
pointed out that pilgrimage is an organised
visit tour with religious motivation in a
specific location to perform religious ritual.
Thus, the definition of pilgrimage is different:
pilgrimage is a type of travel for traditional
religion or modern world customs (Digance,
2003). Currently, pilgrimage tourism can be
divided into two forms. The first is using
one’s own religious meaning as the spot for
pilgrimage, which covers most types of pil-
grimage tourism, including Jerusalem, the
Holy Land and Mecca. The other type is com-
bining festival tourism with a religious pil-
grimage event, forming the model for
tourism development as “pilgrimage and
festival tourism”. Taiwan’s Da-Jia Mazu
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2014
Vol. 19, No. 5, 538 – 557, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2013.764911
∗Email: newsmei@hotmail.com
#2013 Asia Pacific Tourism Association
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pilgrimage and festival event is a clear example
of the latter.
Taiwan’s Da-Jia Mazu procession event ori-
ginated from the Fujian Meizhou procession
event during the Qing Dynasty in China. At
the time, the Meizhou original temple invited
domestic people and foreigners to invite the
Mazu that have been sent out to various
temples back to the original temple for
events. Until the late Qing Dynasty and the
beginning of the Republican era, there was
advanced economic activity among the cattle
sellers in Beigang and Da-Jia, causing people
to worship the deities and repay their benevo-
lence in religious behaviour. In Taiwan this led
to the Da-Jia Mazu’s procession to the Beigang
Chaotian Temple (Da-Jia Zhen Lan Temple
Website, 2012). These procession events have
continued until now, but since 1999, it was
no longer a purely religious pilgrimage event,
but combines with the form of festival
tourism, which have led the development of
tourism surrounding Da-Jia, gradually devel-
oping into the “Da-Jia Mazu International
Cultural Tourism Festival” held each spring.
This model of using festival tourism to
develop religious travel differs from other pil-
grimage destinations that purely focus on reli-
gious worship (for instance: Mecca, Jerusalem
and the Holy Land). Currently, mostly it is
believers who are involved in processions of
Da-Jia Mazu to other towns, and the local fes-
tival tourism events in Da-Jia include various
types of exhibitions, cultural art exchange
and new fashionable activities, which have
attracted participation by young tourists.
Other than becoming a significant festival in
Taiwan, it has also become a destination
brand for pilgrimage and festival tourism in
Da-Jia.
The core of the destination brand is to
choose one consistent brand component com-
bination to suggest an image that can confirm
or discern destinations, these destination
brand images can “be associated to the per-
ceptions reflected by memories of tourists
about a place” (Cai, 2002, p. 723). Thus, des-
tination image is a concept that exists before
destination brand (Pike, 2009). Qu, Kim,
and Im (2011) believe that creating a differen-
tiated travel destinations image, which has
become a basis for intense global and destina-
tion competition to survive in the market,
which shows that destination image is very
important to the travel spot. Pilgrimage sites
are like other tourism destinations, in that
they are multifaceted products meeting the
needs of both religious believers and general
holiday makers (Shuo, Ryan, & Liu, 2009).
Destination images are widely considered as
a key factor of tourist choices (Beerli &
Martin, 2004; Bigne, Sa
´nchez, & Sa
´nchez,
2001; Birgit, 2001; Castro, Armario, &
Ruiz, 2007; Chen & Tsai, 2007). When tour-
ists bear generally positive perceptions or
impressions of a destination, they are more
likely to select that destination (Alhemoud
& Armstrong, 1996; Birgit, 2001; Echtner
& Ritchie, 1993). The formation of a tourist’s
holistic image of a destination is conceptual-
ised as a three-stage process, consisting of
organic, induced and complex images; also,
the marketing methods applied to each stage
of the process differ (Fakeye & Crompton,
1991). From the theoretical perspective, tour-
ists at different stages perceive different
images with regard to their destination. A
review of the related literature shows that
most studies focused on comparing the differ-
ent visitation experiences of tourists or the
image differences before and after visitation
(Andreu, Bigne
´, & Cooper, 2000; Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999a; Chon, 1991; Hu &
Ritchie, 1993). Shuo et al. (2009), however,
asserted that the differences between the
phases of the image formation process are
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 539
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an important topic for discussion in tourism
studies.
In reviewing studies about destination
image, this study found that destination
image has frequently been used as a tool for
marketing strategies (Castro et al., 2007;
Chen & Tsai, 2007; Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2006;
Marcelo, 2009; Prebensen, 2007), and desti-
nation image can establish destination brands
to increase the visit intentions of tourists (Qu
et al., 2011). Past studies about pilgrimage
tourism generally focus on the environment
and impact on the religious site and tourist
decision-making processes (Pourtaheri,
Rahmani, & Ahmadi, 2012; Shinde, 2007;
Shuo et al., 2009), and rarely explore the des-
tination image in pilgrimage tourism. Unlike
the focus on believers or religious pilgrimage
sites in pilgrimage tourism in the past, this
study engages the perspective of festival
tourism events to explore changes in the
image of Da-Jia Mazu festival tourism.
Huang and Lin (2007) believed that exploring
the process of image formation in terms of
primitive, induced and composite images can
help understand the image evolution process
of tourists with regard to specific tourist desti-
nations. Gallarza, Saura, and Garcai (2002)
noted that it is more appropriate to adopt a
within-subjects effect methodology when eval-
uating different-stage image transformation.
Thus, this study uses the within-subjects
effect method to understand the image trans-
formation process and changes of tourists in
regard to Da-Jia Mazu pilgrimage and festival
tourism destination. The primary research
purpose is to use research results to suggest
the unique images, strengthening images and
stable images that should be enhanced in the
destination by managerial departments. This
study also proposes the gap images and nega-
tive images between improvement of infor-
mation transmission and actual experiences
to promote the development of tourism in
Da-Jia.
Literature Review
Mazu Pilgrimage and Festival Tourism
In Taiwan, the Mazu faith is officially described
as a folk religion. Perhaps because the island of
Taiwan is surrounded by sea, the belief in Mazu
persisted. After years of negotiation, in May of
1989, 24 Taiwan fishing boats took 224 Mazu
adherents from the Nan-Tien Temple in Yi-Lan
County of Taiwan to Meizhou Island and the
original temple on a pilgrimage to Mazu
(Fujian Provincial Department of Foreign
Trade and Economic Cooperation, 2006;
Fujian Provincial Tourism Bureau, 2005;
Meidong & Dapeng, 2004). It was the first
direct voyage across the Taiwan Straits after
the People’s Republic of China was founded
in 1949 (Meidong & Dapeng, 2004). In the
period 1989–2004, it was estimated that
Mazu adherents had made 1.3 million trips to
Meizhou from Taiwan, making Meizhou
Island one of the most popular places in Main-
land China for visits by Taiwanese travellers
(Meidong & Dapeng, 2004). However, while
visits from Taiwan were made each year, the
complexities of the trip plus the cost and time
constraints led many pilgrims to express their
desire to build temples to worship Mazu in
Taiwan. One of the major places nurturing
such a belief is Da-Jia, the site of this research.
Mazu religious beliefs and customs were
formally inscribed on the World Intangible
Heritage List on 30 October 2009 by
UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee to
safeguard intangible cultural heritages. It
became Taiwan’s first-ever world heritage in
the belief category (World Heritage Associ-
ation Taiwan, 2009). Nonetheless, Da-Jia
540 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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Mazu International Cultural Tourism Festival
is not only listed as one of Taiwan’s 12 most
symbolic folklore activities, but also one of
the world’s three largest religious festivities
by the Discovery Channel (National Museum
of History, 2008). Therefore, Da-Jia Mazu pil-
grimage tourism is not only an important reli-
gious activity for Taiwan’s Mazu adherents,
but also an important representation of reli-
gious tourism festivities in the world.
The Mazu pilgrimage that takes place in
March of the lunar calendar is the biggest
activity in Taiwan each year. At 5 p.m. of
the opening day of the Lantern Festival, the
chanting group of the Zhen Lan Temple of
Da-Jia sings, and the chairman of the Zhen
Lan Temple, accompanied by Temple execu-
tives, will make an inquiry to Mazu about
the departure date for the pilgrimage, which
is then followed by the registration of the
“incense race” activity and pilgrimage cer-
emony. The pilgrimage processions are all
composed of volunteer worshippers in an
atmosphere of excitement and solemnity
along the way. The pilgrimage attracts huge
groups of bystanders as the largest traditional
cultural activity of the nation. The holy pil-
grimage originally lasted 7 days and 6
nights. Since 1962, Mazu would rest at the
Dia-Nan Temple of Beidou, which lengthened
the pilgrimage to 8 days and 7 nights. The pil-
grimage travels past 38 temples (palanquin
rests on the way to Chau-Sin Temple) and
another 38 (six temples are repeated) on the
way back. The entire trip is 312.5 km in
length. Worshipers travel by foot, bicycle,
motorcycle, car, truck, or coach bus; along
the way, everyone greets the pilgrimage with
incense. While pilgrims expect Mazu to
bring them luck and fortune, they also open
their hearts to Mazu and unload whatever is
on their minds.
Destination Image
Destination image has drawn extensive
research attention since Hunt (1971 as cited in
Telisman-Kosuta, 1989) first introduced the
concept to tourism literature. Destination
image is typically defined as tourists’ overall
perceptions of a specific destination (Fakeye
& Crompton, 1991) or their mental portrayal
of the area (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996;
Gallarza et al., 2002). Destination image is mul-
tifaceted and consists of cognitive, affective and
behavioural elements (Pike & Ryan, 2004;
White, 2004). Researchers have continued to
use the multi-attribute approach in assessing
the destination image (Beerli & Martin, 2004;
Birgit, 2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007).
Destination image comprises the sum total of
beliefs, ideas and impressions individuals have
of attributes or activities available at a destina-
tion (Crompton, 1979; Gartner, 1986; Hunt,
1975). It is the formation of an overall mental
picture of that destination (Echtner & Ritchie,
1993). Milman and Pizam (1995) defined the
term as “the visual or mental impression of a
place, a product, or an experience held by the
general public”. For tourists, it could be an
impression or perception before they visit the
destination. Therefore, destination image plays
a critical role in the participation of travel activi-
ties (Bigne et al., 2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007). At
the same time, many researchers noted that des-
tination image is an important factor influen-
cing tourists’ travel decision and choice of
travel destination (Bigne et al., 2001; Birgit,
2001; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991). Therefore,
assessing destination image can help managers
to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
destination, as well as better understand tour-
ists’ behavioural intentions, while offering criti-
cal insights to provide operators with a
reference for developing tourism destinations.
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 541
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The most recent research studies on tourism
marketing (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu
& McCleary, 1999a; Beerli & Martin, 2004;
Marcelo, 2009; Moutinho, 1984) define an
image as a concept formed through the consu-
mer’s rational and emotional interpretation.
Crompton (1979) first revealed the cognitive
dimension of destination image. Several
researchers asserted that the cognitive image
is a tourist’s perception, view or evaluation
of tangible characteristics in the environment;
an affective image refers to a tourist’s psycho-
logical evaluation of a destination, which is
usually focused on the abstract attributes of
the destination (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997;
Echtner & Ritchie, 1991; Li & Vogelsong,
2006; Walmsley & Young, 1998). Together,
cognitive image and affective image form a
“global impression about an object or destina-
tion”, namely, the overall image (Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999a). This two-dimensional con-
ceptualisation of destination image has been
widely employed in subsequent studies
(Martin & Bosque, 2008).
Image Transformation
Echtner and Ritchie (1993) provided factors
affecting destination image, including attri-
bute-based and holistic components. The attri-
bute-based component refers to the perception
of individual destination features while the hol-
istic component denotes the mental imagery of
the destination. Also, attribute-based and hol-
istic components possess both functional and
psychological characteristics. They suggested
that destination image attributes should
include factors common to all destinations as
well as those unique to specific types of destina-
tion (see Figure 1). Gunn (1972) suggested that
potential tourists’ image of a destination could
be categorised as “organic” and “induced”
images. Organic images rely on non-commer-
cial sources of information and represent “the
totality of what a person already knows or per-
ceives about that destination”. In other words,
tourists’ perception of an unvisited destination
is based on articles, magazines, broadcasts, or
books. Induced images, on the other hand, are
derived from commercial tourism information.
Their formation is a result of exposure to infor-
mation from commercial sources such as travel
agents or advertising, all of which attempt
to construct or modify customers’ organic
images to a favourable evaluation in a purchase
context (Gartner, 1989). Although it is difficult
to change tourists’ organic images of travel des-
tinations (Gunn, 1972), induced images can be
largely altered through market positioning and
manipulation; therefore, marketers can influ-
ence tourists’ induced image through infor-
mation stimuli, such as marketing and
promotion (Rittichainuwat, Qu, & Brown,
2001). Fakeye and Crompton (1991) added
the conceptualisation of the “complex”
image, which is formed by environmental
stimulus after actual visitation; in other
words, complex images occur after tourists
have visited the travel destination and com-
pared the experience with organic and
induced images. Selby and Morgan (1996) pro-
posed a similar hierarchy of place image com-
posed of “organic” image, “projected” image
(established from tourist organisations’ delib-
erate marketing effort) and “re-evaluated”
image (perception obtained after visiting the
destination itself). They noted that the categor-
isation of organic and projected images “may
not be mutually exclusive” and referred to the
two as “naı
¨ve images”. To date, most studies
have focused on complex or “re-evaluated”
images and the role of actual visitation in
their formation (Chon, 1991; Fakeye &
Crompton, 1991; Li & Vogelsong, 2006;
Martin & Bosque, 2008; Pearce, 1982).
542 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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Two of the most influential studies on desti-
nation image were published by Echtner and
Ritchie (1993) and Echtner and Prasad
(2003), and some key points were made. The
first is that place image should be envisioned
as having two main components: attribute-
based and holistic. The second is that each of
these components contains functional (or
more tangible) and psychological (or more
abstract) characteristics. The third and final
point is that images of destinations can
include “common” functional and psychologi-
cal traits (components) or more distinctive or
even unique features, events, feelings and
auras.
Recently, image literature has been mainly
classified into two directions. The first is
based on image; the tourists’ visitation experi-
ence or image difference before and after the
visitation is discussed (Andreu et al., 2000;
Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a; Beerli &
Martin, 2004; Chen & Funk, 2010; Chon,
1991; Frias, Rodriguez, & Castaneda, 2008;
Gartner & Shen, 1992; Hu & Ritchie, 1993;
Ross, 1993). Another brand of study considers
image as the antecedent variable of attitude,
perceptual value, level of satisfaction and be-
havioural intention, to explore the causal
relationships among these variables (Bigne
et al., 2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Court &
Lupton, 1997; Rittichainuwat et al., 2001).
Baloglu and McCleary’s (1999a) study found
that first-time visitors and those who had
never visited the four Mediterranean countries
(Turkey, Egypt, Greece and Italy) demon-
strated different cognitive, affective and
overall images. Also, cognitive images are
similar to Echtner and Ritchie’s (1993) func-
tional component and affective images are
similar to the psychological component. In
other words, first-time visitors or those who
had never visited the destination, showed
differences in functional and psychological
images, or that different image stages may
present different information in the three con-
tinuums. On the other hand, Mercille (2005)
noted that tourists possess both positive and
negative views of destination images. There-
fore, this study extends and modifies the afore-
mentioned conceptualisations by exploring
tourists’ behavioural changes in the formation
of organic, induced and complex images in the
Figure 1 Components of Destination Image.
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 543
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Da-Jia Mazu pilgrimage from the perspective
of the three image dimensions, as well as nega-
tive images.
Application of Destination Image in
Pilgrimage and Festival Tourism Marketing
In recent years, tourist destination marketing
has become a very interesting research field
(Castro et al., 2007; Enright & Newton,
2004; Hosany, Ekinci, & Uysal, 2006; Pike,
2002). Especially since many countries have
used promotions and global marketing to
support their national images, using these
images to compete with other destinations,
destination image has become a very impor-
tant issue in marketing research of a destina-
tion image. These studies have gradually
become important, because destination image
is a factor that affects tourist satisfaction and
choice (Castro et al., 2007; Han, 1990;
Joppe, Martin, & Waalen, 2001).
A review of past applications of destination
image on tourism marketing shows that desti-
nation image is frequently seen as a method for
market orientation, which can provide valu-
able information to professionals in tourism
planning and marketing so they can under-
stand the needs of the target market (Lin &
Huang, 2009; Pike, 2009). Qu et al. (2011)
pointed out that destination image can be
used to establish the destination brand. They
believed that destination image is a multifa-
ceted concept, not only a target brand that
grasps consumer ideas, but would also directly
affect the success or failure of the travel desti-
nation. Thus, in the competitive tourism
market, travel destinations must establish a
positive and strong brand image, to increase
revisiting tourists and new tourists to the des-
tinations. However, past pilgrimage tourisms
have generally focused on religious studies at
the pilgrimage sites, while few have explored
them with the destination image. The pilgrim-
age and festival tourism events proposed in
this study differ from past pilgrimage tourism
based on religious meaning at the pilgrimage
site, since Taiwan’s Da-Jia Mazu International
Cultural Tourism Festival uses diverse festival
events to attract tourists. It is hoped that the
pilgrimage and festival event image marketing
can be used to establish the Mazu brand in the
Da-Jia area, which attracts tourists to go to
Da-Jia as a tourist destination. Therefore,
understanding tourist images for destinations
can help establish destination tourism
marketing.
Methodology
Study Instrument
Considerable effort was expended in the
design stage of this research, using unstruc-
tured techniques to elicit the relevant destina-
tion image attributes and dimensions. First, a
review of the relevant destination image lit-
erature was conducted to develop a master
list of attributes that were theorised to
measure destination image. Second, this
study has selected organisations closely
related to local tourism development (Da-
Jia Zhen Lan Temple, Da-Jia Tourism Indus-
try Advanced Association), selecting
members conducting tourism development
events at Da-Jia Mazu International Cultural
Tourism Festival and local businesses in Da-
Jia as interview subjects. Focus group inter-
views with the Da-Jia Zhen Lan Temple
and the Da-Jia Tourism Industry Advanced
Association were conducted to modify the
list of destination image attributes to fit the
context of study, the Da-Jia Mazu pilgrimage
and festival tourism.
544 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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After the two interviews, the study general-
ised the destination image attributes of Da-Jia
Mazu pilgrimage tourism. This result was
operationally defined according to the three
continuums of Echtner and Ritchie (1993).
The 33 tourism image attributes were classi-
fied; these items can accurately reflect the
three dimensions: holistic attributes, func-
tional–psychological and common – unique
(see Table 1). Chaotic environment, inconve-
nience of transportation and noise pollution
were listed as negative images. A five-point
Likert scale (5 ¼strongly agree and 1 ¼
strongly disagree) was applied to the 33
items measuring destination image. Addition-
ally, demographic variables included: gender,
age, marital status, education and occupation,
in addition to the frequency of partaking in
Mazu pilgrimage tourism.
Sample and Data Analysis
Data were collected from the Da-Jia Mazu pil-
grimage and festival tourism activity. The pil-
grimage and festival activity is very prestigious
according to the Taiwanese Tao Association
(2000), making it capable of attracting believ-
ers from across Taiwan and constituting a
famous activity of devotion for believers in
Taoism, Buddhism and Mazu. At the same
time, due to the form of festival tourism,
there are many events that attract visits by
adolescents and families. Thus, in terms of
questionnaire collection, this study collects
data from the primitive image and induced
image stages from tourists who have just
arrived at the travel site. After the experience,
at a fixed location, this study focuses on the
same tourists to conduct data collection for
composite images. In the process of sampling,
convenience sampling of tourists on site, using
the next-to-pass method, was chosen for this
study to select the respondents. The surveyor
simply selected and approached the next
group or person to pass the survey site after
a questionnaire had been started by someone
else (Ritter, Rendle, & Coughlin, 2002, p. 4).
In the survey process, we would first explain
the research process and items of note; 297
valid questionnaires are collected. The
samples collected during March 2008, were
statistically analysed using SPSS12.0 for
Windows and tested using descriptive analysis
and a one-way ANOVA within-subject effect
test. If significant differences were found, the
least significant difference (LSD) method was
employed to further test the different image
formation stages.
Results and Discussion
Respondents’ Profile
The research collected a total of 297 usable
questionnaires. Of the sample, 49.2% (146)
were female and 151 respondents were male;
28.3% were married and 71.7% were unmar-
ried; 33.7% were between 20 and 29 years
old; 40.7% had received a high-school edu-
cation and 37.7% had a college degree;
41.1% were students and 17.8% were
employed in the service industry.
Destination Image Transformation
This research hypothesised that tourists
possess significant differences with regard to
the organic, induced and complex image trans-
formation in the destination image of Mazu
pilgrimage tourism. Therefore, we used one-
way ANOVA and LSD post hoc comparison
to measure the differences in image formation
stages. According to the 33 destination image
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 545
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Table 1 Structure of Destination Image in Mazu Pilgrimage Tourism
Functional Psychological
Common Unique Common Unique
Holistic Culture transmission Mazu pilgrimage procession Bustling Antique of Mazu
Firecrackers and
fireworks
Various Zhentou (head of the parade
formation)
Friendliness Peaceful flag and
instruction flag
Lion dance
performance
Gold carving of Mazu
Welcoming the palanquin
Attributes Common Unique Common Unique
Souvenir Martial arts performance To be proud Take head incense
Local snacks Touching the statue Accumulate virtues to make wishes
come true
Burn incense and pray
Extended products Performing arts Scrambling under the
palanquin
Da-Jia straw mats Bike marathon Patrolman
Marathon
International cultural exchange
Mounting the sacred palanquin meal
Ten major ceremonies
Storming palanquin money
Negative images Chaotic environment, inconvenience of transportation and noise pollution
546 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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attributes, five different trends of significant
differences could be detected. A further analy-
sis of these five trends showed that tourists’
destination image of pilgrimage tourism
exhibited two major changes: enhancement
and stabilising trend, when impacted by infor-
mation stimulation or actual visitation (see
Table 2).
Enhancement Trend
Tourists’ destination image of Mazu pilgrim-
age tourism demonstrated a gradually stronger
trend due to the effect of information stimulus
or actual visitation. This change consists of
four trends, the most among dimensions.
(1) Complex image .organic image: Accord-
ing to the within-subject effect results
reported in Table 2, destination image
had a differential effect on organic image
and complex image. There was significant
difference at the 0.05 level for martial arts
performance, peaceful flag and instruction
flag and touching the statue. This result
showed that post-visitors of pilgrimage
tourism had more positive perceptions of
the martial arts performance, peaceful
flag and instruction flag and touching the
statue. This result yielded two further
implications: (1) These three phenomena
reflected the representative image of
Mazu pilgrimage tourism destination and
(2) since a test of complex image and
induced image did not show significant
difference, the induced image of infor-
mation transmission has room for
enhancement and improvement.
(2) Induced image, complex image .organic
image: Induced image and complex
image had a significant effect on organic
image. There was significant difference at
the 0.01 levels for patrolman, marathon
and significance difference at the 0.05
level for performance arts, bike marathon,
friendliness, noise pollution, international
cultural exchange and mounting the
sacred palanquin meal. These results
demonstrated that visitors’ induced
image and complex image for pilgrimage
tourism were perceived to be stronger
than their organic image because visitors
can more easily perceive these eight
images in pilgrimage tourism from within
the complex image affected by infor-
mation stimulus and actual visitation.
However, induced image and complex
image did not show significant difference.
This result indicates that visitors’ induced
image, driven by information stimulus
before the visit, was not significantly
different from the complex image formed
by actual visitation. In other words, the
organisers’ efforts in the information
transmission of these eight images did
not cause a significant difference in visi-
tors’ perception. Worth noting is that
from the mean figures, respondents’
induced image cognition of negative
image’s “noise pollution” (M¼3.62) is
identical to the score reported in
complex image (M¼3.62), and both
were at the level of general cognition.
This result shows that the noise pollution
caused by specific activities in pilgrimage
tourism (e.g. take head incense, firecrack-
ers and fireworks) is blended in with the
pilgrimage activity contents to form an
image representation of pilgrimage
tourism.
(3) Complex image .organic image; induced
image: Complex image had a differential
effect at the 0.001 level on organic image
and induced image. Images that conform
to the trend include 10 major ceremonies
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 547
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Table 2 Tourism Image Trend of Organic, Induced and Complex Image Formation
Tourism image trend
Mean
F-value TotalOrganic image Induced image Complex image
Enhancement trend
(1) Complex image .organic image 3
Martial arts performance 3.52 3.63 3.73 3.788∗
Peaceful flag and instruction flag 3.80 3.90 4.01 4.427∗
Touching the statute 3.56 3.67 3.82 3.841∗
(2) Induced image, complex image .organic image 8
Mazu messenger 3.85 4.02 4.09 5.365∗∗
Performing arts 3.61 3.80 3.80 3.990∗
Bike marathon 3.43 3.63 3.59 3.542∗
Marathon 3.30 3.54 3.50 4.734∗∗
Friendliness 4.10 4.28 4.32 4.435∗
Noise pollution 3.40 3.62 3.62 3.313∗
International cultural exchange 4.01 4.17 4.21 3.691∗
Mounting the sacred palanquin meal 3.60 3.77 3.78 3.281∗
(3) Complex image .organic image, induced image 2
Ten major ceremonies 3.99 4.05 4.28 11.873∗∗∗
Storming palanquin money 3.37 3.55 3.75 8.463∗∗∗
(4) Complex image .induced image 1
Burn incense and pray 4.06 4.02 4.19 3.208∗
Stabilising trend 19
Souvenir 3.79 3.81 3.80 0.017
Various Zhentou 3.97 4.03 4.09 1.508
Mazu pilgrim procession 4.37 4.39 4.51 2.992
Local snacks 3.69 3.75 3.77 0.534
Extended products 3.62 3.70 3.77 1.711
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Da-Jia straw mats 3.43 3.59 3.52 2.457
Antique of Mazu 4.00 4.01 4.07 0.168
Firecrackers and fireworks 3.63 3.63 3.75 1.175
Gold carving of Mazu 4.12 4.06 4.08 0.283
Welcoming the palanquin 4.19 4.25 4.47 2.851
Lion dance performance 3.93 4.01 4.07 1.840
Chaotic environment 3.36 3.38 3.47 0.600
Culture transmission 4.33 4.37 4.43 1.444
Bustling 4.47 4.47 4.50 0.106
Inconvenience of transportation 3.61 3.72 3.79 1.715
To be proud 3.83 3.95 4.00 2.236
Accumulate virtues to make wishes come true 3.73 3.84 3.83 1.065
Scrambling under the palanquin 4.13 4.13 4.22 0.855
Take head incense 3.47 3.62 3.68 2.376
∗p,0.05.
∗∗p,0.01.
∗∗∗p,0.001.
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 549
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and storming palanquin money. Because
of their actual participation in the activity,
respondents’ image cognition was greater
than the organic and induced image
stages for ten major ceremonies (M¼
4.28) and storming palanquin money (M
¼3.75). Also, no significant difference
was found in the organic and induced
image stages. This result shows that the
force of marketing information cannot be
unleashed in the above two images and
in addition, supports Fakeye and Cromp-
ton’s (1991) assertion that induced image
may be identical to and also differ signifi-
cantly from the organic image.
(4) Complex image .induced image: The
within-subject effect test to identify differ-
ences in complex image and induced
image was significant at the 0.05 level.
The only image that conforms to this
trend is “burn incense and pray”. This
result shows that information stimulus of
“burn incense and pray” is greater in the
complex image than in the induced
image. In other words, “burn incense and
pray” is a normal phenomenon in pilgrim-
age activities; therefore, visitors’ cognition
induced by information transmission is
not significant. However, visitors’ cogni-
tion of this image would be enhanced
after actual visitation.
Stabilised Trend
Stabilised trend indicates that a test of differ-
ent image formation stages reveals no signifi-
cant difference. Nineteen images were
identified in this category: souvenir, various
Zhentou, Mazu pilgrimage procession, local
snacks, extended products, Da-Jia straw
mats, antique of Mazu, firecrackers and fire-
works, gold carving of Mazu, welcoming the
palanquin, lion dance performance, culture
transmission, bustling, inconvenience of trans-
portation, to be proud, accumulate virtues to
make wishes come true, scrambling under
the palanquin and take head incense. These
results show that respondents did not show
significant difference in the organic, induced
and complex image transformation in Mazu
pilgrimage tourism activities.
Dimensional Image Transformation
Negative image analysis. This study discov-
ered that the negative images of Mazu pilgrim-
age tourism are not as strong as expected, a
result that differs from past literature
(Chaudhary, 2000; Gartner & Shen, 1992;
Mercille, 2005). However, the results of this
study further showed that the negative
images in different formation stages exhibit
unique image changes. Figure 1 illustrates
these changes. According to Figure 2, the
means of chaotic environment and noise pol-
lution are highest in complex image (M¼
3.47; 3.79), followed by induced image (M¼
3.38; 3.72) and the means are lowest in
organic image (M¼3.36; 3.61). This result
indicates that visitors have a stronger percep-
tion of the negative images of chaotic environ-
ment and inconvenience of transportation. In
other words, future pilgrimage tourism activi-
ties can seek improvements with regard to
these two items. However, the means of
noise pollution in complex image and
induced image are identical (M¼3.62). This
result shows that information transmission
causes differences in visitors’ organic image,
although they did not perceive stronger nega-
tive image of noise pollution after actual visi-
tation. In other words, in the induced stage,
respondents are aware that pilgrimage
tourism, as a regular religious event, must be
550 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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connected to loud noises. Therefore, visitors’
perception in the three image stages is insignif-
icant.
Unique features image analysis. According
to Echtner and Ritchie’s (1993) the conceptual
framework for operationalising image, this
study extracted 26 unique features. After
deducting 14 items that did not show signifi-
cant difference, 12 features reached signifi-
cance, including 10 major ceremonies;
patrolman; burn the incense and pray; per-
forming arts; martial arts performance; bike
marathon; marathon; peaceful flag and
instruction flag; international cultural
exchange; mounting the sacred palanquin
meal; storming palanquin money; and touch-
ing the statue. The complex image of these
items showed a stronger change compared to
organic image. In other words, after actual vis-
itation, visitors’ cognition is stronger than
before the visitation. This implies that visitors’
cognition of unique features increases with
actual experience (see Figure 3). This result
reflects that the organisers are successful in
shaping the image of these activities. Also,
judging from the changes in organic, induced
and complex images, the dimension of
unique features conforms to the tourism
image formation viewpoints offered by
Fakeye and Crompton (1991).
Psychological–common – individual attribute
image analysis. The dimension consists of
four images: friendliness, bustling, “to be
proud” and “accumulate virtues to make
wishes come true”. A summary of the
common trends found that the perception of
friendliness, bustling and “to be proud” was
stronger in the complex phase (see Figure 4).
This result indicated that religious information
stimulus causes significant difference in the
psychological–common– individual attribute.
However, the score of “accumulate virtues to
make wishes come true” in the induced stage
was low, indicating that the effort of infor-
mation transmission in this category requires
improvement. From the standpoint of Baloglu
and McCleary (1999b), in the image forming
stage, cognitive evaluations are formed and
then affective evaluations, while global evalu-
ations are formed by way of affective evalu-
ations. In this study, however, the gap between
the means of respondents’ cognition of
“accumulating virtues to make wishes come
true” and bustling were rather high. The study
attributes this result to the fact that bustling is
already a characteristic of pilgrimage tourism
while “accumulating virtues to make wishes
Figure 2 Negative Image Trend.
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 551
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come true” is a form of soul searching pursued
by pilgrims. Therefore, since tourists are the
major targets of this research, the gap between
the means of respondents’ cognition of
“accumulating virtues to make wishes come
true” and bustling is rather high.
There are several differences between the
results of this study and those of past studies.
Figure 4 Psychological–Common–Individual Attribute Image Trend.
Figure 3 Unique Image Trend.
552 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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Past literature mostly focused on regular travel
locations (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999b;
Huang & Lin, 2007; Liu, Lin, & Wu, 2002;
Obenour, Lengfelder, & Groves, 2005) rather
than tourism destinations related to Mazu pil-
grimage. Past studies proved that the perception
of unique images is greater in respondents who
have visited the destination than those who
have never visited the destination (Andreu
et al., 2000; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a;
Chon, 1991; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Hu
& Ritchie, 1993). The results of this study
differ in that during the same visit, respondents’
perception of complex image with respect to
Mazu pilgrimage tourism’s unique features is
greater than their organic image. In other
words, in addition to the effect of visitation
and no visitation on organic, induced and
complex image stages, which were examined
by past studies, the results of this study demon-
strate that visitors’ cognition of unique images
would be enhanced along with the complex cog-
nition gained from actual experience. Also,
changes in the three image stages show positive
cognition transformation, which confirms the
findings of Fakeye and Crompton (1991). In
other words, tourists would develop an
organic imagefrom the Da-JiaMazu pilgrimage
tourism destination. Then, according to their
travel motivation, they would initiate the
efforts in information search to create an
induced image. After arriving at the scene and
participating in the festivities, they would
develop a complex image according to their
actual experience, and present positive and
enhanced results.
Conclusion
Despite the widespread discussions on destina-
tion image, the three stages of image for-
mation have rarely been explored. Shou,
Ryan, and Lin (2009) examined the variations
in different image formation stages and their
importance with respect to tourism appli-
cations. For this reason, this study aimed to
examine in greater depth the positions in a
three-stage process of destination image and
to analyse their relationship to psychologi-
cal–common – individual attribute changes.
At the academic level, The study aimed to
verify the applicability of a three-stage destina-
tion image conceptualisation proposed by
Fakeye and Crompton (1991), which has not
been tested empirically, in order to prove
that the effects of different destination image
stages could be applied independently to the
study context and permit the results of differ-
ent studies to be generalised and compared.
At the managerial level, this research wished
to identify which components of the different
stage changes would produce the greatest
influence on destination image and which of
those have the greatest effect on the manager’s
promotion strategies.
First of all, this study has been applied to
one type of tourism, Mazu pilgrimage
tourism and to one single destination.
However, the findings allow some relevant
conclusions to be obtained from both the aca-
demic and managerial perspectives. First, tour-
ists’ perception of the unique images of Da-jia
Mazu pilgrimage tourism, such as martial arts
performance, peaceful flag and instruction
flag, touching the statue, patrolman, storming
palanquin money and burn incense and pray,
is higher after actual visitation than before
the visitation. Under the stimulation of infor-
mation transmission, significant effects are
caused in the “psychological– common – indi-
vidual” attribute images of friendliness, bus-
tling, to be proud and accumulating virtues
to make wishes come true.
Second, regarding the effect of these pos-
itions on the induced image of the destination,
Image Transformation for Mazu Pilgrimage and Tourism 553
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Gunn (1972) stressed that tourists’ ultimate
choice of destination may be affected by the
information provided by organisations (such
as Internet promotion and media advertising).
As a result, tourists’ induced image may facili-
tate the promotion of the destination image.
The results show that in the friendliness
image, the induced image of the travel infor-
mation is very successful. However, the differ-
ences in the induced image (after receiving
information stimulus) and the organic image
(prior to actual visitation) were relatively
insignificant for the dimensions of martial
arts performance, peaceful flag and instruction
flag and touching the statue. According to this
result, the organisers may consider strengthen-
ing the formation and promotion of the activ-
ity’s unique features in the future.
Third, regarding complex image, which is
formed from the actual contact and experience
with the destination (Fakeye & Crompton,
1991), the results show no significant differ-
ences in the induced and complex image
stages for the dimensions of patrolman, per-
forming arts, bike marathon, marathon,
noise pollution, international cultural
exchange and mounting the sacred palanquin
meal. This result indicates that the infor-
mation transmitted in the induced image
matches the visitors’ actual travel situation.
From the standpoint of general travel destina-
tion, this result is very successful; however,
when applied to religious festivities, operators
should strengthen the function of tour guides,
giving commentaries on images such as patrol-
man, performing arts and mounting the sacred
palanquin meal so that visitors can gain more
understanding of the religious activities, which
would further enhance their complex image
from actual visitation.
Moreover, among the negative images, the
cognition of noise pollution’s complex image
and induced image is found to be similar. This
result shows that the large amount of noise pro-
duced in some specific activities of religious
events, such as Zhentou and firecrackers and
fireworks, is connected with the pilgrimage
activity itself and therefore visitors’ negative
cognition is diminished. However, in chaotic
environment and inconvenience of transpor-
tation, results show that visitors’ complex
image is greater than induced image and
organic image. In other words, the organisers
should attach more respect and importance to
the issues of chaotic environment and inconve-
nience of transportation. This is consistent
with the study by Boo and Busser (2006). In
the future, organisers can start with the propa-
gation of tourists’ environmental education,
adoption of transfer bus, or the design of a
thorough control system of transportation
routes in order to address the above issues.
The main contribution of this article con-
sists of empirically analysing the three-stage
theory on destination image proposed by
Fakeye and Crompton (1991). The findings
lead to a better understanding of the changes
in organic, induced and complex image as
well as the effect of different dimensions on
the three processes. The adoption of this
study’s findings can help managers to better
understand image changes and monitor what
images have to be enhanced in the induced
and complex stages. The results of this study
can also serve as a guide to managers as to
the image attributes that should be improved
in order to influence the intention to revisit.
Future studies can incorporate other factors
that could influence organic, induced and
complex images, such as travel motivation,
information categories and on-site experience
(Fakeye & Crompton, 1991). By doing so, a
more complete model of pilgrimage and festi-
val tourism image formation can be formu-
lated, which will greatly benefit managers in
terms of marketing and activity design.
554 Tien-Ming Cheng and Mei-Tsun Chen
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