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ORIGINAL PAPER
Inorganic Polyphosphates and Exopolyphosphatases in Cell
Compartments of the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae Under
Inactivation of PPX1 and PPN1 Genes
Lidiya Lichko ÆTatyana Kulakovskaya Æ
Nikolai Pestov ÆIgor Kulaev
Published online: 19 May 2006
Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006
Abstract Purified fractions of cytosol, vacuoles, nuclei, and mitochondria of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae possessed inorganic polyphosphates with chain lengths characteristic of each
individual compartment. The most part (80–90%) of the total polyphosphate level was found in
the cytosol fractions. Inactivation of a PPX1 gene encoding ~40-kDa exopolyphosphatase
substantially decreased exopolyphosphatase activities only in the cytosol and soluble mito-
chondrial fraction, the compartments where PPX1 activity was localized. This inactivation
slightly increased the levels of polyphosphates in the cytosol and vacuoles and had no effect on
polyphosphate chain lengths in all compartments. Exopolyphosphatase activities in all yeast
compartments under study critically depended on the PPN1 gene encoding an endopoly-
phosphatase. In the single PPN1 mutant, a considerable decrease of exopolyphosphatase
activity was observed in all the compartments under study. Inactivation of PPN1 decreased the
polyphosphate level in the cytosol 1.4-fold and increased it 2- and 2.5-fold in mitochondria and
vacuoles, respectively. This inactivation was accompanied by polyphosphate chain elongation.
In nuclei, this mutation had no effect on polyphosphate level and chain length as compared
with the parent strain CRY. In the double mutant of PPX1 and PPN1, no exopolyphosphatase
activity was detected in the cytosol, nuclei, and mitochondria and further elongation of
polyphosphates was observed in all compartments.
Keywords Polyphosphates ÆExopolyphosphatase ÆCell compartments ÆPPX1 and PPN1
mutants ÆSaccharomyces cerevisiae
L. Lichko (&)ÆT. Kulakovskaya. N. Pestov ÆI. Kulaev
Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences,
142290 Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia
E-mail: alla@ibpm.pushchino.ru
Tel.: +66-7421-2896
Fax: +7-095-923-3602
Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54
DOI 10.1007/s10540-006-9003-2
123
Introduction
Inorganic polyphosphates (polyP) are widespread in nature and particularly abundant
in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, accounting for nearly 40% of the total phosphate content
[1, 2]. Yeast and other eukaryotic microorganisms possess polyP in such compartments as
cytosol, cell envelope [1, 2], vacuoles [3, 4], nuclei [5, 6], mitochondria [7], and plasma
membranes [8]. At present, the available data suggest that polyP functions in these com-
partments are different in many respects. The main polyP function in the cytosol is phosphate
storage [1, 2], while polyP in vacuoles in addition chelate the cations accumulated inside these
organelles [3, 4]. In mitochondria, polyP seem to participate in bioenergetic processes [7], and
their function in nuclei is probably connected with the regulation of gene expression [1, 2, 5].
Membrane-bound polyP participate in the formation of transport channels [8].
The distinct location, sizes, and functions of polyP in yeast cells indicate either different
pathways of biosynthesis and degradation or a sophisticated sorting system. It is in favor of the
notions that different compartments contain different exopolyPases [9].
At present, two genes encoding polyP-metabolizing enzymes are identified in the yeast:
PPX1 encoding 40-kDa exopolyphosphatase (polyphosphate phosphohydrolase, EC 3.6.1.11;
exopolyPase) [10] and PPN1 (PHM5) encoding the enzyme splitting the long polyP chains to
shorter ones (depolymerase, EC 3.6.1.10; endopolyPase) [11–13]. There are some mutants
with these inactivated genes [11].
ExopolyPase encoded by the PPX1 gene is localized in the cytosol and soluble mito-
chondrial fraction, and exopolyPases of nuclei, vacuoles, and mitochondrial membranes are
not encoded by this gene [9]. Recently, we have demonstrated that the PPN1 gene has a
substantial effect on the cytosol exopolyPases: inactivation of this gene leads to inhibition of
the expression of both exopolyphosphatase PPX1 and high-molecular-mass exopolyphospha-
tase of ~1000 kDa not encoded by PPX1 [14]. Just now, a new paper with notion that the
product of PPN1 gene might possess the exopolyPase activity has appeared [15]. However,
localization of this product in the yeast cell and its influence on the polyP levels in different
cell compartments remain still unclear.
Under inactivation of both PPX1 and PPN1 genes, an increase of the long-chain polyP was
observed in the yeast cells [12]. However, there are no data on the effect of this double
mutation on polyP levels and chain lengths in separate cell compartments.
The objective of the present work was to evaluate the effect of PPX1 and PPN1 inactivation
on exopolyPase activities, polyP levels, and polyP chain lengths in the cytosol, nuclei, vac-
uoles, and mitochondria of S. cerevisiae.
Materials and methods
Chemicals
All chemicals used were of analytical grade. PolyP with an average chain length of 208
(polyP
208
; Monsanto, St. Louis, MO, USA) were separated from P
i
and PP
i
by gel filtration on
Sephadex G-10 (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden) as described in [16].
Strains and culture conditions
The strains of the yeast S. cerevisiae CRY (a parent strain), CRX (a strain with inactivated
PPX1 gene), CRN (a strain with inactivated PPN1 gene), and CNX (a strain with inactivated
46 Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54
123
PPX1 and PPN1 genes) were kindly provided by Profs. A. Kornberg and N. Rao (Stanford
University, USA). All strains were grown aerobically in a shaker at 30C in YPD medium with
1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, and 2% glucose as described earlier [17]. Twenty-four-hour
samples (stationary growth phase) of all strains were taken for analysis.
A minor difference in the growth of all the strains under study was observed when the
medium was inoculated directly with the cultures (OD
600
=0.2–0.25) picked from YPD agar
slants [14]; that is, the mutations under study had no influence on growth phenotype.
Isolation of spheroplasts
To obtain spheroplasts, stationary grown cells of each of the yeast strain were suspended in the
medium with 0.8 M mannitol, 1.5% lyophilized snail gut juice, 50 mM DTT, and 0.14 M
Na-citrate, pH 6.7 (solution A). The cell suspension (1 g wet biomass+8 ml of solution A) was
incubated for 70 min at 30C. The spheroplasts obtained were sedimented and washed with
solution A without snail gut juice and DTT.
Preparation of cytosol
A cytosol fractions were obtained by disruption of spheroplasts in 0.1 M sorbitol followed by
centrifugation at 100,000·gfor 3 h as described earlier [18]. The cytosol preparations had no
activity of ATPases, which were sensitive to orthovanadate (inhibitor of the plasma membrane
ATPase), azide and oligomycine (inhibitors of the mitochondrial ATPase), and nitrate
(inhibitor of the vacuolar ATPase), so they were considered free from contaminations with
these organelles.
Isolation of nuclei
Isolation of nuclei from the CRY and CRX strains of S. cerevisiae was described earlier [19]
and usefully employed in the present work.
The purity and intactness of the nuclear fractions was rather satisfactory as determined
by examination in the phase-contrast and fluorescence microscopes. The DNA-specific dye
Hoechst 33258 was used in the last case. The nuclear purity was also characterized
biochemically by the absence of marker enzymes of other compartments: a-mannosidase, a
marker of vacuoles, succinate dehydrogenase, a marker of mitochondria, and glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase, a marker of cytosol. The protein-to-DNA ratios of the purified
nuclei were 21–30, which were close to those obtained previously for the yeast nuclei
[20].
Isolation of vacuoles
Isolation of vacuoles from the yeast was described in detail in our previous publication [21].
This procedure was suitable for isolation of vacuoles from the yeast strains used in the present
work.
The purity of isolated vacuoles was satisfactory enough as determined by examination in
the phase-contrast microscope. ATPase activity of vacuoles was strongly suppressed by
50 mM nitrate, an inhibitor of vacuolar ATPase, and was not affected by vanadate and azide,
inhibitors of plasmalemma and mitochondrial ATPases, respectively.
Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54 47
123
Isolation of mitochondria
Mitochondria were isolated from the spheroplasts according to our previous publication [22].
The criteria for integrity of isolated mitochondria were as follows. The activity of succinate
dehydrogenase in the mitochondria of CRY and CRX strains was ~0.55 U/mg protein and
the enrichment factor of this enzyme as compared with the spheroplast homogenate was ~3.
Respiratory control ratio (2.1–2.3) and P/O ratio (1.3–1.5) in the mitochondria of these
strains were close to the known data for S. cerevisiae [23, 24]. The mitochondria isolated at
the same growth stage from the strains CRN and CNX showed no respiration control and
succinate dehydrogenase activity. The O
2
consumption was ~29 and 9 nmol O
2
/min mg for
mitochondrial preparations from CRY and CRX strains and from PPN1 mutants, respec-
tively. So, glucose repression [25] was abolished in case of CRY and CRX strains (24 h of
growth on glucose) whereas the preparations from CRN and CNX resembled promito-
chondria [24].
ATPase activities of isolated mitochondria were not affected by vanadate and nitrate,
inhibitors of plasmalemma and vacuolar ATPases, respectively, and suppressed by azide, the
inhibitor of F-ATPases, for 90% in case of CRY and CRX and for 70–80% in case of CRN and
CNX.
In experiments with the estimation of acid-soluble polyP, the spheroplasts were lysed in the
presence of heparin (4 mg/ml), the known inhibitor of all types of exopolyPases [9], and
20 mM EDTA, which inhibited them in the used concentration [26]. Heparin and EDTA were
added to all solutions used for isolation of all organelles.
Specific exopolyPase activities and polyP levels were measured in all subcellular fractions.
Extraction and assay of polyP
In spheroplasts, acid-soluble and salt-soluble polyP were extracted with 0.5 N HClO
4
or
saturated solution of NaClO
4
in 1 N HClO
4
, respectively, at 4C. The remaining biomass was
treated with 0.5 N HClO
4
for 30 min at 90C, and the level of acid-insoluble polyP fraction
was estimated by the amount of released P
i
[27].
In subcellular fractions, polyP were extracted by adding 1 N HClO
4
to the equal volume of
the fraction analyzed.
Nucleotides were removed from the acid-soluble fraction by adsorption to Norit A charcoal
[27]. The level of polyP in the acid- and salt-soluble fractions was calculated as a difference in
the P
i
amount before and after hydrolysis of the samples in the presence of 1 N HCl for 10 min
at 100 C (labile phosphorus). P
i
formed during the reaction was determined with ascorbic acid
and SDS [22].
Electrophoresis of polyP
The acid-soluble polyP fraction was neutralized to pH 4.5 with NaOH and polyP were pre-
cipitated with saturated Ba(NO
3
)
2
followed by centrifugation at 5000·gfor 20 min. The
barium salt of polyP was converted to a soluble form by adding cation-exchange resin Dowex
50 WX 8 in the NH
4
+
form and some distilled water. The obtained preparation was subjected to
electrophoresis in 20% polyacrylamide gel in the presence of 7 M urea and polyP was stained
with toluidine blue [28]. PolyP with the chain lengths of ~15, 25, 45 (Sigma) and 188
(Monsanto) phosphate residues were used as standards.
48 Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54
123
Assay of phosphohydrolase activities
ExopolyPase activities were determined by the rate of P
i
formation at 30C for 20–30 min in
1 ml of reaction mixture containing 50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.2, 0.1 mM CoSO
4
, and 9.6 lM
polyP
208
as polymer (saturated concentration). PolyP
208
was chosen since all the exopolyPases
in all the compartments under study were most active namely with this substrate [9].
ATPase activity was assayed in 50 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.2 and 8.5 (for the mitochondrial
enzyme), with 1 mM ATP and 2.5 mM MgSO
4
.
An activity unit (U) was defined as a quantity of the enzyme catalyzing the formation of
1lmol P
i
in 1 min. In experiments with determination of exopolyPase activities, no heparin
and EDTA were added to the solutions under isolation of subcellular fractions.
Other methods
Protein concentration was assayed by the modified Lowry method [29] using bovine serum
albumin as the standard.
Quantification of DNA and determination of a-mannosidase, succinate dehydrogenase, and
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase have been described earlier [20].
The rate of O
2
uptake by mitochondria was estimated by a Clark-type electrode using LP-7
Polarograph (Laboratorni Pristroje, Prague, Chechia) with 10-ml reaction chamber at 30C.
The reaction medium was as in [23].
All experiments were performed at least three times and average results with standard
deviations are shown.
Results
PolyP in spheroplasts and cytosol
PolyP levels in different polyP fractions known from literature [27] were determined in the
spheroplasts of all the strains under study. In the used conditions, the total polyP levels in
spheroplasts turned out to be similar except for the CRN strain (Table 1).
The most part of spheroplast polyP (~90%) was presented by acid-soluble fraction in the
yeast strains under study (Table 1). The levels of salt-soluble and acid-insoluble polyP were
rather low in the examined strains and therefore we restricted the study by only acid-soluble
polyP fractions.
Under the osmotic lysis of spheroplasts, quick degradation of polyP was observed in all yeast
compartments and therefore in experiments with the estimation of acid-soluble polyP, the
spheroplasts were lysed in the presence of heparin and EDTA (see ‘‘Materials and methods’’).
In these conditions, no exopolyPase activity was found in the tested compartments.
Table 1 The level of polyP ( lmol P/g of dry biomass) in spheroplasts and cytosol of different strains
of S. cerevisiae
Strain Spheroplasts Cytosol
Acid-soluble polyP Salt-soluble polyP Hot HClO
4
extract SpolyP Acid-soluble polyP
CRY 94811 20.03 641 1014 7625
CRX 9209720.4 630.5 1055 9582
CRN 6621340.6 490.3 745 6904
CNX 85218 90.3 1001.2 961 9183
Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54 49
123
Attention should be called to the high levels of acid-soluble polyP in the yeast cytosol of all
strains: they ranged from 77% of the total polyP level in the CRY spheroplasts to 96% in the
cytosol of CRX, CRN, and CNX strains (Table 1).
Effect of PPX1 inactivation
At the stationary growth phase, inactivation of the PPX1 gene encoding ~40-kDa exopolyPase
(CRX) substantially decreased exopolyPase activities in the cytosol and soluble mitochondrial
fraction as compared with the parent CRY strain (Table 2). This observation correlated well
with the data that it was precisely PPX1 that was characteristic of the cytosol and soluble
mitochondrial fraction of the CRY strain [30]. Under inactivation of this gene, the exopolyPase
activity in the mentioned compartments was due to a high-molecular-mass exopolyPase not
encoded by PPX1 [14].
Less distinct decrease of exopolyPase activity was observed in other compartments of the
yeast cell under inactivation of PPX1 (Table 2). This supports our earlier findings that the
exopolyPases of nuclei, vacuoles, and membrane mitochondrial fraction are not encoded by
PPX1 [9, 19].
Inactivation of PPX1 increased the polyP levels in the cytosol and vacuoles no more than
1.5-fold and had no effect on polyP levels in the nuclei and mitochondria (Table 3). Inacti-
vation of the PPX1 gene (CRX strain) did not appreciably influence polyP chain lengths in all
yeast compartments (Fig. 1). The cytosol, nuclei, and mitochondria of the CRY and CRX
strains contained mostly short chains: 10–25, 15–45, and 15–20 phosphate residues, respec-
tively (Fig. 1). The vacuoles of the CRY and CRX strains, besides the short lengths of 10–15,
contained quite a number of long chains (>200 phosphate residues). The earlier data have
shown that the yeast vacuoles contained polyP of short chain lengths: ~5 and 15–25 phosphate
residues [31, 32]. Therefore, we were the first to find the medium- and long-chain polyP in the
yeast vacuoles.
Effect of PPN1 inactivation
As we have shown earlier, under inactivation of PPN1 (CRN), the yeast cytosol possessed the
enzyme PPX1 [14]. The same enzyme was detected in the soluble mitochondrial fraction [30].
The most intriguing fact was a 3- and 9-fold decrease of the PPX1 activity in cytosol and
mitochondria, respectively, and the absence of the activity in the double mutant CNX as
compared with the parent CRY strain (Table 2).
The activity of the high-molecular-mass enzyme depended on PPN1 inactivation to even
greater extent. This activity was very low or totally absent in the cytosol of the single PPN1
mutant CRN or the double mutant CNX, respectively [14]. The data presented in Table 2
supports this observation.
Table 2 Exopolyphosphatase activities (mU/mg protein) in the cell compartments of S. cerevisiae
Strain Compartment
Cytosol Nuclei Vacuoles Mitochondrial soluble fraction Mitochondrial membranes
CRY 13239510 3755 13320 1009
CRX 8011 8010 37025 359802
CRN 4551512011 150.7 0
CNX 0 0 5530 0
50 Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54
123
It should be noted that the soluble mitochondrial fraction of the parent strain CRY pos-
sessed only PPX1 exopolyPase unlike the cytosol of the same strain, where both PPX1 and the
high-molecular-mass exopolyPases were present [30]. No enzyme activity was detected in
mitochondria of the double mutant (CNX), in contrast to the PPX1 one (CRX) (Table 2). Thus,
the PPN1 gene was required for expression of the high-molecular-mass exopolyPases both in
the cytosol and soluble mitochondrial fraction.
Expression of exopolyPase in nuclei was closely associated with the PPN1 gene (Table 2).
A low activity in the CRN nuclei might be due to the presence of PPX1 in slight amounts,
which had been discussed earlier [19].
As regards vacuoles, the specific exopolyPase activity decreased at PPN1 inactivation
(Table 2). However, it increased ~2.7-fold in the double mutant CNX as compared with the
PPN1 mutant CRN (Table 2). Thus, a dependence of exopolyPase activity in vacuoles on the
PPN1 gene was more complex than that for other compartments. It is probably due to the fact
that several exopolyPase enzymes are present in the vacuoles, and not all of them are coupled
with PPN1.
Thus, the exopolyPase activities in all the tested compartments depended not only on PPX1-
deficiency but also, unexpectedly, on inactivation of endopolyPase gene PPN1.
Table 3 The levels (lmol P/mg protein) of acid-soluble polyP in cell compartments of S. cerevisiae
Strain Compartment
Cytosol Nuclei Vacuoles Mitochondria
CRY 4.60.16 3.40.21 10.30.02 0.40.06
CRX 6.30.22 2.90.06 15.70.11 0.30.06
CRN 3.40.07 3.40.25 26.60.06 0.8014
CNX 5.90.11 5.90.01 20.60.16 0.70.21
Fig. 1 Electrophoresis of polyP in 20% polyacrylamide gel. The strains used: (1) CRY, (2) CRX, (3) CRN,
(4) CNX; numbers on the left indicate the mobility and chain length of polyP size markers
Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54 51
123
The effect of PPN1 inactivation on polyP levels was more complicated: the decrease of
polyP level in the cytosol (~1.4-fold) was followed by its 2- and 2.5-fold increase in the
mitochondria and vacuoles, respectively (Table 3). The same polyP level was detected in
nuclei of the CRN strain as compared with the parent strain CRY (Table 3).
Inactivation of PPN1 resulted in elongation of polyP chains in the cytosol and mitochon-
dria. In the nuclei, it remained the same as in CRY and CRX; in vacuoles, the elongation of
short chains from 10–15 (CRY and CRX) to 15–130 and 15–200 phosphate residues (CRN and
CNX, respectively) and disappearance of polyP >200 phosphate residues was observed
(Fig. 1).
In the double mutant CNX, polyP level in the cytosol and nuclei increased 1.7-fold as
compared with that in the CRN strain. The effect of double mutation was less pronounced in
the vacuoles and mitochondria (Table 3). In the double mutant CNX, further elongation of
polyP was detected in all compartments. It was most expressed in the cytosol, nuclei, and
vacuoles (Fig. 1).
Discussion
In this work, the levels and chain lengths of acid-soluble polyP in different cell compartments
of all strains of S. cerevisiae were determined for the first time. It became possible because
preparations of the cytosol and cell organelles were made in the presence of heparin and EDTA
at concentrations inhibiting all the known exopolyPases. PolyP chain lengths turned out to be
characteristic of each individual compartment.
The first notable thing was that the most part of spheroplast polyP (~90%) in the yeast
strains under study was presented by acid-soluble fraction. This may be due to the removal of
salt-soluble, alkali-soluble, and acid-insoluble polyP fractions during isolation of spheroplasts
as it was in the case with Neurospora crassa [33] and S. carlsbergensis [1]. The authors noted
that the acid-soluble fraction remained unchanged when the spheroplasts were produced.
The second surprise was the high polyP level (77–96%) in the cytosol of all the strains. It
should be also mentioned that ~100% yield of the cytosol fraction was achieved in all
experiments, while preparations of the nuclei, vacuoles, and mitochondria were obtained with
a lower yield and it was rather difficult to evaluate it.
Since the works of Matile and his associates [3, 34], an opinion has been formed that nearly
all polyP of a yeast cell are located in vacuoles. However, other authors found that the polyP
content in vacuoles strongly depended on the cultivation conditions and might comprise 15%
[31] and 30% [35] of their total amount in the cell. The polyP level in the cytosol varied from
10% [36] to 70% [31] of the polyP cell pool in S. cerevisiae and depended on culture age and
cultivation conditions.
As regards the nuclei and mitochondria, there are no literature data on the contribution of
their polyP to the total polyP level. Cytochemical [37] and biochemical [2] data on the nuclear
localization of polyP in yeast cells are now available, but we were the first to estimate the
polyP levels and chain lengths in the nuclei of S. cerevisiae.
Thus, the findings obtained in the present work allow us to make a number of conclusions.
1. Elimination of exopolyPase PPX1 alone affects slightly both the polyP levels and chain
lengths in yeast cells. Decrease of exopolyPase activity encoded by PPX1 results in
increase of polyP level mainly in the cytosol where the major part of this enzyme is found.
This correlates well with the notion that the main function of this enzyme is not partic-
ipation in the long-chain-length polyP metabolism but hydrolysis of other substrates such
52 Biosci Rep (2006) 26:45–54
123
as tripolyphosphate and adenosine 5¢-tetraphosphate [38]. Under inactivation of PPN1
(CRN), the presence of even low PPX1 activity gives shorter polyP chains as compared
with the double mutant CNX.
2. Although there is a substantial difference in the physico-chemical properties of nuclear
exopolyPase, membrane exopolyPase of mitochondria, and high-molecular-mass exo-
polyPase of the cytosol, all of them demonstrate a strong dependence on the PPN1 gene. It
is possible that the latter gene encodes these enzymes, and exopolyPase activity is due to
posttranslational modification.
3. Decrease of the total exopolyPase activity involving the function of not only PPX1 but
also exopolyPases not encoded by PPX1 results in increase of the polyP levels and
elongation of the polyP chains in all the compartments under study. PolyP level in terms of
polymer may be evaluated as 50 lmol polyP/g dry biomass in the cytosol of CRY and
CRX, while it was no more than 15 and 10 lmol polyP/g dry biomass in the cytosol of
CRN and CNX, respectively. The same calculation could be obtained for other yeast
compartments. This means that the quantity of terminal phosphate residues decreases in
the strains with inactivated PPN1 (CRN and CNX). These residues play an important role
both in complex-forming with some cations and the interaction with polyP-dependent
enzymes and thereby affecting the polyP ability to perform their multiple functions.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant 05-04-
48175) and a grant supporting the leading scientific schools 1382.2003.4. We appreciate the valuable technical
assistance of L. Mihailina and N. Kosenkova.
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