The Other Side of Literacy Development: The Role of Kansanshi Mining Plc in Literacy Development in the Solwezi District of Zambia

Abstract

Literacy's value cannot be overstated; it not only enriches a person's life but provides possibilities for people to gain skills that will help them care for themselves, their families, and the community in which they live. Kansanshi Mining PLC's Education Quality Improvement Programme aims to boost literacy levels in Solwezi district through its many programmes.
Several organizational development philosophies and tools, such as the theory of constraints, the McKinsey model of organization analysis, the Pareto principle, facilitation of multi-stakeholder processes, governance and accountability in service delivery, are used to implement Kansanshi Education Quality Improvement Programme(KanEQuIP) programmes. These include teacher Continuing Professional Development (CPD), materials supply to schools, adult literacy and entrepreneurship skilldevelopment, Early Childhood Education (ECE), and governance and accountability in service delivery.
Because literacy development is too vital to be left to governments alone, Kansanshi Mine uses its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to help improve the literacy skills of communities in Solwezi district.

Full text

International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE)
Volume 9, Issue 7, July2022, PP 16-25
ISSN 2349-0373 (Print) & ISSN 2349-0381 (Online)
https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0907002
www.arcjournals.org
International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE) Page | 16
The Other Side of Literacy Development: The Role of Kansanshi
Mining Plc in Literacy Development in the Solwezi District of
Zambia
Sylvia Mwanza-Kabaghe1,2,Tenso Kalala1, Jacqueline Jere-Folotiya3, Onward S. Mandebvu1
1Kansanshi Mining Plc. Corporate Social Responsibility Department Solwezi, Zambia2The University of
Zambia, School of Education: Department of Educational Psychology, Sociology and Special Education 3The
University of Zambia, School of Humanities and Social Sciences: Department of Educational Psychology
1. INTRODUCTION
The role of literacy in development is universally acclaimed. Governments all over the world allocate
a large part of their annual budgets to basic education, a big part of which goes towards developing
basic literacy and numeracy in school children. UNESCO (2006) Several international and bilateral
development agencies such as UNESCO, UNICEF, USAID, World Bank and DFID have also
invested significant resources in the promotion of literacy in the developing world. All this because
literacy plays an important role in personal, societal and national development UNESCO, 2006.
Literacy has been variously defined by different authors and organisations. For example, UNESCO
defines literacy as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute,
using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts (UNESCO, 2004; 2017). The
European Literacy Policy Network cited in Montoya (2018)define literacy as the ability to read and
write at a level where individuals can effectively understand and use written communication in all
media (print or electronic), including digital literacy. The OECD: Survey of Adult Skills
(PIAAC)(2014) defines literacy as understanding, evaluating, using and engaging with written text to
participate in the society, to achieve one's goals and to develop one's knowledge and potential. It
measures adults‘ proficiency in key information-processing skills - literacy, numeracy and problem
solving in technology-rich environments.
From the foregoing, it is evident that literacy is a multi-faceted and multi-layered concept that keeps
changing over time. The roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in its development are similarly
changing. While governments and international development organisations have carried the burden of
literacy development, business has increasingly become concerned and involved. The Chief Executive
Officers of some of America‘s leading companies have made literacy their business too (Business
Abstract: Literacy's value cannot be overstated; it not only enriches a person's life but provides possibilities
for people to gain skills that will help them care for themselves, their families, and the community in which
they live. Kansanshi Mining PLC's Education Quality Improvement Programme aims to boost literacy levels
in Solwezi district through its many programmes.
Several organizational development philosophies and tools, such as the theory of constraints, the McKinsey
model of organization analysis, the Pareto principle, facilitation of multi-stakeholder processes, governance
and accountability in service delivery, are used to implement Kansanshi Education Quality Improvement
Programme(KanEQuIP) programmes. These include teacher Continuing Professional Development (CPD),
materials supply to schools, adult literacy and entrepreneurship skilldevelopment, Early Childhood Education
(ECE), and governance and accountability in service delivery.
Because literacy development is too vital to be left to governments alone, Kansanshi Mine uses its Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) to help improve the literacy skills of communities in Solwezi district.
*Corresponding Author: Sylvia Mwanza-Kabaghe, Kansanshi Mining Plc. Corporate Social
Responsibility Department Solwezi, Zambia

The Other Side of Literacy Development: The Role of Kansanshi Mining Plc in Literacy Development in
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Roundtable, 2016). They contend that proficiency in reading is essential for the future development of
a skilled labour-force and that without a skilled labour-force America‘s business competitiveness
comes under significant stress.
For all parties in developing countries the challenges of achieving universal literacy in their
populations are myriad including poverty, access to ICTs, access to electricity and the urban-rural
divide. The utilitarian value of literacy has never been greater given the rapid growth and increasing
access to information, and the emerging global challenges such as religious fundamentalism,
emergence of fringe politics and their propensity for conspiracy theories, and the outbreak of the
COVID-19 pandemic (Li and Yu 2022). The ability of an individual to access and evaluate
information, to determine fact from fad, to differentiate science from conspiracy theories and to
inform individual and collective behaviour has indeed never been more important. In this context the
need for parties to work together to address the illiteracy challenge to development has never been
greater. Zambia is one of the countries that has been consistently striving to improve the literacy
levels of its population.
2. EARLY LITERACY SITUATION IN ZAMBIA
The literacy situation in Zambia can be traced back to a time when missionaries came to Zambia.
According to Kombe and Mwanza (2020),around 1890 when missionaries came to Zambia, the
education system used local languages to teach and learn literacy. However, the coming of the British
South African Company to Zambia and the eventual British rule in Zambia around 1924 saw an
increase in the use of English in the school system. After independence, Zambia continued to use
English as a medium of instruction in schools from preschool to university. This meant that children
learned to read and write in an unfamiliar language (Kelly, 2000). This posed a challenge, as children
had to learn both the language and the skill to read at the same time. Tambulukani (2002) contends
that the fact that reading in Zambia was carried out in English - a language that most children knew
very little of or had no knowledge about contributed to the extremely low levels of both reading and
writing. Other scholars such as Matafwali (2010),Tambulukani & Bus (2011) cement this view by
stating that children learn to read better if they are taught reading in a familiar language.
After 30 years of using English as a medium of instruction, the literacy levels were still not
satisfactory (MOE, 1996; National Assessment Study, 2018). As an attempt to improve the literacy
levels, the Ministry of Education introduced a new literacy programme, the Primary Reading
Programme (PRP) with the New Break Through to Literacy (NBTL) in the first grade as the main
component which promoted teaching children in a familiar language(Mubanga 2010, Mwanza,
2011).However, subsequent studies consistently showed that the reading skills in Zambian children
were still low (SACMEQ; 1998; Nkamba & Kanyika, 1998; Kalindi, 2005; Matafwali, 2005;
Matafwali, 2010; Mubanga, 2010; Mwanza, 2011; Tambulukani & Bus, 2011; USAID Education
Data, 2019)
The introduction of a new government in 2011led to a policy shift on the language of instruction in
Government schools which emphasised the use of the seven regional local languages as the media of
instruction in all subjects from Grade One to Grade Four. The English language is taught as a subject,
first orally and transitionally to reading and writing (National Literacy Framework 2013).
Implementation of this policy commenced in 2014.
It was expected that the literacy levels in primary schools would improve after introducing the policy,
however, studies done a year later (Mwanza-Kabaghe, 2015;Mubanga, 2015) still showed that
learners were reading two levels below their grade. The NAS (2018) found that only 45% of Grade
Two children in Zambia could read a single word of a text. This is an from the 2015 results which
showed that 65% of Zambian school children scored zero in reading, indicating that they could not
read any of the words provided. Even with this noted improvement,the level of reading is still below
the desirable stage. Results from the NAS (2014&2018) disaggregated according to provinces show
that North Western Province (the province of interest in this article) ranked eighth out of the ten
provinces in the country. Findings show that the province has 41% non-readers in Grade Three, a
worrisome situation and an indication that these learners did not acquire the basic reading skills. In
2021, USAID Education Data conducted anation wide EGRA in Zambia. The authors hope that the

The Other Side of Literacy Development: The Role of Kansanshi Mining Plc in Literacy Development in
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statistics will not be as gloomy, given the efforts made by government and other stakeholders in the
province to support early grade literacy teaching and learning and notwithstanding the potential
negative impact of COVID-19 on learning.
Many stakeholders such as multi and bi-lateral organisations, e.g., World Bank, UNICEF, USAID,
DFID and local implementing partners such as VVOB, Save the Children, Bookbus, Child Fund,
World Vision and Kansanshi Mining Plc, to name a few, have joined government to improve literacy
in the country. However, there is still need for more actors to join in this national endeavor. Families,
churches and the community at large all play an important role. In addition, there is need to
interrogate the literacy development models and the assessment methodologies currently in use.
3. THE ROLE OF KANSANSHI MINING PLC IN LITERACY DEVELOPMENT IN SOLWEZI DISTRICT
OF ZAMBIA
Studies have identified various factors that affect literacy teaching and learning (Kombe and Mwanza,
2020; Mwanza and Mkandawire 2020; Mubanga 2015; Mwanza-Kabaghe 2015; Ilon 2013;
Mandebvu2012; Jere-Folotiya et. al., 2014). These factors include inadequate infrastructure,
insufficient reading materials, inadequate teaching and learning materials, mismatch between
language of instruction and language of play, poor work culture by some teachers, the backwash
effects, inadequate school facilities, pupil absenteeism,family factors such as social economic status
and teacher factors (Burchfield et al., 2002a; Strategic Carr-Hill et al.,2001; Marketing & Research
Inc 2013).
Informed by local and international studies, Kansanshi Mine Plc (KMP), a subsidiary of First
Quantum Minerals (FQM), through its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) department education
section developed an education programme called the Kansanshi Education Quality Improvement
Programme (KanEQuIP) to improve education quality in schools. At the core of the programme, is
literacy improvement in Solwezi district. KanEQuIP uses several methods, all of which seek to
complement the school‘s role in developing children‘s technical ability to read hence the title of this
paper ‗The other side of literacy development‘.
Before implementing the KanEQuIP, a baseline study conducted found that indeed literacy
development in Solwezi district is affected by manyfactors (Mandebvu, 2012). The following are
notable findings:
a) Severe teaching and learning resource constraints with;
i. Textbook pupil ratios upward of 1:20
ii. Virtually no supplementary readers
b) Inordinate teacher-pupil ratio of more than 1:80
c) Teacher competence and motivation, and
d) Leadership and management practices that focused more on input and process management
rather than being outcomes driven.
Informed by the baseline study of 2012, KMP developed the KanEQuIP Model of literacy
development.
4. THE KANEQUIP MODEL
The education section works with the education authorities at provincial, district and school levels as
well as the community to enhance their participation in the delivery of education. KanEQuIP plays a
supportive role to the duty-bearers in their delivery of service rather than supplanting them. Our
modus operandus also uses several organisational development philosophies and tools such as the
theory of Constraints, the Mckinsey Model of organisational analysis, the Pareto principle, facilitation
of multi stakeholder processes an governance and accountability in service delivery.
KanEQuIP focuses on improving the quality of education at pre-primary and primary school levels in
33 schools located around the mine site. These schools constitute 52% of the primary schools in
Solwezi district. The programme attempts to address the factors that negatively impact literacy
development referred to earlier. The following are some of the notable ways through which
KanEQuIP addresses these factors:

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5. CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
A literacy-rich classroom environment exposes children to written and oral language in a wide variety
of ways and gives children the opportunity to develop their literacy skills (Titus, 2021). In its quest to
improve the classroom environment and literacy development among children in Solwezi district, the
KanEQuIP has been providing resources needed in classrooms to make the environment literacy rich.
These resources include books. both educational and reading for pleasure; material production
training and classroom display seminars with the belief that access to a wide and frequently rotating
range of books exposes children to literacy and encourages them to learn to read independently (Titus,
2021). The programme has since June 2021 launched a mobile library vehicle that goes to schools to
lend books to pupils as well as conduct reading sessions through the librarian assisted by the
classroom teachers.
Another factor that affects literacy in the classroom environment is the teacher pupil ratio.
McEneaney, Lose, & Schwartz (2006)note that teacher expertise and teacher-student ratio are factors
that contribute to optimizing instruction for students at risk of developing difficulties in literacy
learning. Schwartzet al.,(2012)found a reduction in literacy performance as group sizes of pupils
increased. In many African countries, including Zambia, the proclamation of free primary
educationby the Ministry of Education led to an increase in enrolment without a corresponding
increase in infrastructure, teaching and learning materials and teachers (Kalemba & Mulauzi,
2020).An increase in access did not correspond to an increase in quality of education.In addition, the
high levels of teacher attrition and exodus of teachers from the teaching profession due to delayed
deployment and better opportunities for career progression in other sectors. Due to these and many
other factors, this leaves fewer teachers to service the increasing learner population (MoGE, 2016).
KanEQuIP believes that teacher pupil ratio affects literacy learning as informed by the baseline results
(Mandebvu 2012) which found that the teacher pupil ratio was as high as 1: 80 or more. The
programme has endeavoured to reduce the teacher pupil ratio through infrastructure development. So
far, two 1x5 classroom blocks have been built at two different schools in the district in a bid to try and
decongest the classrooms and enhance literacy development. Efforts to improve the quality of
teachers is highlighted in the CPD section of this paper.
6. PARENTAL BELIEFS
Parental beliefs on literacy development affect children‘s literacy skills. Evidence has shown that
parents who understand the importance of reading and literacy development are more likely to be
supportive of their child's literacy than parents who do not understand the need for certain literacy-
based activities, such as phonics or phonemic awareness lessons (Lynch, 2007). Chansa-Kabali,
Serpell & Lyytinen (2014) noted that parental beliefs were manifested in favourable reading attitudes
and enabled parents to create reading opportunities for the children. Furthermore, they noted that the
parents‘ perceived benefits of education, even among parents with low literacy and educational levels,
built interest and created opportunities for their children to learn to read. Lynch (2007) contended that
parents who enjoy reading themselves, and do so frequently, are more likely to engage their children
in literacy-based activities. It is also true that low parental literacy levels could explain why Zambian
parents rarely read to their children (Chansa-Kabali, 2017, Mwanza, 2020).
Zuckerman et al. (2019) point out that high parental illiteracy levels, especially among women in low-
and medium-income countries, may pose a challenge for shared book reading. It is therefore
important to provide opportunities for adult literacy learning for parents that are unable to read so they
are empowered with literacy skills, which in turn, benefit their children. Mwanza-Kabaghe (2015)
found that children whose parents could read performed better in literacy than those coming from
families where parents did not read to their children. The same was true of parents who had
participated in adult literacy programmes (Cawthera,1997). Therefore, parental literacy is one of the
ways in which KanEQuIP endeavours to help in literacy development. This is done through
supporting volunteer teachers to teach the adults essential skills such as literacy, numeracy and
entrepreneurship in the community where they live. KanEQuIP has 17 adult literacy groups in
Solwezi district were parents are taught how to read and the importance of reading. Sensitisation
programmes are also conducted where parents are told about the benefits of taking children to school
as well as ensuring that they learn to read and write.

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7. READ ALOUDS
Studies have shown that reading aloud affects the development of vocabulary (Purcell-Gates,
McIntyre, & Freppon, 1995; Whitehurst et al., 1999; Beck, McKeown,& Kucan, 2002; Brabham &
Lynch-Brown, 2002; Collins, 2005) and language is important for the development of literacy
(Matafwali 2010, Mwanza-Kabaghe 2015; Mwanza-Kabaghe et al., 2015). It increases children‘s
ability to recognize words (Stahl, 2003). Researchers have demonstrated that when caregivers and
more competent others read to young children on a consistent basis, they provide the tools for future
literacy and language success. Researchers like Bus & van IJzendoorn (1995); Wells, (1986)and
Septiani & Syaodih, (2020)established that availability of diverse literacy stimulating activities such
as book reading, storytelling, singing, rhyming, and role play can help children develop their early
literacy abilities. Children should be exposed to rich literacy experiences both at home and at school
early in life in order to acquire foundation literacy abilities. With the understanding that Read-alouds
are a highly valued adult–child literacy experience—shared both at home and in the classroom which
also fosters positive attitudes and motivation toward wanting to be a reader (Beauchat, Blamey and
Philippakos 2012), Kansanshi encourages teachers through trainings especially in ECE and early
primary to read to the children. Through the mobile library, the librarian reads to learners and
discusses the stories with them at least once a week. Teachers are also encouraged to do the same
once or twice a week.
8. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
It is well established in Western countries that pre-conventional children acquire knowledge about
reading and writing through a variety of activities including exposure to print in their environment,
reading books, name writing, and the like (Bus, 2001). In addition to this, The National Institute for
Literacy (NIFL, 2007) reports that reading skills acquired during kindergarten provide the essential
foundational links required for later reading success. Children in ECE learn how to handle a book, and
may pretend to read and tell a story while looking at the pictures. They learn how to construct
meaning from visual clues on the page. Learners learn the alphabetic principles, some letters-sound
relationships, recognize high frequency words, and understand texts, usually narratives, containing
language and thought processes within their experiential frame of reference (Sulzby & Teale, 1991;
Graves, Juel, & Graves, 1998). KanEQuIP recognises the important foundational role played by Early
Childhood Education in the overall physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development of children
and school readiness. KanEQuIP has therefore supported ECE by building two model schools in the
district which it uses for training ECE teachers. Teachers in the district are free to walk into the model
schools to observe other teachers teaching pre-schoolers pre-literacy activities and to get clarification
where needed. The programme also provides support by mobilising resources for ECE centres such as
tables, chairs, books, toys and other resources needed to effectively run ECE centres. In addition to
this, KanEquip holds ECE workshops for teachers that emphasise the importance of literacy. Topics
covered during the workshops include child development and pre-literacy activities that are precursors
for later literacy development.
9. TEACHER CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CPD obligations are essential to every profession including teaching. This is because a teacher well
vested in terms of knowledge and skills is highly likely to produce quality students who can
eventually contribute to national development (Mwanza-Kabaghe and Mofu-Mwansa, 2018).
Furthermore, teacher CPD keeps teachers abreast with new knowledge and skills that makes them
confident and better teachers. Adu and Okeke (2014, p. 2721) postulate that ‗CPD in the teaching
profession should be seen as a structured approach to learning that helps to ensure competence to the
practice of acquiring information, taking in knowledge, skills and application of practical experience.‘
They further explain that CPD can involve any relevant learning activity whether formal and
structured or informal and self-directed. KMP helps teachers remain competent in their duties and
abreast with new trends through trainings in teaching methodology and leadership to teachers serving
in the KanEQuIP supported schools.
10. FEEDING PROGRAMME
Hunger is a global issue that affects about 1.2 billion people (FAO 2009). Every day, about 60
million children in poor coountries go to school hungry, with Africa accounting for roughly 40% of
them (Taylor and Ogbogu 2016). There is overwhelming evidence that many school-aged children,

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particularly in developing countries, have less access to good food needed to provide them with
adequate learning conditions (World Food Programme (WFPa), 2016; WFP, 2013; Agbon, Onabanjo,
and Okeke, 2012; Gelli, 2006; Foeken, Owuor, and Mwangi, 2010; Karisa and Orodho, 2014;
Malama, 2012; Tineke, 2007; Tomlinson, 2007, Adams et al 2019).)This led to the popularity of
School Feeding Programs (SFPs) in developing countries, mostly among those affected severely by
childhood hunger and malnourishment (Jomaa, McDonell and Probart 2016).These initiatives aim to
improve schoolchildren's focus span and learning ability by giving meals in schools to alleviate short-
term hunger, which could otherwise hinder their performance. In Zambia, SFP has been implemented
since 1964, but its implementation under the School Health and Nutrition (SHN) recorded
insignificant gains due to reliance on external funding from donors which proved to be unsustainable
(MoE, 2007).
In 2011, the Zambian government launched aHome-Grown School Feeding Programme(HGSFP)to
provide pupils in primary school with a meal daily in 22 selected districts namely; Chiengi, Kaputa,
Kawambwa, Luwingu, Chilubi, Chama, Chadiza, Katete, Petauke, Nyimba, Mkushi, Masaiti,
Lufwanyama, Mwinilunga, Mumbwa, Namwala, Siavonga, Kazungula, Sesheke, Senanga, Mongu
and Kalabo (Kalaluka, 2014, Banda 2019; Banda and Mwanza-Kabaghe 2019).This initiative was not
implemented in Solwezi district of North Western Province where Kansanshi Mine operates.
Kansanshi recognises the research evidence that highlights the benefits of a SFP and provides meals
to children in the schools around the mine. Acheck at one of the schools before the SFP commenced
revealed that attendance was usually around 55% before the feeding programme. With the
introduction of feeding before beginning of lessons, school attendance averaged 89% in the term that
the feeding programme was introduced. The assumption is that if children can come to school
regularly and stay in all the lessons and concentrate on lessons then they will learn thereby enhancing
literacy development in a different way. Based on the positive results from the pilot school, the
programme was rolled out to other primary schools.
It has been observed in all the thirty-two schools on the feeding programme that attendance has been
positively influenced. Children who had dropped out of school made efforts to return to school.
Children are choosing to go to school at least for the food. We believe that they will learn enough to
be attracted to school for its benefits and not for food only. The feeding programme has not been
evaluated for its impact on literacy of the children but we believe it influences literacy in some way
hence the other side of literacy development. At one school a pupil commented that at least their
tummies are not disturbing while in class. Even a good teacher cannot teach pupils that are physically
and mentally absent. Therefore, the feeding programme creates an enabling environment, which
motivates learners to go to school, attend all lessons and pay attention to what is happening in class
without feeling the pangs of hunger.
11. SOCIAL ECONOMIC STATUS
In the past four decades, various measures of reading achievement have shown that children from
low-income families obtain significantly low scores than those from high-income families,(Dickinson
& snow 1987, Jantz 1987; Nicholson and Gillien 1995; Matafafwali 2005; Matafwali 2010; Mwanza-
Kabaghe, Mubanga, Matafwali, Kasonde-Ngandu and Bus 2015). These studies suggest that the
context in which one lives determines one‘s academic achievement including literacy development.
Duke (2000)found substantial differences between low and high SES classrooms in all the domains
that she examined including literacy. She stated that this could be the contributing factor to lower
levels of achievement among low SES children. Hart and Risley (1995) state that children from low-
income homes remain well behind their more economically advantaged peers when they enter school
and as they progress through school. By Grade One the gap between less and more economically
advantaged students is approximately 1,200 words; however, by Grade Three the gap increases to
approximately 2,500 words(Hart and Risley, 1995).It is their understanding that if teachers make
concerted and conscientious efforts to bolster children‘s language and vocabulary, this gap can be
narrowed early. With this understanding of how low SES status affects literacy development among
children from low SES, Kansanshi Mine PLc has endeavored to better the living conditions of people
in areas surrounding the mine. This has been done by involving all the households in a number of
activities such as conservation farming, providing subsidized farming inputs, sponsoring some
children to school and helping with nutritional education.

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12. LIMITATIONS
This paper reports programmes implemented by KMP. It is not reporting findings of a study carried
out in a scientific manner, which may pose questions regarding bias and impressionistic reporting.
The authors however, endeavoured to show how KMP endeavours to promote literacy using various
programmes.
13. CONCLUSION
While teaching learners to be literate is the job of the education system, the dry ability to read only
blossoms into full literacy the more the learner accesses an enabling environment and resources such
as books to read, computers and other ICT technologies. Furthermore, education systems need to
change the pedagogical processes to develop 21st century skills in learners rather than abstract
knowledge to be reproduced in tests and examinations.
As previously presented, literacy development cannot be left to governments alone. It requires the
concerted efforts of all stakeholders. KMP recognises this and this paper has explained how KMP is
contributing to education, specifically literacy development. The rapid development and proliferation
of communication technologies with the attendant deluge in the generation and dissemination of all
kinds of information make literacy in all its forms a fundamental human right (Education for All
Global Monitoring Report, 2006). The need for all citizens of the world to have the ability to process
information and make sound decisions in the environment of the new global challenges cannot be
over-emphasised. The world is a better place, the more of its people are literate. Therefore, corporates
cannot be bystanders in this fight. Kansanshi Mining Plc is, in its humble way and from the other side,
contributing to this noble cause.
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Citation: Sylvia Mwanza-Kabaghe et al. "The Other Side of Literacy Development: The Role of Kansanshi
Mining Plc in Literacy Development in the Solwezi District of Zambia” International Journal of Humanities
Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE), vol 9, no. 7, 2022, pp.16-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-
0381.0907002.
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