In Vitro Production of Alkaloids

Abstract

Plants are considered as a potent source of a wide variety of bioactive molecules that can be used for the development of the various pharmaceutical drugs. Alkaloids are the important class of secondary metabolites, known to exhibit therapeutic properties including anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-malarial activities. Alkaloids are able to prevent various degenerative diseases by binding with the oxidative reaction catalyst or free radicals. The commercial extraction of alkaloids is reported from some major families like Apocynaceae, Papaveraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. By this system, the yield of alkaloids is inconsistent due to genetic and geographical variations. Chemical synthesis is still not feasible system due to complex molecular structure of various metabolites. Therefore, in vitro system for production of alkaloids has become a promising biotechnological approach from a range of medicinal plants. Some of the medicinal plants such as Nicotiana tobaccum (nicotine), Erythroxylum coca (cocaine), Cinchona officinalis (quinine and quinidine), Rauwolfia serpentina (reserpine), and Pilocarpine microphyllus (pilocarpine) have been explored for in vitro production of their respective alkaloids. The present chapter provides brief information on various in vitro production systems and scale-up techniques used for alkaloid production.KeywordsAlkaloidsBiosynthesisExtractionBiological activitiesBioreactorPlant cell culture

Full text

TarunBelwal
MilenI.Georgiev
JameelMAl-KhayriEditors
Nutraceuticals
Production
fromPlant Cell
Factory

Nutraceuticals Production from Plant Cell
Factory

Tarun Belwal •Milen I. Georgiev •
Jameel M Al-Khayri
Editors
Nutraceuticals Production
from Plant Cell Factory

Editors
Tarun Belwal
Biosystems Engineering and Food
Science
Zhejiang University
Hangzhou, China
Milen I. Georgiev
Institute of Microbiology
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Jameel M Al-Khayri
Agricultural Biotechnology
King Faisal University
Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia
ISBN 978-981-16-8857-7 ISBN 978-981-16-8858-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8858-4
#The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2022
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Preface
Plant cells have been effectively utilized over the past few decades to produce
valuable natural bioactive compounds under artificial conditions. Nutraceutical
compounds, which encompass nutrients and pharmaceuticals, are gaining higher
market demands due to their health-promoting properties, added value to food
products, and mitigation potential of various diseases. Considering their high
demand and the limitations of natural resources, biotechnological tools based on
cell culture techniques provide effective means of scaling up the production of these
natural products. However, considering the complexity of cell types, genetic factors,
and targeted nutraceutical compounds, the optimum cell culture conditions vary and
hence require empirical determination.
The purpose of this book is to highlight the in vitro techniques, current status, and
challenges of producing nutraceutical compounds. In addition, it provides an over-
view of different biosynthesis pathways and their modulation through cell culture
technique for the production of nutraceutical compounds in high quantity and
quality. The book also emphasizes assessment of the factors influencing production
and advances in cell culture techniques, including scale-up approach using
bioreactors. Overall, this book will provide the current status, methods, research,
advances, and challenges of in vitro production of nutraceutical compounds along
with recommendations for future research.
The book comprises different parts, namely theory and technology, in vitro
production of nutraceutical compounds, and strategic advances and challenges.
The theory and technology part covers the general description of nutraceutical
compounds, plant cell culture technology, bioreactors, and factors affecting
in vitro production of nutraceuticals. The in vitro production of nutraceutical
compounds part mainly deals with the in vitro production of important nutraceutical
compounds, namely polyphenols, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, anthocyanins,
carotenoids, saponins, steroids, tocopherols, phytosterols, and quinones. The last
part of the book covers the strategic advances and challenges, comprises chapters
dealing with optimization strategies for in vitro nutraceutical production, genetic
engineering, and microbial cell factory for nutraceutical production, and highlights
the challenges of in vitro nutraceutical production.
The book is an excellent reference source for researchers working in the area of
in vitro biosynthesis of nutraceutical compounds, food science, plant biotechnology,
v

nutraceutical research, and pharmacological activities. Also, it will be useful for
industries working on plant biotechnology, especially the in vitro biosynthesis of
nutraceutical compounds.
The editors appreciate chapter authors for their contributions towards the success
and quality of this book, which represents the efforts of 56 scientists from five
countries. We are also grateful to Springer for giving us an opportunity to compile
this book.
Hangzhou, China Tarun Belwal
Plovdiv, Bulgaria Milen I. Georgiev
Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia Jameel M. Al-Khayri
vi Preface

Contents
Part I Theory and Technology
1 Nutraceutical Compounds, Classification, Biosynthesis, and
Function ............................................. 3
Hari Prasad Devkota
2 In Vitro Production of Bioactive Compounds from Plant Cell
Culture .............................................. 29
Vasantha Veerappa Lakshmaiah, Akshatha Banadka,
Gopishankar Thirumoorthy, Poornananda Madhava Naik,
Jameel Mohammed Al-Khayri, and Praveen Nagella
3 Scale-Up Production of Bioactive Compounds Using
Bioreactors ........................................... 69
M. R. Rohini and P. E. Rajasekharan
4 Factors Affecting In Vitro Production of Nutraceuticals ......... 83
Lalit Giri, Laxman Singh, Kuldeep Joshi, Arti Bisht,
and Indra D. Bhatt
Part II In Vitro Production of Nutraceutical Compounds
5 In Vitro Production of Phenolic Compound .................. 105
Lalit Giri, Laxman Singh, and Indra D. Bhatt
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids ........................... 143
Supriya Meena, Bhanupriya Kanthaliya, Abhishek Joshi,
Farhana Khan, Seema Choudhary, and Jaya Arora
7 In Vitro Production of Coumarins ......................... 169
Muneera Q. Al-Mssallem and Fatima Mohamed Alissa
8 In Vitro Production of Terpenoids ......................... 185
Sandeep Ramchandra Pai
9 In Vitro Production of Anthocyanins and Carotenoids .......... 205
Randah M. Al-Qurashi and Muneera Q. Al-Mssallem
viivii

10 In Vitro Production of Saponins ........................... 229
Poornananda M. Naik, W. N. Sudheer, Sakshi Dubey,
Rutwick Surya Ulhas, and N. Praveen
11 In Vitro Production of Steroids ............................ 265
Ehab M. B. Mahdy, Sherif F. El-Sharabasy,
and Maiada M. El-Dawayati
12 In Vitro Production of Tocopherols ......................... 287
Vasantha Veerappa Lakshmaiah, Biljo Vadakkekudiyil Joseph,
Rakesh Bhaskar, Rutwick Surya Ulhas, Jameel Mohamed Al-Khayri,
and Praveen Nagella
13 In Vitro Production of Phytosterols ......................... 321
Mostafa M. Hegazy and Wahidah H. Al-Qahtani
14 In Vitro Production of Quinones ........................... 345
Ehab M. B. Mahdy, Sherif F. El-Sharabasy,
and Maiada M. El-Dawayati
Part III Strategic Advances and Challenges
15 Optimization of In Vitro Cell Culture Conditions for Increasing
Biomass and Nutraceutical Production ...................... 377
Deepika Tripathi, Arti Bisht, Mithilesh Singh, and I. D. Bhatt
16 Genetic Engineering of Cell Cultures for Enhanced Production of
Nutraceuticals ......................................... 395
Andrey Marchev, Kristiana Amirova, and Milen Georgiev
17 Transfer of Plant Biosynthetic Pathways to Microbes for the
Production of Nutraceuticals .............................. 417
Fatima M. Alessa
18 In Vitro Production of Nutraceutical: Challenges and
Opportunities ......................................... 439
Muneera Q. Al-Mssallem
viii Contents

In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 6
Supriya Meena, Bhanupriya Kanthaliya, Abhishek Joshi,
Farhana Khan, Seema Choudhary, and Jaya Arora
Abstract
Plants are considered as a potent source of a wide variety of bioactive molecules
that can be used for the development of the various pharmaceutical drugs.
Alkaloids are the important class of secondary metabolites, known to exhibit
therapeutic properties including anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, and
anti-malarial activities. Alkaloids are able to prevent various degenerative
diseases by binding with the oxidative reaction catalyst or free radicals. The
commercial extraction of alkaloids is reported from some major families like
Apocynaceae, Papaveraceae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae. By this system, the
yield of alkaloids is inconsistent due to genetic and geographical variations.
Chemical synthesis is still not feasible system due to complex molecular structure
of various metabolites. Therefore, in vitro system for production of alkaloids has
become a promising biotechnological approach from a range of medicinal plants.
Some of the medicinal plants such as Nicotiana tobaccum (nicotine),
Erythroxylum coca (cocaine), Cinchona officinalis (quinine and quinidine), Rau-
wolfia serpentina (reserpine),and Pilocarpine microphyllus (pilocarpine) have
been explored for in vitro production of their respective alkaloids. The present
chapter provides brief information on various in vitro production systems and
scale-up techniques used for alkaloid production.
Keywords
Alkaloids · Biosynthesis · Extraction · Biological activities · Bioreactor · Plant cell
culture
S. Meena · B. Kanthaliya · A. Joshi · F. Khan · S. Choudhary · J. Arora (*)
Laboratory of Biomolecular Technology, Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University,
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
#The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd. 2022
T. Belwal et al. (eds.), Nutraceuticals Production from Plant Cell Factory,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8858-4_6
143

6.1 Introduction
Plants have always been the major source for the traditional medicine systems, and
they have provided various remedies in therapeutic application for thousands of
years (Ramawat et al. 2009). Generally, plants are under selection pressure to protect
themselves from pathogenic microbes and insects, whereas these pathogens struggle
for their survival from plant defense to obtain food and reproduction site. Therefore,
both plants and pathogens need to develop tactics to adapt or adjust with each other
and the changing environment. Then the co-evolution of secondary metabolites is a
consequence of the biological processes in plants that regulate defense mechanism
(Ramawat and Goyal 2019). Alkaloids are one of the major secondary metabolites
obtained from plants. Ubiquitous distribution of alkaloids is found in the plant
kingdom mainly in higher plants, such as those belonging to Ranunculaceae,
Leguminosae, Papaveraceae, Menispermaceae, and Loganiaceae (Ramawat and
Mérillon 2013; Kandar 2021).
These compounds have been classified into various categories which include
indole, piperidine, tropane, purine, pyrrolizidine, imidazole, quinolizidine,
isoquinoline, and pyrrolidine alkaloids on the basis of their biosynthetic precursor
and heterocyclic ring system (Waller 2012). In vitro cell, tissue, or organ culture has
been employed as a probabilistic alternative to produce such industrial compounds.
Tissue culture techniques can be used for the large-scale culture that provide
continuous, reliable, and renewable source of valuable plant pharmaceuticals to
extend commercial importance of plants to emerge or identify their biological
activities which includes anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial
activities (Debnath et al. 2018). There are up to 80% of people in developing
countries who are totally dependent on herbal drugs for their primary healthcare,
and over 25% of prescribed medicines in developed countries are derived from wild
plant species (Hamilton 2004). As there is an increasing demand of medicinal plants
for herbal drugs, natural health products, and secondary metabolites, the use of
medicinal plants is growing rapidly throughout the world. Consequently, some of
them are increasingly being threatened even in their natural habitats, and some also
face natural extinction (Chen et al. 2016). Therefore, in the production of desirable
medicinal compounds from plants in search for alternatives, cell and tissue culture
technologies were emerged as a possible tool for studying, and producing plant
secondary metabolites as in vitro regeneration holds enormous potential for the
synthesis of high-quality plant-based medicines (Rohini 2020). Techniques like
somaclonal variations and genetic manipulations may be utilized to improve the
production of alkaloids. The in vitro cell culture system is more beneficial than the
conventional in vivo cultivation of whole plants in context of production of desirable
compounds under controlled conditions independent to climatic factors or soil
compositions and reduces labor costs and improves productivity as automated
control of cell growth and rational regulation of metabolite processes. These cultured
cells would be free of microbes and insects. Another benefit of cell culture is that the
cells of any plants, tropical or alpine, could be easily multiplied to yield their specific
metabolites in any artificial conditions. In vitro production of alkaloids is an
144 S. Meena et al.

impactful technique to develop the large-scale scenario in pharmaceutical industries.
Callus culture assisted the optimization of alkaloid production. Media composition is
significant for the callus induction to enhance the alkaloid content and conservation
of threatened genotype (Hussain et al. 2012).
6.2 Biosynthetic Pathway
According to Ramawat and Mérillon (2013), alkaloids are classified into three major
categories on the basis of their origin and structure:
1. True-alkaloids: These are derived from amino acids and containing nitrogen
moiety in their heterocyclic ring and found to be basic in nature. These alkaloids
are highly reactive molecules with biological activity even in low doses.
Examples: Nicotine, morphine, ergotamine, quinine, atropine, etc.
2. Proto-alkaloids: These are also derived from amino acids, but nitrogen is
absent in their heterocyclic ring.
Examples: Ephedrine, mescaline, etc.
3. Pseudo-alkaloids: Alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino
acids. It includes mainly terpenoid, steroid, and purine-like alkaloids. So they are
also called as steroidal alkaloids.
Examples: caffeine, pinidine, coniceine, etc.
The precursors of alkaloids biosynthesis are mainly amino acids (Fig. 6.1).
Furthermore, the diversity of alkaloids depends on their precursor molecule and
their structure. Alkaloid biosynthesis is a sequenced process in context of plant
development, controlling the expression of genes in pathways, inside specific cells
or organelles. Their biosynthesis and accumulation depends on developmental stage
and environmental conditions and also have cell or tissue specific regulations. The
degree of expression of the genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of a particu-
lar alkaloid affects the accumulation of that metabolite (Ziegler and Facchini 2008).
Alkaloid biosynthesis and accumulation is increasing with the number of genes
involved in it. Generally, biosynthesis starts from the fixation of atmospheric CO
2
in
primary carbon metabolism. The erythrose-4-phosphate (PPP pathway intermediate)
and phosphoenolpyruvate (glycolysis intermediate) go through the shikimic acid
pathway (Fig. 6.2) to form aromatic amino acids and pyruvate (end product of
glycolysis) followed by acetyl coA and then go through TCA cycle to form aliphatic
amino acids. These two types of amino acid constitute for synthesis of a range of
N-containing compounds (alkaloids). This is followed by a series of reactions such
as bond formations, breakages, rearrangements, addition, and modification of func-
tional groups, yielding a vast range of various alkaloids. The pathway begins with
two substrates, phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose-4-phosphate, and ends with
chorismate (substrate for the three aromatic amino acids –Tyr, Phe, Trp). This
pathway includes seven steps regulated by seven enzymes: DAHP (3-deoxy-D-
arabino-heptulosonic acid-7-phosphate) synthase, 3-dehydroquinate synthase,
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 145

3-hydratase, shikimate dehydrogenase, shikimate kinase, EPSP
(3-enolpyruvylshikimate-5-phosphate) synthase, and chorismate synthase (Pathak
et al. 2019). After that, a particular group of alkaloid followed a different pathway to
complete its biosynthesis. Here are some examples of complete biosynthesis of
alkaloid category.
1. Amaryllidaceae alkaloids use L-tyrosine and L-phenylalanine as precursors.
From phenylalanine, the phenylpropanoid pathway leads the formation of
3, 4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde (3, 4-DHBA) to synthesize aldehyde (-CHO) moi-
ety of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid. The other pathway to synthesize tyramine (the
amine –NH
2
moiety of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid) is from tyrosine and its concre-
tion with 3, 4-DHBA to form the central precursor norbelladine as well as its
pursuant O-methylation occurs. The phenol coupling of the 4-O-
methylnorbelladine in intermediate pathway ensued by a reduction step will
progress in a series of unstable intermediates. The pathway(s) for the different
Amaryllidaceae alkaloid’s biosynthesis found in different plant species and their
pathways remain still uncharacterized (Desgagné-Penix 2020).
2. The biosynthesis of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) starts with the formation of
cadaverine as intermediate by the decarboxylation of L-lysine. The cadaverine
then undergoes oxidative deamination, by a copper amine oxidase enzyme to
yield 5-aminopentanal which is then spontaneously cyclized to 11-piperidine
Schiff base. In addition to these reactions, a chain of reactions including Schiff
Fig. 6.1 Precursors of some true alkaloids for biosynthesis
146 S. Meena et al.

base formations, aldol-type reactions, hydrolysis, oxidative deamination, and
coupling generates the major structural QAs. The alkaloidal group can be further
modified by dehydrogenation, oxygenation, hydroxylation, glycosylation, or
esterification to form a wide range of structurally related QAs (Frick et al. 2017).
3. The biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) initiates the formation
of dopamine and 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde by using L-lysine as precursor
amino acid, which are then condensed to (S)-norcoclaurine by (S)-norcoclaurine
synthase (NCS). One cytochrome P450 [(S)-N-methylcoclaurine
30-hydroxylase] and three methyltransferases [(S)-norcoclaurine/
norlaudanosoline 6-Omethyltransferase, (S)-coclaurine-N-methyltransferase,
and (S)-30-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine-40-omethyltransferase] are involved in
Fig. 6.2 Shikimic acid pathway
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 147

catalyzing the conversion of (S)-norcoclaurine to a central intermediate, (S)-
reticuline, for the production of different BIAs, i.e., protoberberine,
benzophenanthridine, and morphinan alkaloids (Beaudoin and Facchini 2014;
Yamada et al. 2017). BIA biosynthesis consists of several steps (describes
above), followed by multistep transformations that yield structurally different
end products (Beaudoin and Facchini 2014;Heetal.2018).
In spite of these, biosynthetic pathway(s) of tropane and granatane alkaloids have
also been reported. They belong to the pyrroline and piperidine classes of plant
alkaloids, respectively (Kim et al. 2016).
6.3 In Vitro Production Methodology
Many plant secondary metabolites have been commercially produced by extraction
and purification from plant materials either they are naturally present or field
cultivated. It is known that the amount of produced alkaloid in naturally growing
plant is very low, due to environmental or seasonal variations, nutrient availability,
and stress conditions, and it is often restricted to a genus or species and might be
activated only during a particular growth or developmental stage, which hinders the
biological study of the compounds (Bagnères and Hossaert-McKey 2016). On the
other hand, using wild plant materials has considerable risk related to extinction of
many valuable and even endemic species. Hereupon, to increase the production of
various alkaloids for remedial applications, two approaches have been proposed.
The primary one is a total chemical synthesis that is complex and not much effective.
The second is in vitro culture by using different plant parts (explants) to enhance the
secondary metabolites content (Fig. 6.3). So, plant cell and tissue culture techniques
have been investigated extensively as an alternative method for production of
secondary metabolites of commercial interest since the end of the 1950s (Davies
and Deroles 2014; Ramawat 2021). Plant secondary metabolites can be produced by
two major groups of in vitro cultures: organized cultures of differentiated tissues
(i.e., organ cultures as root, shoot, and embryo cultures) and unorganized cultures of
undifferentiated cells (i.e., cell suspension and callus cultures) (Fig. 6.4).
Investigations have showed that differentiated plant tissues produce the identical
product as the plant produce itself, and they were relatively more stable in the
production of secondary metabolites than the undifferentiated cells (Nielsen et al.
2019). Shoot cultures are used for many medicinal plants, which accumulate sec-
ondary metabolites much greater than that of natural plants. Besides, many of the
valuable secondary metabolites like tropane alkaloids, hyoscyamine, and scopol-
amine are produced quite well in the root cultures (Filova 2014). However, plant
roots in cultures generally grow slower than undifferentiated plant cells, and their
harvesting is difficult. Therefore, plant hairy root cultures have been applied as an
alternative method for the production of compounds synthesized in the plant roots.
Hairy roots obtained by Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation
exhibits higher growth rates than cell suspension cultures and produce secondary
148 S. Meena et al.

metabolites over successive generations without losing genetic or biosynthesis
stability (Mehrotra et al. 2015a,b). Huang et al. (2018) reported a sanguinarine
alkaloid from Macleaya cordata hairy root cultures by co-cultivating leaf and stem
explants with A. rhizogenes. Furthermore, production of two different secondary
Fig. 6.3 Schematic presentation of in vitro alkaloids production
Fig. 6.4 Types of in vitro cultures used in alkaloids production from certain medicinal plants
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 149

metabolites is feasible by simultaneously co-culturing of adventitious roots. Natural
adventitious roots are induced in many medicinal plants via flask scale to large-scale
bioreactor cultivation for the production of several bioactive compounds (Baque
et al. 2012). Non-embryogenic plant callus cultures, consisting of more or less
homogeneous clumps of dedifferentiated cells, are used for production of secondary
metabolites. During the past decades, plant cell suspension cultures initiated from
callus cultures have been extensively studied and have emerged as attractive
alternatives for production of the range of valuable compounds found in the whole
plant. However, production of many of the pharmaceuticals is just too low or may be
zero in cultured cells due to controlling their production by a tissue-specific manner
and loss of production capacity resulting from dedifferentiation.
In recent years, various strategies have been developed for enhanced biomass
accumulation and regulation of biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, such as
selection of cell lines, optimization of medium and culture conditions, elicitation,
immobilization, nutrient and precursor feeding, permeabilization, and biotransfor-
mation techniques (Filova 2014; Bagnères and Hossaert-McKey 2016). Secondary
metabolite accumulation in plants is genotype- and tissue-specific, so explants
should be selected from elite parent plants and tissues, which have higher contents
of desired compound, to initiate cell and organ cultures. Levels and types of various
chemical components, such as carbohydrates, nitrate, phosphate, and growth
regulators which could affect biomass accumulation and biosynthesis of secondary
metabolites in plant cell and organ cultures, have been taken into consideration to
optimize the medium. Agitation and aeration are also important factors that ought to
be controlled in flask-scale to large-scale bioreactor cultures for optimization of
biomass growth and secondary metabolite production (Murty et al. 2014). Secondary
metabolites are being synthesized in plant cells to retort various abiotic (e.g.,
temperature, salinity, water, heavy metal, etc.) and biotic (e.g., pathogen or insects)
stresses. Therefore, these stress factors have been designated as “elicitors”to induce
biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. The number of parameters, such as concen-
tration of elicitors, types, exposure duration, cell line, nutrient composition, and
culture age or stage, is also crucial factors influencing the successful production of
biomass and alkaloid accumulation (Naik and Al-Khayri 2016). Unfortunately,
elicitation does not always result in product of interest because it activates certain
plant species in the specific pathway. By utilizing preexisting enzyme systems, many
plant cell cultures have also been used to convert precursors into products. Biotrans-
formation is another technique which can be utilized for the high production of
selected metabolites using plant cell and organ cultures (Bhatia and Bera 2015). In
spite of this, the yield of secondary metabolites continues to be economically
insufficient and expensive in many cases. Therefore, metabolic and genetic engi-
neering techniques have also been incorporated into plant cell cultures to boost the
production of secondary metabolites via regulation of their biosynthesis (Wilson and
Roberts 2012). Some alkaloidal plant sources that have been used for in vitro
cultures are mentioned in Table 6.1.
150 S. Meena et al.

Table 6.1 Types of in vitro cultures of alkaloid producing various medicinal plants
Plant name Active alkaloids Culture medium
Culture
type Results Reference
Atropa
belladonna
Tropane alkaloids Seeds + MS medium with 3%
sucrose, 0.1 mg/l indole acetic acid
(IAA) and 1 mg/l benzyladenine
(BA)
Hairy
root
culture
The highest amount of atropine was
observed; however, there were no
differences in the amount of
scopolamine, where the
scopolamine content was
significantly decreased
Chashmi
et al. (2010)
Alstonia
scholaris
(Apocynaceae)
Indole alkaloids (echitamine,
acetylechitamine,
tubotaiwine, and picrinine)
Leaf + MS medium, 0.3 mg/l 2,4-D,
0.5 mg/l FAP and 3% sucrose.
Elicited by MJ, PEG, and CHI
Callus
culture
Enrichments of acetylechitamine
(6.3780 mg/g DW, i.e., ~ 15-fold)
and echitamine (1.6513 mg/g DW,
i.e., ~ 12-fold) were found with
4.5 g/L KCl in 10 days incubation
period, followed by tubotaiwine
(0.0952 mg/g DW, i.e., ~ fourfold)
with 3.0 g/L KCl in 10 days and
picrinine (0.3784 mg/g DW, i.e.,
~ fourfold) with 4.5 g/L KCl
Jeet et al.
(2020)
Nicotiana rustica
(Solanaceae)
Nicotine Gamborg’s B5 medium with 20 g/l
sucrose and 3 g/l phytagel
Hairy
root
culture
Alteration of aeration results
decreases nicotine accumulation
Zhao et al.
(2013)
Papaver
orientale
(Papaveraceae)
Morphine, thebaine, codeine Seed + Gamborg’s B5 liquid
medium, 3% sucrose, 300 mg/l
cefotaxime, 1.0 g/l PVP, 15 mg/l
ascorbic acid. Elicited by methyl
jasmonate
Hairy
root
culture
Enhanced thebaine, codeine, and
morphine by 2.63-fold (3.08 mg g-
1), 3.67-fold (2.57 mg g-1), and
6.18-fold (5.38 mg g-1),
respectively
Hashemi
and
Naghavi
(2016)
Catharanthus
roseus
(Apocynaceae)
Vinca alkaloids Leaf + MS medium supplemented
with 1.5 mg/L BAP and 1.5 mg/L
2,4D
Callus
culture
Vinblastine showed a 3.39-fold
increase compared to the wild plant
Mekky
et al. (2018)
(continued)
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 151

Table 6.1 (continued)
Plant name Active alkaloids Culture medium
Culture
type Results Reference
Hyoscyamus
niger
(Solanaceae)
Tropane alkaloids Leaf explants + MS medium, 3%
sucrose supplemented with
antibiotics (cefotaxime and
amoxicillin, 500 mg/l)
Hairy
root
culture
The amount of cuscohygrine was
(7.079 mg/g dry wt) more than
20-fold higher than the
concentrations of anisodamine,
therefore in order to determine the
anisodamine content
Jaremicz
et al. (2014)
Securinega
suffruticosa
(Phyllanthaceae)
Indolizine alkaloids Callus + SH medium, 3% sucrose,
5.0 mg/l 2,4-D, 5.0 mg/l kinetin
Callus
culture
The highest concentrations of
securinine (1.73 mg g-1 DW) and
allosecurinine (3.11 mg g-1 DW)
were observed
Raj et al.
(2015a,b)
Macleaya
cordata
(Papaveraceae)
Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids
(protopine, sanguinarine,
dihydrosanguinarine)
Leaf and stem + MS solid medium,
30 g/L sucrose, 8 g/L agar
Hairy
root
culture
The contents of 3 alkaloids (PROT,
DHSAN, SAN) were significantly
higher in hairy root cultures than in
wild plant
Huang et al.
(2018)
Hyoscyamus
reticulatus
(Solanaceae)
Hyoscyamine and
scopolamine
Seeds + MS medium, 3% sucrose,
7.2 g/l agar, and 0.1 g/l myo-inositol
and 200 mg/l cefotaxime elicited by
iron oxide nanoparticles (FeNPs) at
different concentrations (0, 450,
900, 1800, and 3600 mg L
1
)
Hairy
root
culture
Highest hyoscyamine and
scopolamine production (about
fivefold increase over the control)
was achieved with 900 and
450 mg L
1
FeNPs
Moharrami
et al. (2017)
Hyoscyamus
muticus
(Solanaceae)
Hyoscyamine Shoot tip + MS media +0.5 mg/l
BAP, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/l NAA, pH
(5.7–5.8)
Callus
culture
Total alkaloids increased by
twofold at 10 dS/m compared to
control or wild leaves
Abdelrazik
et al. (2019)
Pancratium
maritimum
(Amaryllidaceae)
Amaryllidaceae alkaloids Fruit slice + MS medium, 3%
sucrose, 1.15 mg/L NAA and
2.0 mg/L BAP
Shoot
culture
Twenty-two compounds of
different structural types of the
Amaryllidaceae alkaloids
(tyramine, narciclasine,
galanthamine, haemanthamine,
lycorine, pancracine, tazettine, and
homolycorine types) were detected
in the studied samples
Georgiev
et al. (2011)
152 S. Meena et al.

6.4 Scale-Up Techniques and Bioreactors
The extraction method of alkaloids from the plant sources merely depends upon the
objective and scale of the operation (pilot-scale or laboratory scale). It is also based
on the quantum and bulk of stuff to be employed in the operation. For using
commercially, it is required to develop the sufficient amount of alkaloids. A scale-
up technique must be needed to obtain the plant’s by-products, which is accom-
plished with no reduction in alkaloid productivity and bioactivity. A bioreactor
(Figs. 6.5 and 6.6) is a device that supports a biologically active environment
Fig. 6.5 Bioreactor processing
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 153

(aerobic or anaerobic) and allowing continuous extraction of alkaloids by using
tissue culture techniques, i.e., hairy roots, suspension culture, etc. Various capacity
and designs of bioreactors (Table 6.2) have been widely used for growing cell
cultures of different plants, but growth of organized cultures should be started
from a smaller capacity bioreactor (shake flasks). Cell cultures have been grown in
both static and liquid cultures. These cell cultures are exposed to biotic and abiotic
elicitors to increase alkaloid production. The biotransformation of added precursors
and exploitation of variant cell strains can surely improve the employment of cell
cultures for the production of desired compounds. The two facets of the examined
bioreactor are upstream (elicitation, scale-up experiments) and downstream
processing which involves permeabilization and in situ extraction (Ruffoni et al.
2010). In upstream processing, the raw material of alkaloidal source becomes more
suitable for the processing which involves chemical hydrolysis, preparation of liquid
medium, particulate separation, air purification, and lots of other preparatory
operations. After that, the resulting feed is transferred to multiple bioreaction stages
(Rosser and Thomas 2018). Three operations, production of biomass, metabolite
biosynthesis and biotransformation, are included in the bioreaction step. Finally, the
produced material must be further processed in the downstream section to transform
it into a more beneficial form. The downstream process mainly comprises of physical
separation operations such as solid-liquid separation, adsorption, distillation, liquid-
liquid extraction, drying, etc. (Hatti-Kaul 2010).
A research study on production of tropane alkaloids by transformed hairy root
cultures of Atropa belladonna in stirred bioreactors is reported. In this, the
transformed roots of A. belladonna conserved the ability of growth and tropane
alkaloid biosynthesis after a random cut treatment. Cut roots were inoculated and
immobilized on a stainless-steel mesh, which resulted in the good distribution in the
modified stirred bioreactor for a scale-up culture. This sort of bioreactor would help
provide a sufficient supply of oxygen and nutrition for root growth and alkaloid
production (Lee et al. 1999). Hairy root cultures of Hyoscyamus niger (black
Fig. 6.6 Scale-up techniques
for enhanced production of
secondary metabolites
154 S. Meena et al.

Table 6.2 Different types of bioreactor used for enhancement of the alkaloid content
Bioreactor type Plant source Bioreactor conditions Enhanced alkaloid Reference
Liquid phase
Submerged
connective flow
bioreactor
Stirred tank
bioreactor
Bubble column
bioreactor
Catharanthus
roseus
Air flow rate 4 vvm and stirring
speed 100–120 rpm
Ajmalicine,
catharanthine, serpentine
Verma et al. (2012)
Datura
stramonium
Aeration rate 15.0 vvm Tropane alkaloids Marchev et al. (2012);
Pavlov (2012)
Papaver
somniferum
Air flow rate 2 vvm and rotation
speed 70–100 rpm
Sanguinarine Verma et al. (2014)
Uncaria
tomentosa
Impeller tip speed 95 cm/s and
agitation speed 400 rpm
Monoterpenoid oxindole
alkaloid
Trejo-Tapia et al. (2005,
2007)
Brugmansia
candida
Air flow rate 0.5 vvm and
agitation speed 50 rpm
Scopolamine,
anisodamine, and
hyoscyamine
Cardillo et al. (2010)
Bubble column
bioreactor
Stephania
glabra
Air flow rate 0.1–1.0 vvm and
agitation speed 30–65 rpm
Stepharine alkaloid Titova et al. (2012)
Securinega
suffruticosa
Aeration rate 800 ml/min Indolizidine alkaloids Raj et al. (2015a,b)
Catharanthus
roseus
Aeration rate 0.3 vvm Ajmalicine Thakore et al. (2017);
Fulzele and Namdeo (2018)
Tripterygium
wilfordii
Air flow rate 5 L/min, pressure
0.05 MPa
Wilforgine and wilforine
(sesquiterpene)
Miao et al. (2013)
Leucojum
aestivum
Shaking at 50 rpm, immersion
and gassing (continuous and
discontinuous)
Galanthamine Georgiev et al. (2012);
Schumann et al. (2012);
Ptak et al. (2013)
Bubble column and
spray bioreactor
Hyoscyamus
niger
Aeration rate 0.8 vvm Tropane alkaloids
(scopolamine,
cuscohygrine,
anisodamine)
Jaremicz et al. (2014)
(continued)
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 155

Table 6.2 (continued)
Bioreactor type Plant source Bioreactor conditions Enhanced alkaloid Reference
Air sparged and
mechanically
agitated bioreactor
Rauwolfia
serpentine
Aeration rate 0.2–1.2 vvm and
agitation rate 50–200 rpm
Indole alkaloids Mehrotra et al. (2015a,b)
Gas phase Balloon-type airlift
bioreactor
Dendrobium
candidum
Aeration rate 0.1 vvm, temp.
25 2 C with 70% relative
humidity
Alkaloids Yang et al. (2015)
Liquid-liquid
impelled loop
bioreactor
Atropa
belladonna
Agitation (40, 70, 110 rpm) and
aeration (0.75, 1.25, 1.75 vvm)
Scopolamine Habibi et al. (2015)
Siphon-mist
bioreactor
Pseudostellaria
heterophylla
Air flow rate 0.1 to 0.7 vvm by
adjusting the gas pump
Alkaloids Wang and Qi (2010)
156 S. Meena et al.

henbane) were cultivated in shake flasks, a bubble-column bioreactor, and a hybrid
bubble-column/spray bioreactor for anisodamine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and
cuscohygrine alkaloids production (Jaremicz et al. 2014). Brugmansia candida
produces tropane alkaloids (hyoscyamine, 6β-hydroxyhyoscyamine (anisodamine),
and scopolamine) that have been widely applied in medicines (Cardillo et al. 2016).
The chemical synthesis of alkaloids is complex and expensive; thereby the in vitro
production of alkaloids by hairy roots cultures in bioreactor presents certain
advantages over the natural source and chemical synthesis. Besides, the scaling-up
of hairy root cultures makes this technology an attractive tool for industrial or
commercial scale. The production of alkaloids in bioreactor guarantees that the
process has been done under defined and controlled conditions, thus preventing or
reducing the variations in the quality and yield of alkaloid compounds.
6.5 Extraction and Detection Techniques
Due to the high value of alkaloids, the worldwide researchers have tried to search out
new and reliable methods for the extraction and detection of those compounds.
Special methods have been developed for isolating commercially useful alkaloids.
In most cases, plant tissue is processed to get aqueous solutions of the alkaloids.
The alkaloids are then recovered from the solution by a process called extraction,
which involves dissolving some components of the mixture with compatible or
suitable solvents/reagents that may be polar or nonpolar. This process requires either
an acidic or alkaline/basic environment. Extraction techniques (Fig. 6.7), such as
solid-liquid extraction (SLE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-
assisted extraction (MAE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), solid-phase
microextraction (SPME), supercritical carbon dioxide extraction method, and
ultrasound-assisted method, have been used. Then, different alkaloids can be
separated and purified from the mixture. A range of chromatographic techniques
may be used for the efficient quantitative and qualitative analysis of alkaloids.
Alkaloids in crystalline form are also obtained using certain solvents (Gupta et al.
2012; Zhu et al. 2018). Extraction of pure alkaloids from crude extract needs to be
performed with multi-step chromatographic techniques.
It can be started with paper chromatography that is the easier way for the
quantification of alkaloids. This method is rapid and cheaper. Further thin-layer
chromatography is used. It is a reproducible method and has a low detection limit as
compared to paper chromatography. After that, highly efficient chromatographic
techniques can be employed, i.e., gas chromatography (GC), high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), etc. (Maciel et al.
2019). These techniques are chosen accordingly to the nature of the alkaloidal
sources.
Detection/analysis of the particular alkaloid with some specifications, mass
spectrometry techniques can be used. MS (mass spectrometry) technique now
plays a valuable role in the analysis of biomolecules, i.e., alkaloids, flavonoids,
terpenes, etc. This revolution is realized by ESI-MS (electrospray ionization mass
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 157

spectrometry) and MALDI-MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass
spectrometry) in the analysis of bio-polymeric products (Sasidharan et al. 2011). A
completely unique method was developed for extraction and enrichment of the four
alkaloids (nuciferine, O-nornuciferine, armepavine, and N-nornuciferine) from lotus
leaf by coupling microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) with solid-phase
microextraction (SPME) before ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography
(UHPLC) analysis (Zou et al. 2020). In this recent report, the newly MAE-SPME
is concluded as an efficient method for the extraction and enrichment for alkaloids
from herbs (Zou et al. 2020). A two-dimensional analysis method endorsed high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation and electrospray ionization-
ion mobility spectrometry (ESI-IMS) detection was developed for the evaluation of
alkaloid compounds from Peganum harmala L. seeds. Their results reveal that this
method is recognized to be advantageous over traditional absorbance detection
methods for resolving complex mixtures due to complementary separation steps,
elevated peak capacity, and better sensitivity (Wang et al. 2018). A simple, cost-
effective salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction-based method for HPLC–DAD
determination of khat (Catha edulis) alkaloids has been found to endow cleaner
chromatogram with good selectivity and reproducibility. The salting-out assisted
liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE)-based protocol provided good results as the
Fig. 6.7 Methods of extraction, purification, and detection of alkaloids
158 S. Meena et al.

conventional extraction method (ultrasonic-assisted extraction followed by solid-
phase extraction, UAE–SPE), and hence the method can be applied in forensic and
biomedical sectors (Atlabachew et al. 2017).
6.6 Biological Activities
The medicinal properties of alkaloids are quite diverse. Alkaloids generally exert
biological activities particularly in humans (Koleva et al. 2012). Even today, many
of the used drugs are natural alkaloids or made by them, and new alkaloidal drugs are
still being developed for clinical uses. The activity of alkaloids against herbivores,
cytotoxic activity, the molecular targets of alkaloids, mutagenic or carcinogenic
activity, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties and their possible roles
as phytoalexins have been evaluated (Debnath et al. 2018). Some alkaloids, i.e.,
morphine, codeine, nicotine, cocaine, etc., can be extremely harmful to animals/
humans to cause death due to their dose-dependent toxicity if taken orally (Matsuura
and Fett-Neto 2015).
6.6.1 Biological Activities of Pyridine Alkaloids Group
Nicotine obtained from the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum) is the principal
alkaloid and main ingredient of the tobacco smoked in cigarettes, cigars, and
pipes. Nicotine binds to nicotinic cholinergic receptors. It facilitates neurotransmitter
release and is liable for behavior modifying effects in individual. Stimulation of
central nAChRs (nicotinic acetylcholine receptor) by nicotine leads to the release of
a range of neurotransmitters in the brain. Nicotine-containing product is obtainable
in the market to interrupt the habit of smoking. Nasal mucosa irritation, arthralgia,
nausea, vomiting, and mild headache are most common adverse effect of nicotine
(Benowitz 2009; Pang et al. 2016). Cytisine could be a selective nicotinic choliner-
gic agonist obtained from the seeds of Laburnum anagyroides of Leguminosae
family. It also acts as nicotine for smoking cessation (Perez et al. 2012).
6.6.2 Biological Activities of Tropane Alkaloids Group
Many tropane alkaloids possess local anesthetic properties. Atropine (obtained from
Atropa belladonna) is anticholinergic (Çaksen et al. 2003). It reduces the secretion
such as sweat, saliva, and gastric juice. It competitively inhibits muscarinic acetyl-
choline receptor. The most prominent effect of atropine is tachycardia due to
blockade of the M2 receptor present on SA node through which vagal tone decreases
(Tripathi 2013). Scopolamine is available in the leaves of plant Hyoscyamus niger
(Solanaceae). It is also known as hyoscine. It competitively inhibits muscarinic
receptors and acts as a nonselective muscarinic antagonist. It produces both periph-
eral anti-muscarinic properties and also sedative, antiemetic, and amnestic effects
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 159

(Ullrich et al. 2017). Cocaine is isolated from the dried leaves of Erythroxylum coca
and Erythroxylon truxillense, belonging to the family Erythroxylaceae, a very potent
local anesthetic. The central action of cocaine is sympathetic and works as a CNS
stimulant agent. Loss of sense in taste and smell (after given in the nose or mouth)
are the most common side effects of cocaine (Manna et al. 2020). Catuabine is a
tropane alkaloid obtained from the bark of Trichilia catigua belonging to the family
Meliaceae. A pure catuabine found antidepressant-like effects on forced swim model
of depression in mice and rats (Campos et al. 2005).
6.6.3 Biological Activities of Quinoline Alkaloids Group
Quinine and quinidine are obtained from the bark of Cinchona officinalis belonging
to the family Rubiaceae. Quinine is used to treat malaria. It was the first anti-malarial
drug used in the early 1600s (Achan et al. 2011). It has rapid schizonticidal action
against intra-erythrocytic malaria parasites. Quinidine is the dextro isomer of the
quinine alkaloid. It blocks myocardial Naþ channels and acts as antiarrhythmic drug
to treat irregular rhythms of the heartbeat. It is effective antimalarial drug against
Plasmodium falciparum. Reported adverse reactions of quinidine are diarrhea,
nausea, and vomiting (Diaz et al. 2015). Dihydroquinine is a natural impure
compound found in commercial pharmaceutical formulations of quinine.
Dihydroquinidine also have similar bioactivity (antimalarial). Both alkaloids
inhibit the actions of parasympathetic nervous system. Therefore, biological source
of dihydroquinine and dihydroquinidine are same with quinine as these are obtained
from the bark of Cinchona officinalis (Mehrotra et al. 2018).
6.6.4 Biological Activities of Isoquinoline Alkaloids Group
Papaverine is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid that occurs in the plant Papaver
somniferum belonging to family Papaveraceae. It acts on smooth muscle throughout
the body and causes vasodilation and relaxation of smooth muscle tone (Shimizu
et al. 2000). Berberine occurs in roots and stem bark of different species of Berberis
belonging to the family Berberidaceae. Berberis aristata, B. lyceum, B. petiolaris,
and B. tinctoria are the main sources of berberine (Srivastava et al. 2015). The most
important biological activity of berberine is its anti-diabetic effect. It activates
AMPK and improves insulin sensitivity in rodent models of insulin resistance
(Turner et al. 2008). Berberine-induced apoptosis is associated with upregulated
expressions of p53, and decreased vimentin expression. These results suggest that
berberine can suppress cell growth (Han and Qi 2012). Other important pharmaco-
logical activities are anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidepres-
sant, and hepatoprotective activities (Amritpal et al. 2010).
160 S. Meena et al.

6.6.5 Biological Activities of Phenanthrene Alkaloids Group
Codeine and morphine are present in dried latex of unripe capsules of Papaver
somniferum. These are used as opioid analgesic. Morphine (10%) and codeine
(0.5%) are present in opium. Morphine and codeine depress respiratory center in a
dose-dependent manner. Morphine is an egregious narcotic used for the pain relief,
though its addictive properties limit its usefulness. Codeine is a wonderful analgesic
that is relatively nonaddictive. Death may occur due to respiratory failure at its high
doses (Dehghan et al. 2010).
6.6.6 Biological Activities of Phenylethylamine Alkaloids Group
Ephedrine is obtained naturally from the plants Ephedra vulgaris,E. sinica,
E. major,E. gerardiana, etc. of genus ephedra (Family: Ephedraceae). It is a
sympathetic stimulant that directly acts on α- and β-receptor. It can be used to
prevent low blood pressure during spinal anesthesia. It is also used as bronchodilator
in asthmatic condition. Allergic condition like hay fever can be treated with ephed-
rine (Ma et al. 2007). Hordenine is a natural phenethylamine compound that occurs
in barley grass (Hordeum vulgare), a cereal crop belonging to the family Poaceae. It
is a nootropic (non-pharmaceutical cognitive enhancers) compound that enhances
cognitive ability. It is an effective MAO-B inhibitor. Since it helps to increase the
level of norepinephrine, it is considered as norepinephrine and noradrenaline uptake
inhibitor (Debnath et al. 2018).
6.6.7 Biological Activities of Indole Alkaloids Group
Reserpine is isolated mostly from the root of Rauwolfia serpentina and Rauvolfia
vomitoria. It is known as antipsychotic and antihypertensive (Bunkar 2017). Ergot-
amine and ergometrine are obtained from the rye fungus Claviceps purpurea. It can
be used for uterine contraction, uterine bleeding, and postpartum hemorrhage after
delivery, incomplete recovery of uterus, retrogression, etc. It causes constriction of
peripheral and cranial blood vessels to control extra blood flow and produces
depression of central vasomotor centers (Ma et al. 2018). Yohimbine is isolated
from the bark of Pausinystalia yohimbe belonging to the family Rubiaceae. It is
chemically identical to reserpine. It increases parasympathetic (cholinergic) activity
and decreases sympathetic (adrenergic) activity by acting on peripheral autonomic
nervous system. It has a mild anti-diuretic action and has effect on blood pressure.
Headache and excessive sweating are common side effects of yohimbine (Cohen
et al. 2016). Vinblastine and vincristine are extracted from the pink periwinkle
plant, Catharanthus roseus, belonging to the family Apocynaceae (Das and
Sharangi 2017). Vinblastine is an antineoplastic agent, and it inhibits mitosis at
metaphase by interacting with tubulin (Alam et al. 2017). It also has immunosup-
pressant effect. Major side effects of vinblastine are cough, fever, and painful
6 In Vitro Production of Alkaloids 161

urination. Vincristine is employed for the treatment of some types of cancer like
breast cancer, Hodgkin’s disease, Kaposi’s sarcoma, and testicular cancer. The
antitumor activity of vincristine is same to vinblastine. Most common side effects
of vincristine are blurred or double vision, constipation, difficulty in walking,
drooping eyelids, headache, jaw pain, joint pain, lower back or side pain, and
stomach cramps (Alam et al. 2017). Ergine is a D-lysergic acid amide (LSA)
found in various species of vines belonging to the family Convolvulaceae and
Argyreia nervosa. It is also isolated from rye fungus Claviceps purpurea. Ergine
has psychedelic effects (Paulke et al. 2013).
6.6.8 Biological Activities of Purine Alkaloids Group
Caffeine is a purine alkaloid. It is found naturally in the seeds and leaves of the plants
Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae) and Thea sinensis (Theaceae), respectively (Rusconi
and Conti 2010). Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant drug in the world.
It is also consumed in cold medications, analgesics, and anorectants and in CNS
stimulant. CNS stimulation is the main pharmacological action of caffeine because it
can also act on the peripheral adenosine receptor (A1) on adipocyte that suppresses
lipolysis by inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity (Cappelletti et al. 2015).
6.6.9 Biological Activities of Imidazole Alkaloids Group
Pilocarpine is the main alkaloid of imidazole group, and L-histidine is the biosyn-
thetic precursor of the imidazole moiety. Pilocarpine is isolated from the leaves of
Pilocarpus microphyllus that belongs to the family Rutaceae. It has cholinergic
properties to stimulate the parasympathetic system (bladder, tear ducts, sudoriferous,
and salivary glands). This alkaloid is an elected drug for glaucoma treatment. It has
been exploited to treat the xerostomy (dry mouth) of throat cancer caused by the
chemotherapy. Small doses of pilocarpine generally cause fall in blood pressure but
in higher doses elicit rise in blood pressure (Santos and Moreno 2004).
6.6.10 Biological Activities of Terpenoid Alkaloids Group
Capsaicin is a unique alkaloid found primarily in the fruit of the Capsicum genus
like Capsicum annum and Capsicum frutescens belonging to the family Solanaceae.
Capsaicin can be bonded to TRPV1, which is mainly expressed in the sensory
neurons. It also acts in the gastrointestinal tract, for weight loss and as an analgesic.
The common side effects of capsaicin are burning, itching, dryness, pain, redness,
swelling, or soreness (Reyes-Escogido et al. 2011). Choline is found in diverse plant
foods in small amounts. It is a constituent of cell and mitochondrial membranes and
of the synaptical neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Hence, this supplement impacts
different cycles, for example, lipid metabolism, signaling through secondary
162 S. Meena et al.

messengers, and methylation-dependent biosynthesis of molecules. Major side
effects of choline are constipation, diarrhea, dizziness, drowsiness, and migraine
(Corbin and Zeisel 2012).
6.7 Commercial Utilization and Prospects
Plant biotechnology techniques provide valuable tools to synthesize a wide range of
alkaloids as obtained from plants, as well as novel compounds are also synthesized
via biotransformation and genetic engineering tools. These alkaloids have been used
in the various commercial products. The in vitro cultures (shoot, callus, suspension,
and hairy root cultures) are found to be used as sustainable system for the production
of various secondary metabolites. Over the past twenty years, the concept of plant-
based production of high-quality pharmaceutical alkaloids has increased the research
interest and offered critical advantages over traditional extraction systems. In this
chapter, some approaches (techniques) discussed have proven that medicinal plants
can be used efficiently to produce various pharmaceutical alkaloids for remedial
applications.
6.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
This chapter gives an insight to the different aspects of tissue culture for the
production of alkaloids under in vitro conditions and their biosynthesis scenario.
The extended use of plant cell culture systems in recent years is probably due to a
benignant understanding of the alkaloid pathway in economically important plants.
Advancement in plant cell culture system could provide the cost-effective, commer-
cial production of rare, endangered, or even exotic plants, their cells, and the
bioactive molecules that they will produce. These discussed alkaloids are found
beneficial for certain life-threatening disease and will serve to extend and enhance
the continued usefulness of higher plants as renewable sources of chemicals, espe-
cially alkaloids.
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